I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true
and F for false in the brackets(10 points)
( ) 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system,
which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.
( ) 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.
( ) 3. The sentence ―The woman can’t bear children‖ is structurally
ambiguous.
( ) 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to
classify the world around and inside them. ( ) 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the
source domain.
( ) 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis,
place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis. ( ) 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of
syntactic categories.
( ) 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.
( ) 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language
acquisition research.
( )10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three
dimensions: field, mode and tenor.
II. Multiple choice: (10 points)
1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.
A. creativity B. arbitrariness
C. displacement D. interchangeability
2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.
A. analytic B. isolating
C. synthetic D. agglutinating 3. The general roles language plays are termed .
A. metalanguages B. metafunctions
C. metadiscourses D. metagrammar 4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.
A. Blending B. Eponyms
C. Backformation D. Clipping 5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.
A. suffix B. prefix
C. morpheme D. morph 6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.
A. Environmentalist B. functionalist
C. nativist D. both a and b 7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.
A. person deixis B. time deixis
C. place deixis D. discourse deixis 8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.
A. nucleus B. onset
D. code D. rhyme 9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.
A. linguistics B. semantics
C. morphology D. pragmatics 10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue
of a speech community.
A. pidgin B. creole
C. Esperanto D. natural language
III. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a,
b…j into brackets: (10 points)
( ) 1. Socialinguistics a. the analysis of sentence structure A B
( ) 2. Applied Linguistics b. the analysis of meaning in context
( ) 3. Morphology C. the analysis of meaning
( ) 4.d Phonetics d. the study of sound systems and patterns
( ) 5.Linguistics e. the application of linguistic theories to other spheres
( ) 6. Syntax f. the study of speech sounds
( ) 7. Psycholinguistics g. the study of the relationship between language and society
( ) 8. Pragmatics h. the study of word structure
( ) 9. Phonology i. the scientific study of language
( ) 10 Semantics j. the study of the relationship between language and mind
IV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic
feature(s) they all share: (10 points)
1. [t?][dз]
2. [m] [n] [ɡ]
3. [f] [θ] [s ] [?] [h]
4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r]
5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]
V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)
Words analyzed number of free
morphemes morphemes
troublesome
stepmother
psycholinguistics
understatement
antidisestablishmentarianism
VI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)
1. The duck is too hot to eat.
(1) ______________________________________
(2) ______________________________________
2. Visiting friends can be boring.
(1) ______________________________________
(2) ______________________________________
VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)
1. derivation
2. learner factors
VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points) 1. What is the difference between ―a red and a redcoat‖ ? 2. What are the features of modern linguistics?
3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?
I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true
and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)
( ) 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language
are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logical
metafunction. ( ) 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.
( ) 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation
according to Halliday. ( ) 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of
words. ( ) 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.
( ) 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves
social factors and learner factors. ( ) 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional
dialets, sociodialects and registers. ( ) 8. Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system,
which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.
( ) 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as
offensive or disturbing to the addressee. ( ) 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
II. Multiple choice: (10 points)
1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.
A. language B. metalanguage
C. natural language D. artificial language
2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.
A. all the fricatives B. all the fricatives and glides
C. all the fricatives and liquids D. all the fricatives, liquids and glides 3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting together
non-morphemic parts of existing words.
A. Coinage B. Blending
C. Acronmyms D. Clipping
4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.
A. morpheme B. word
C. phoneme D. allophones
5. The word ―multinationality has ___________ morphemes.
A. 2 B. 3
C. 4 D. 5
6. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ―varieties
according to use‖, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of
which are ―varieties according to user‖.
A. field B. mode
C. tenor D. register
7. __________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.
A. back-channel signals B. adjacency pairs
C. pre-sequences D. insertion sequences
8. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized
by Grice (1975) as ____________.
A. the principle of relevance B. cooperative principle
C. the politeness principle D. the theory of prototypes
9. Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in
__________.
A. affective meaning B. style
C. collocation D. register
10. ―John explained the theory‖ is a ___________ process according to
Halliday.
A. material B. mental
C. verbal D. behavioral
III. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the
letter given: (10 points)
1. Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principle
generalized by Grice.
2. M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and language
teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.
3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing a
meaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of
communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act.
The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.
4. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is
referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________ .
5. C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting
one or more syllables.
6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,
7. The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’
language development.
8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from other
regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.
IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of
English word formation in column B. And put the letter you
choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)
( ) 1. This vet is very famous in the town. a. Conversion
( ) 2. This classroom is large and bright.. b. Derivation
( ) 3. He is watering flowers. C. Blending
( ) 4. Orlon is a kind of cloth material. d. Backformation
( ) 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity. e. Acronym
( ) 6. EEC is an important organization in the world. f. Compounding
( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage
( ) 8. The road was enlarged last year. h. Eponym
( ) 9. Some young people have brunch quite often. i. Clipping
V. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the
sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then
name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the
group of sounds: (10 points)
For example: [z] voiced/voiceless [f] [θ] [z] [s]
1. [ ] ____________ ____ [m] [ŋ] [l] [n]
2. [ ] ____________ ____ [p] [b] [m] [v] [w]
3. [ ] ____________ ____ [s] [z] [?] [dз] [з]
4. [ ] ____________ ___________ [i:] [i] [æ] [u] [e]
5. [ ] __________________________ [i:] [ə:] [e] [æ]
VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence,
“He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)
VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)
1. language and linguistics
2. semantics and pragmatics
VII. Answer the following questions:(40%)
1. How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?
2. What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship between
them?
3. What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?
I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for
false in the brackets. (10 points)
( ) 1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast
words in meaning and in form. ( ) 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.
( ) 3. The word ―went‖ contains two morphemes.
( ) 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its
atomic features is called componential analysis (CA). ( ) 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or
association with particular objects, action, or persons. ( ) 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is
whether it can be used independently in speech or writing. ( ) 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean,
they are allophones.
( ) 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the
Predicate.
( ) 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free
morphemes and bound morphemes. ( )10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.
II. Multiple choice: (10 points)
1. The followings are all features of language except __________.
A. duality B. productivity
C. changeability D. displacement
2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.
A. synonymy B. antonym
C. polysemy D. homonymy
3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.
A. Conversion B. Abbreviation
C. Eponyms D. Blending
4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.
A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speech
B. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrastic
C. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speech
D. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word 5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language
acquisition except _________.
A. motivation B. nationality
C. age D. learning strategy
6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this
observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.
A. the cooperative principle B. the principle of relevance
C. the politeness principle C. speech acts
7. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.
A. moon/noon B. foot/food
C. she/sheet D. sea/sea
8. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more
segments are called ___________.
A. distinctive features B. non-distinctive features
C. suprasegmental features D. free variation
9. The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experiential
function) is realized by the transitivity system of language.
A. ideational B. interpersonal
C. textual D. logical
10. Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes
_________.
A. prefixes B. suffixes
C. affixes D. inflectional morphemes
III. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of
English word formation in column B. And put the letter you
choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)
( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola. a. Conversion
( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations. b. Derivation
( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang. c. Blending ( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much. d. Backformation ( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge. e. Acronym
( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays. f. Compounding
( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage ( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him. h. Eponym ( ) 9. The street was widened last year. i. Clipping
IV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the
articulatory description.(10 points)
1. labiodentals [ ]
2. interdentals [ ]
3. back vowels [ ]
4. high vowels [ ]
5. palatal affricates [ ]
V. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in
column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10
points)
( ) 1. The noise annoyed him. a. Material process
( ) 2. The police caught him b. Relational process
( ) 3. There are two books on the table. c. Mental process
( ) 4. John explained the theory to me. d. Verbal process
( ) 5. He watches TV every day. e. Behavioral process
( ) 6. The conference is on Monday f. Existential process
VI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)
1. arbitrariness
2. voicing
VII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence,
“They can fish”. (10 points)
VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)
1. What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse?
2. What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples. 3. What are the components of metaphors?
I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for
false in the brackets: (10 points)
( ) 1. English is a tone language.
( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new
words.
( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings.
( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and
our thinking process.
( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition.
( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language
are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and
discourse metafunction. ( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.
( ) 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and
artificial language. ( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes.
( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance
than innate contributions in learning a second language.
II. Multiple choice: (10 points)
1. The word ―antidisestablishmentariaism‖ is composed of ______ morphemes.
A. six B. seven
C. eight D. nine
2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are
produced.
A. Voicing B. Voiced
C. Nasalization D. Aspiration
3. Smog is a ___________ word.
A. derived B. clipped
C. blended D. compound
4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.
A. instrumental B. integrative
C. cognitive D. none of them
5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.
A. [+high][+back][+round][-tense] B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]
C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense] D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense] 6. English is an example of _________ languages.
A. VSO B. SVO
C. SOV D. SVO
7. A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast
words in meaning and in form.
A. phoneme B. phone
C. morpheme D. morph
8. Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.
A. affixes B. prefix
C. suffix D. root
9. The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.
A. hyponymy B. synonymy
C. antonymy D. homonymy 10. Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.
A. gradable B. complementary
C. reversal D. relative
III. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in
column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket
before the sentence. (10 points)
( ) 1. John is talking to Jane. a. Material process
( ) 2. Tom is the leader b. Relational process
( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed. c. Mental process
( ) 4. The bad news astonished her. d. Verbal process
( ) 5. Edward broke the window. e. Behavioral process
( ) 6. He waved his hands. f. Existential process
IV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the
group of words. (10 points)
For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook [ +stationary]
1. king, bachelor, son ________________________
2. bull, rooster, stallion ________________________
3. pine, rose, elm 4. bravery, charity, devotion 5. car, bike, plane
V. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the
words and the describe it. (10 points)
Example: far [a:] back low vowel
1. thread [ ] 2. beat [ ] 3. important [ ] 4. live [ ] 5. stop [ ]
VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)
1. She can not bear children.
(1)
(2)
(3) ______________________________________________
2. He hates old men and women.
(1)
(2)
VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)
1. Compounding
2. Free variation
VII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)
1. What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics?
2. What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative
competence according to Hymes (1972)?
3. What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?
I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for
false in the brackets: (10 points)
( ) 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for
human communication.
( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of
meaning.
( ) 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed
of sound image and referent. ( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or
future.
( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to
generation.
( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us.
( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together.
( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single
phrases or sentences. ( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.
( ) 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic
theories and descriptions in other fields.
. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then
describe it. (5 points)
1. Geographic
2. Red
3. Song
4. Clock
5. Psychopathy
. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and
/b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points) Initial Medial Final
pit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cab
Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:
1. /k/-/g/
2. /m/-/n/
3. /l/-/r/
4. /b/-/v/
5. /b/-/m/
. Each of the following columns illustrates a different
morphological process. (10 points)
Column ? Column ? Column ?
A. chairs A. reality A. blackboard
B. wider B. movement B. greenhouse
C.looked C.malcontent C. makeshift
D. Tom’s D. stepmother D. paintwork
(1) What morphological process is shown by Column ?, ?and ?.
(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) in
Column ?.
. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following
sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)
1. I have not finished the task. 2. He often comes to my office. 3. I will show you how to make up the bed. 4. He hardly came back to see his mother 5. The company ought to cut the price of the products.
. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms,
using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT],
[+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etC. (10 points)
boil:
fry:
steam:
stew:
bake:
. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different
ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:
(15 points)
a). The professor’s appointment was shocking.
b). The design has big squares and circles.
c). The governor is a dirty street fighter.
. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B?
What is the implicature? (5 points)
a). The dress is lovely, isn’t it?
b). The material is nice.
. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two
meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child
with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes
with which tree. (10 points)
. Answer the following question: (20 points)
1. What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English? 2. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and
?
phonology
I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for
false in the brackets: (20 points)
( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.
( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.
( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula,
the velum the hard palate.
( ) 4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower
lip are labialdentals.
( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.
( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some
or all words in a phrase or title. ( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals
or places.
( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages.
( ) 9.
Traditional grammar was initially based on European
language, particularly on Latin and German. ( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept
of immediate constituent. ( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.
( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types:
conventional meanings and intentional meanings ( ) 13. An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify something is
called deictic expression. ( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a
breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use. ( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors:
contextual effect and processing effort. ( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.
( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite.
( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation
being set up between two separate.
( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.
( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.
. Divide the following words by placing a + between their
separate morphemes. (5 points)
1. Retroactive
2. Befriended
3. Televise
4. Margin
5. Endearment
.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)
A B
a. terrorized (1) free root
b. uncivilized (2) bound root
C. terrorize (3) inflectional suffix
d. lukewarm (4) derivational suffix
e. impossible (5) inflectional prefix
(6) derivational prefix
(7) inflectional infix
(8) derivational infix
. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)
VP?V (NP) (PP) (Adv)
NP?(Det) (Adj) N (PP)
.Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10
points)
a) The man found the letter.
b) The students put the books in the classroom.
. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5
points)
1. Bull, rooster, bachelor, boy
2. Milk, water, alcohol, oil
3. Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing
4. Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy
5. Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplar
.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its
superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in
the right blank. (10 points)
1. table 2. willow 3. cat 4. blue 5. dictionary 6. painting 7. driver 8. verb 9. chemistry 10. juice
. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is
false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.
Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the
contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences
that are not contradictory. (10 points)
1. My sister is a man.
2. Witches are wicked
3. My sister is an only child.
4. The evening star isn’t the morning star. 5. The evening star isn’t the evening star. 6. Babies are adults.
7. Babies can lift one ton.
8. Puppies are human.
9. My bachelor friends are all married.
10. My bachelor friends are all lonely.
. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even
Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with
different rules. (10 points)
Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its
own rule applied to words beginning with vowels:
Dialect 1 Dialect 2 Dialect 3
―eat‖ [itme] [ithe] [ite] ―arc‖ [arkme] [arkhe] [arke] ? State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect.
Dialect 1:
Dialect 2:
Dialect 3:
? How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give the
phonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms.
honest 1. 2. 3.
admire 1. 2. 3.
illegal 1. 2. 3.
. Answer the following questions: (20 points)
1. What is the function of phonological knowledge?
2. Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoric
reference.
. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the
letter given: (10 points)
1. The term l a refers to the natural process of
children’s language development.
2. It is found that children all undergo certain stages of language
development, namely the b stage, holophrastic stage,
the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage.
3. The practice of error analysis is divided into i ,
describing and explaining.
4. S refers to the analysis of meaning.
5. In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commending
in sense while politician is d . 6. D synonyms are words which are similar in meaning
but used in different dialects of the language.
7. In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a s
to replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/she
wants to continue to address that idea.
8. The sentence ―The bachelor is unmarried‖ is it t .
9. The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain,
while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source
domain.
10. P deixis specifies the locations relative to the speech
event.
. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following
phonetic descriptions: (5 points)
1. tense front mid vowel
2. lateral liquid
3. lax high back vowel
4. voiced bilabial oral stop
5. mid central lax vowel
. A phonetic symbol is actually a “cover term” for a composite
of distinct phonetic properties or features. Define each of the
symbols below by marking a “+”or a “-” for each given feature: a “+”, if the property is present, a “-”,if it is absent: (10 points)
sou nd segmeu æ ou i u: phonents tic features High
Low
Back
Tense
Round
. Try to explain the following terms as clearly as you can: (10
points)
(1) Minimal pair (2) phoneme
. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then
describe it. (5 points)
1. Weight
2. Orange
3. Veil
4. Hair
5. Team
. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points) Initial Medial Final
pit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cab
Find similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1. /p/-/f/
2. /s/-/š/ 3. /č/-/ĵ/ 4. /s/-/z/
5. /t/-/k/
. For each of the following sentences, draw a deep structure diagram to show how the surface structure can be derived by transformational rules: (10 points)
1. She speaks good Japanese. 2. The problem would be solved by them.
. Interprete the grammatical relations in the following sentences and then paraphrase them: (10 points) 1. Girls are eager to please. 2. Girls are easy to please.
. Pick out from the following pairs the homonyms and the
homophones: (5 points)
style/stile hear/here bank/bank know/no hare/hair ear/ear tale/tail bear/bear soul/sole one/won
. Here are some Japanese words in phonetic transcription. [č ]
is the voiceless palatal affricate that occurs in the English
word church. [ts] is an alveolar affricate and should be taken
as a single symbol. It is pronounced as the final sound(s) in
cats. Japanese words (except for certain loan words) never
contain the phonetic sequences. *[ti] or *[tu]: (20 points)
1. Based on these data. Are [t], [č],and [ts]in complementary
distribution?
2. State the distribution---first in words, then using features---of these
phones.
3. Give a phonemic analysis of these data insofar as [t],[ č],and[ts] are
concerned. That is, identify the phonemes, and the allophones.
4. Give the phonemic representation of the phonetically transcribed
Japanese words given below. Assume phonemic and phonetic
representations are the same except for [t],[ č] ], and [ts].
tatami_____ tsukue______ tsutsumu_______
Tomodači_______ tetsudau______ čizu
Exemplify the differences between derivational and
inflectional morphemes: (10 points)
. Multiple Choice(10 points)
1. Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in
their .
A. synchronic solidarity B. systemic agreement
C. finite sentences D. instinctive method
2. Language is a set (infinite) of sentences, each in length and
constructed out of a finite set of elements.
A. infinite B. finite C. fixed D. definite
3. The Swiss Linguist regarded the linguistic sign as composed of
signifier (sound image) and signified (referent).
A. Chomsky B. de Saussure C. Bloomfield D. Halliday
4. Human languages can be used to describe themselves. The language
used to talk about language is called .
A. special language B. local language
C. metalanguage D. human language
5. refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for
sending messages that have never been sent before and for
understanding novel messages.
A. Arbitrariness B. Duality C. Creativity D. Displacement
6. A language is one that is the mother tongue of an ethnic
community.
A. artificial B. natural C. family D. western
7. The fundamental difference between a religious belief and a scientific
theory is whether it is . A. disciple B. observable C. verifiable D. functional
8. may be defined as the scientific study of language.
A. Morphology B. Linguistics C. Phonology D. Phonetics
9. Linguistics is seen as a discipline closest, among humanities to________
sciences. 10. The study of language in general is often termed general linguistics. It is A. physical B. natural C. absolute D. universal based on the view that language is composed of three aspects: sound,
and meaning.
A. regularity B. construct C. structure D. discipline
. True or False (10 points)
( ) 1. Psycholinguistics studies language in relation to society. Language varies from region to region, from class to class.
( ) 2. The whole process of our talking is a chain of events: production of speech sounds ? perception of speech sounds ? speech sounds traveling in the air.
( ) 3. Out of the glottis, the air stream goes through the pharynx, the area of the throat between the larynx and the uvula.
( ) 4. Consonants can be described in terms of places of articulation, manners of articulation, and vibrating.
( ) 5. Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called hierarchical classes.
( ) 6. Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives.
( ) 7. Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in allophones. ( ) 8. The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.
( ) 9. Distinctive features in one language must be distinctive in another. ( ) 10. Nasalization of English vowels is also rule-governed.
. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)
1. Every syllable has a n , which is usually a vowel.
2. Native speakers of any language intuitively know what s can be
put together.
3. Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences
are systematic g .
4. Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more
segments are called s f . 5. Some morphemes like water, desire constitute words by themselves.
They are f m_ when they are components of words. 6. D forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.
7. The ideational function (sometimes also referred to as experiential
function) is realized by the t system of language. 8. Associative meaning is actually an u term. It is based on the
associationist theory of psychology.
9. Synonyms of different r are words similar in meaning but used
in different spheres.
10. The deixis that replaces the initial expression is called a , and the
initial expression called antecedent.
. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then
describe it. (5 points)
1. Hit
2. Met
3. Car
4. Tool
5. Football
. Divide the following words by placing a + between their
separate morphemes. (5 points)
1. Psychology
2. Unpalatable
3. Holiday
4. Grandmother
5. Morphemic
. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following
phonetic descriptions: (5 points)
1. voiceless labiodental fricative 2. low front vowel
3. palatal glide
4. voiced interdental fricative 5. voiceless alveolar fricative
. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)
1. Spanner, hammer, saw, pliers, jack 2. Rose, lotus, lilac, orchid, chrysanthemum 3. Walk, run, jump, hop, skip 4. Pencil, pen, chalk, rubber, ruler 5. Cheerful, excited, drunk, sober, dizzy
. Try to explain the following terms as clearly as you can (15
points)
(1) segmental phonemes (2) free variations (3) assimilation rule
. Draw a deep structure diagram to show how the surface structure can be derived by transformational rules (10
points)
Behave yourself!
. What are the main types of utterances suggested by Searle?
points) (15
. What are the main components of the Standard Theory? How
does each of them work in the whole process of generating and transforming sentences? (10 points)
I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false
in the brackets. (30 points)
( ) 1. Arbitrariness is the first and foremost striking feature of human
language.
( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of
meanings.
( ) 3. If the relationship between speech sounds and meanings were
motivated, the words in different languages that stand for the same
thing would sound the same or similar. ( ) 4. According to Halliday, the ideational function is the function of
language that people use as medium to get along in a community. ( ) 5. In modern linguistics, focus is on diachronic study of language, rather
than on synchronic study of language. ( ) 6. All vowels are voiced.
( ) 7. The initial vowel in economics can be either [i:] or [e]. The two
vowels are in free variation.
( ) 8. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
( ) 9. In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep
contain only one morpheme.
( ) 10. The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the
compounds.
( ) 11. The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as
composed of sound image and referent. ( ) 12. Chinese is an agglutinating language.
( ) 13. Not all vowels are voiced.
( ) 14. If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution
does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free
variation.
( ) 15. The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in
complementary distribution.
( ) 16. Pragmatics is concerned with conventional meaning.
( ) 17. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.
( ) 18. Words which have the same spelling but different meanings are
called polysemes.
( ) 19. A syllabus is an official document that authoritatively determines the
content and principles of teaching and learning. ( ) 20. Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner
constructs for use in communication through the target language.
II. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s)
they share: (5 points)
Example: [s] [f] [p] [h] voiceless
1. [g] [z] [d]
2. [v] [h] [s]
3. [m] [p] [b] [f] [v]
4. [t] [d] [n] [l] [s] [z]
5. [i:] [i] [u] [u:]
III. Identify the difference between a greenhouse and a green house, and
the difference between a sleeping car and a sleeping baby. (10 points)
IV. What is deixis? Please give examples to show the different types of
deixis.
V. Explain the ambiguity in the following two sentences: (10 points)
a) Those who went there quickly made a fortune.
b) Flying planes can be dangerous.
c) They can fish.
d) The design is full of big squares and circles. e) I saw the couple in the cafeteria.
VI. What maxim of the cooperative principle is violated by B? And what is
the implicature? (5 points)
A: Don’t you think the hostess was abnormal?
B: What another cup of coffee?
VII. What’s wrong with the following two sentences:
1) Bring this here.
2) Take that there.
Please give an explanation in English. (10 points)
VIII. Answer the following questions: (30 points)
a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential
analysis?
b) Give an example to show the components of metaphors. c) How do you distinguish homonyms from polysemes?
I. Multiple Choice (30 points)
1. ________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. A. Duality B. Arbitrariness
C. Creativity D. Displacement
2. Which of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions
illustrated by M.A.K. Halliday?
A. Ideational function B. Interpersonal function
C. Textual function. D. Logical function
3. The study of speech sounds is called ________.
A. Phonetics B. Articulatory phonetics
C. Phonology D. Acoustic Phonetics 4. Every syllable has a(n) _______, which is usually a vowel.
A. onset B. nucleus C. coda D. rhyme 5. Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features?
A. Stress B. Intonation C. Tone D. Syllable 6. ________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.
A. Morphology B. Syntax C. Lexicon D. Morpheme 7. Both pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.
A. collocative B. social C. affective D. reflected 8. ______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.
A. Adjacency pairs B. Turn-talking
C. Preferred second parts D. Insertion sequences
9. British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.
A. functional B. social C. regional D. standard
10. ______ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for
use in communication through the target language.
A. Metalanguage B. Interlanguage C. Sign D. Esperanto
11. In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.
A. telegraphic B. two-word C. holophrastic D. babbling
12. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to ―varieties
according to use.‖
A. Register B. Field C. Mode D. Tenor
13. _____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.
A. Clipping B. Blending C. Eponym D. Conversion
14. In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain
_____ morphemes.
A. one B. two C. three D. four
15. Sip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.
A. minimal pairs B. minimal sets C. allophones D. phomes
16. Pragmatics analysis is concerned with ______.
A. sentence meaning B. utterance meaning
C. listener meaning D. speaker meaning
17. Analysis of ______ necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do
through language in a particular context.
A. intentional meaning B. conventional meaning
C. syntactic meaning D. semantic meaning
18. ______ is, fundamentally speaking, logic-oriented.
A. Sperber and Wilson’s principle of Relevance
B. Leech’s theory of Politeness Principle
C. Grice’s theory of Cooperative Principle
D. Horn’s Q-principle and R-principle
19. Krashen’s Monitor Theory belongs to ______.
A. teaching theories B. environmentalist theories
C. functionalist theories D. nativist theories
20. The sentence ―My father has deceased to join the heavenly choir.‖ is of
____
A. the formal style B. the frozen style
C. the casual style D. the intimate style
II. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory
description. (5 points)
Example: vowel front high [i:]
1. bilabial nasal
2. voiced labiovelar glide
3. back high lax
4. literal liquid
5. voiced bilabial stop
III. Explain the ambiguity in the following two sentences: (10 points)
1. This is a beautiful girl’s dress.
2. Tom hates his boss and so do I.
3. They finally decided on the boat.
4. Can you see the man with a pair of binoculars?
IV. Give the words in American English equivalent in meaning to the ones
given from British English: (10 points)
a. lorry b. lift C. pavement d. tin e. sweets
V. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the
implicature? (5 points)
A: The dress is lovely, isn’t it?
B: The material is nice.
VI. Draw tree diagrams for the following sentence: (5 points)
The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.
VII. How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each
of them mean? (10 points)
Column I Column II
a. The White House a white house
b. a redcoat a red coat
C. a bluebird a blue bird
d. a lighthouse keeper a light housekeeper
VIII. Explain the relation between bank12 (the side of a river) and bank (the
financial institute). (5 points)
IX. Answer the following questions (30 points):
1. What are the features of metaphors?
2. How do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?
3. What is reference and what is sense? How are they related?
I. 1-5 T F F T T 6-10 F T T T F
II. 1-5 a c a a b 6-10 c b d a c
III.
1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
2. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
3. Arbitrariness is one of the features of human language. Language contains
two subsystems: sounds and meanings. Arbitrariness refers to the
relationship between these two subsystems is arbitrary. 4. The general roles language plays are termed metafunctions. According to
Halliday, language plays three metafunctions simultaneously. They are the
ideational metafunction, the Interpersonal metafunction and the textual
metafunction.
IV.
1. Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man.
Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures
because it have the following features, which are not found in animal
communication system such as creativity or productivity, duality,
arbitrariness, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability and
reflexivity.
2. Spoken language is given prior to written language in modern linguistics
for a number of reasons:
(1) Speech is historically prior to writing in any culture where writing
exists;
(2) Spoken language is used for a much wider range of purposes in
communication;
(3) Spoken language is structurally more complex than written language;
(4) Spoken language is acquired earlier than written language. 3. Modern linguistics has the following features, which is distinguished from
the linguistics of previous:
(1) Priority is given to spoken language;
(2) Focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic
study of language;
(3) Modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;
(4) Modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.
Modern linguistics strive to construct theories of language that can
account for language in general.
I. 1—5 T F T T F
II. 1—5 b d a c a
III. 1. [ b ] bilabial voiced stop
2. [ n ] alveolar nasal stop
3. [ w ] bilabial glide
4. [ v ] voiced labiodental fricative
5. [ t ] voiceless alveolar stop
6. [ i:] high front tense vowel
7. [ð ] voiceless interdental
8. [u:] high back tense vowel
9. [æ ] low front vowel
10 [ə:] central tense vowel
IV. 1. [b p m] 2. [d n] 3. [ŋ] 4. [m] 5. [ ə: ə]
6. [s z] 7. [u: u] 8. [,] 9. [j] 10 []
V. 1. voiceless alveolar
2. voiced stop
3. voiced fricatives
4. palatals
5. voiced bilabial
6. voiced velar
7. back tense vowels
8. back round vowels
9. front high vowels
10. sibilants
VI.
1. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.
2. Voicing refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced. 3. The unite of representation used to transcribe the speech sounds is called segment.
4. Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes. VII. Manners of articulation refer to how the air stream is modified, whether it
is completely blocked or partially obstructed. According to manners of
articulation, consonants are classified into stops, nasals, fricatives,
affricates, liquids, and gildes
I. 1-5 T F F T T
II. 1-5 b b c c d 6-10 c b d b d
III.
1. Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.
2. Two words that differ by only one sound in the same position are called minimal pairs. 3. If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are
said to be in free variation.
4. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental
features. The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress, intonation and tone. IV.
1. Devoice a voiced consonant when it occurs after a voiceless consonant.
2. A voiceless consonant becomes voiced when it occurs between two vowels.
3. Voiceless stops are aspirated when they occur initially in a stressed syllable
4. vowels become nasalized when they occur before nasals.
V.
―hotdog‖ is a compound word and the stress is on the ―hot‖. A hotdog is a long cooked sausage. ―hot dog‖ is a
noun phrase and the stress is on ―dog‖. A hot dog refers to a dog that is hot.
VI Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns. Phonetics and
phonology are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but they two differ in perspectives. Phonetics,
particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have,
and how to transcribe them. In phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable; variations are
overlooked. Phonology focuses on the following three fundamental question: What sounds make up the list of
sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds make up the list of ways in what
context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
.1.lexicon 2.orthography 3.morphology 4.morpheme 5.suppletives 6.free morphemes 7.bound morphemes
8.allomorphs 9.derivation 10.Clipping
.1.b 2.c 3.b 4.c 5.d 6.b 7.a 8.c 9.c 10.c
.1. Compounding
Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is another common way to form words. The over-whelming
majority of English combination of words from two of the three classes—nouns, verb, and adjective, and adjectives, and they fall into the three classes, as shown below:
Noun Verb Adjective
Noun bookshelf brainwash headstrong
Verb pickpocket sleepwalk catchall
Adjective greenhouse whitewash bittersweet
In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word. Thus, greenhouse is a noun,
whitewash is a verb. The leftmost morpheme takes the primary stress is on the word. Thus, a greenhouse is
distinguished from a green house, in which the stress is on the house.
The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components. A greenbottle is not a type of
bottle; it is a kind of fly. And a sugar-daddy is not a sugar-coated father, but a woman’s lover who is both generous and too old for her.
2. Conversion
Conversion is one of word-formation process in English. It is done when a word changes its class without any
change of its form. Typical cases of conversion include noun?verb, adjective?verb, verb?noun and adjective?noun. Sometimes, conversion can also be observed when an auxiliary verb, an adverb or a conjunction is used
as a noun or a verb.
e.g. Besides the usual household routine, she oversees the garden and beehives, bakes bread, cans and freezes,
drives the kids to their music lessons, practices with them, takes organ lessons on her own, dose research and
typing for me, writes an article herself now and then, tends the flower beds, stacks a little wood and delivers the eggs.
His palms were sweating. He needed a towel to dry his grip.
Their livelihood is involved, and the motor, for all its unpleasant smell, has helped increase the fisherman’s catch
so that he can now afford to do away with the far worse outdoor toilet.
Just before Christmas last year, my work took me to the office of a woman executive o This book is a must for student of history.
The word is full of excuses, so don’t but me so many buts.
They downed a few beers and began to sing loudly.
. 1.immediate constituent analysis.
2.Syntax
3.syntactic category
4.subcategorization
5.circumstance
6.modalization modulaton
. (a) (b)
S S
NP VP NP VP
Pro V NP Pro Aux V
N
They can fish. They can fish.
. 1.Cigars that people smoke can be nauseating it is nauseating to smoke cigars. 2. It was on the plane that they made the decision.
. 1. modality (modalization)
2. molarity
3.modality (modulation)
4.polarity
. 1. material
2. relational
3. mental
4. behavioral
5. verbal
6.existential
.1.Semantics 2.Affective meaning 3.Synonyms 4.registers 5.antonyms 6.Gradable antonyms 7.Homonyms
8.polyseme 9.Hyponymy, superordinates 10.componential analysis .1.b 2.a 3.c 4.d 5.b 6.c 7.a 8.b 9.c 10.d
. 1.The two differ in register.
2.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.
3.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.
4.The two are dialectal synonyms.
5.The two are different in formality, the latter informal.
6.The two differ in affective meaning, the former commendatory, the latter derogatory. 7.The two differ in collocation
. 1.G 2. C 3. C 4. R 5. R 6.R
.1.F 2.T 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7. F
I.
1.
a) Pre-invitation
b) Pre-request
c) Pre-announcement
(Quality) The speaker is absolutely incorrect. 2. a)
b) (Quantity) The addressee does not know or finds it impossible to answer this question, since the
question is too general.
c) (Relation) The addressee does not think the hero acts well in the film.
d) (Manner) The addressee thinks Regan is not the president people like very much, though he is not a feudist.
3.
a) I ,mine (person deixis); last Sunday (time deixis)
b)
c) in 1968 (time deixis)
d)
e) These (discourse/text deixis)
f) in the following chapter (discourse/text deixis)
4. Then is a distal expression which applies to both past and future time relative to the time of speaking. Then in
Sentence a) refers to the past time; then in Sentence b) the future time.
5. John said, “I am planning to be here this evening.”
Indirect speech: John said that he was planning to be there in that evening.
From the direct speech to the indirect speech, the deictic elements have to be shifted from the proximal to the
distal with the shifting of the context.
II.
1. Exclusive use of we: (Students to the teacher) Shall we go now? Here we refers to the speakers (students), not
including the hearer (teacher).
Inclusive use of we: (Student A to Student B) Shall we go now? Here we refers both the speaker and the hearer
(Student A and Student B.
2. Let us may be exclusive or inclusive, while let’s is inclusive. They should correspond to different types of tag
question:
Exclusive: Let us go to school, will you?
Inclusive: Let us go to school, shall we?
Let’s go to school, shall we?
3. Anaphoric reference: Mr. Smith sent me the book. I like it.
Cataphoric reference: I could not believe it. My wallet was stolen by one of my close friends.
4. A speech act consists of three dimensions: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. If your
teacher says, ―I have run out of chalk‖ in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of
demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about is perlocutionary (one of the
students will go and get some chalk).
5. Direct speech act: Close the door, please. (An imperative performs the function of command.)
Indirect speech act: It’s cold here. (A declarative performs the function of request of closing the door.)
6. A: Can I go out now, daddy? (Q1)
B: Have you finished your assignment? (Q2)
A: Yes. (A2)
B: Yes. (A1)
The middle pair (Q2-A2) is an insertion sequence.
7. Dialogue with preferred second part:
A: Can you help me?
B: Sure.
Dialogue with dis-preferred second part.
A: Come over for some coffee later.
B: Oh --- eh --- I’d love to --- but you see --- I --- I’m supposed to get this finished --- you know.
Dis-preferred second parts are marked by more time and more language.
III. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort. The greater
the contextual effect, the greater the relevance. Processing effort is a negative factor: the greater the processing
effort, the lower the relevance.
IV.
1. Indirect illocutions tend to be more polite, (a) because they increase the degree of optimality, and (b) because the
more indirect an illocution is, the more diminished and tentative its force tends to be.
2. The sentence is wrong. The right one might be either ―I am here.‖ Or ―I was there.‖
―Am‖ is a proximal deictic element, while ―there‖ is a distal place deixis. They contradict with each other.
I.
1-5 A C B B D 6-10 A A D C D 11-16 A C D C B B
II.
1. Linguistic competence accounts for a speaker's knowledge of his language. Communicative competence accounts
for both the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it. According to Hymes, there are four parameters
that underlie a speaker's communicative competence, namely the ability to judge:
2) Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
3) Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible;
4) Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate;
5) Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done.
2. The hypothesis has been interpreted in two ways. One is known as determinism. In this view our language
determines our thinking. This strong version has been rejected as it runs counter to the fact that peoples of
different cultural backgrounds can understand each other. The other interpretation, known as relativism, holds
that culture affects the way we think through language, especially in our classification of the experienced world.
3. The term pidgin is the label for the code used by people who speak different languages. A pidgin is not the native
language of any group. It is confined to very limited communicative purposes, such as trade. Pidgins are mixed
languages that are simplified syntactically and lexically. A creole is a mixed language which has become the
mother tongue of a speech community. Creloes are not confined to certain functions of language nor reduced in
syntax and lexis.
4. The term dialect denotes a wider notion than the term accent. A dialect is a variety of a language that is
distinctive from varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. The term accent is used for less drastic
differences which are restricted to variation in pronunciation.
I.
1) interference
2) overgeneralization
3) simplification
4) cross-association
II.
1. The practice of error analysis is divided into identifying, describing and explaining. Identifying errors is the first
step of error analysis. To identify errors we have to compare the sentences produced by the learner with the
corresponding sentences native speakers are likely to produce to express the same meanings. Describing errors,
the second step of error analysis, is categorizing errors grammatically. Once errors are identified, they can be
classified into categories. Explaining errors, the final step, is the task of tracing the source of errors. This task is
more psychological than linguistic in essence. In terms of sources, errors are divided into interlingual errors and
intralingual errors, based on whether they are caused by L1.
2. Krashen’s Monitor Model consists of five hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning Distinction, Natural Order,
Monitor, Input, and Affective Filter.
3. The Acquisition-Learning Distinction is the cornerstone of Krashen’s theory. ―Acquisition‖ occurs
subconsciously as a result of participation in natural L2 communication. ―Learning‖ is the result of conscious
study of the formal system of the language. It is assumed that the two kinds of knowledge are stored in different
areas of the LAD and thus play different roles in linguistic performance. ― Acquired‖ knowledge serves as the
source for automatic production of speech, whereas ―learnt‖ knowledge is available for use only in monitoring
linguistic production.
4. According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving
comprehensible input. They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order. That is
to say, language is acquired by people’s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level. People
understand input containing i+1 because the situation, context, facial expressions, gestures, etC. will provide clues
for comprehension.
5. The acculturation theory originated in the late 1970s and was put forward by J. Schumann and R. Anderson. By
acculturation they meant that individuals of one culture have to go through the process of modification in attitudes,
knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture. It involves not only the social adaptation
but also psychological adaptation. Schumann thinks that second language acquisition is one of the aspects of
acculturation and the relation between acculturation and the second language acquisition is that the degree of the
former will control the degree of the latter. Normally successful acculturation will bring about successful second
language acquisition while poor second language acculturation will produce poor second language acquisition.
I.
1-5 C D A B C
II
1. The contribution in terms of applications to language teaching is easier to understand. The products of linguistic
descriptions provide the input to syllabus design and material construction. It is hard to imagine that languages
can ever be taught and learned as a component of education without reference to the out come of linguistic
descriptions. The metalanguage, created by linguists in their analysis of the sound system, the lexicogrammar and
the meaning of a language, makes it possible to talk about what to teach in language teaching. Pedagogic
grammars and dictionaries are used by teachers and students as reference books. Indeed, it is hardly possible to
define the content of teaching without linguistic descriptions.
2. The implications of linguistics to foreign language teaching are less obvious but not less important. The insights
gained by linguists into the nature of language and language learning may enlighten language-teaching
professionals in thinking about what to teach and how to teach. Language teaching decisions have to be made at
several levels --- designing the content, determining the approach, selecting techniques and procedures, and
assessing the effectiveness of teaching and learning. At the preparatory level the decisions are made by specialists.
To make wise decisions, they need to draw information from linguistics and other relevant disciplines. They need
to evaluate linguistic theories and see what implication a certain theory has for language teaching. At the
operation level, the language teacher is faced with an abundance of variables. The teacher’s understanding of the
nature of language and the process of language learning influences his/her thinking about what to teach and how
to teach. Whether one is aware of it or not, a view pf language and language learning underlies one’s decisions
about teaching.
3. Syllabus is designed with reference to: 1) the social aim for teaching the language; 2) information about the group
of learners (their purpose, age, etC.); 3) the amount of time allocated in the curriculum; 4) theories of language
and language acquisition. Linguistically, there are two fundamental questions in constructing a syllabus: What
elements should be included? On what principle should they be sequenced?
4. The structural syllabus assumed that the elements should be defined with reference to certain formal items of
linguistic description and that the sentence should be the basic teaching unit. It was supposed that if learners could
accumulate knowledge of the underlying system of the language, they would be able to use the language in
communication when occasions arise. The core component of a syllabus based on such theoretical assumptions is
naturally sentence patterns, which are sequenced according to structural complexity.
5. The structural syllabus has its advantage and defect. Its advantage is that it is, to some extent, economical.
Learning a limited set of rules can lead to production of a very large number of sentences. Its serious defect lies in
the fact that sentences are units of linguistic analysis but not of natural language use. Although learners may be
able to construct grammatical sentences, they are often at a loss in real situations, wondering what is appropriate
to say.
6. In the early 1970s, the theory of communicative competence was proposed by Dll Hymes. Functional linguists
and pragmatists began to exert a stronger influence in the study of language. Since then communicative views of
language teaching have been the foundation of syllabus design. The central question for proponents of a
communicative syllabus was: ―What does the learner need / want to do with the target language?‖ Syllabi began
to appear in which content was specified, not only in terms of the grammatical element, but also in terms of the
functional items students would need to master in order to communicate successfully. The starting point in
designing a communicative syllabus is the analysis of learner’s needs.
7. In communicative language teaching, the teacher needs to fulfill at least the roles of communicator, a model, a
designer, an organizer, and a counselor. The teacher communicates with the students in the target language. His /
her proficiency in the language is absolutely a pre-requisite in fulfilling the role of communicator. At the same
time, he /she sets the students a model in using the target language. The teacher is also a designer of the tasks and
activities that engage the students, and he / she is an organizer of there. Finally, h / she diagnoses students’ errors
and problems in the process of learning and gives advice accordingly.
8. The value of linguistics in the professional development of language teachers lies in these aspects: to increase the
teacher’s understanding of the nature of language; to develop the teacher’s awareness of the complexity of
language and language learning; to sensitize the teacher in identifying errors and diagnosing their sources; to help
the teacher to monitor his / her own use of the target language.
9. The grammar-translation method, the direct method, the reading method, the audiolingual method, the
audiovisional method, total physical response, the silent way, the communicative approach and so on.
I. 1-5 T F F T T 6-10 T T F F T
II. 1-5 a d b c c 6-10 c b a b b
III. 1-5 g e h j i 6-10 a f b d c
IV. 1.affricates 2. nasals 3. voiceless fricatives
4. voiced alveolars 5. high vowels
V.
Words analyzed the number of free
morphemes morphemes
troublesome 2 trouble
stepmother 2 mother
psycholinguistics 4 lingui
understatement 3 state
antidisestablishmentarianism 7 establish VI.
1. (1) The duck is so hot that it can not be eaten.
(2) The duck is so hot that it can not eat something.
2. (1) The friends who are visiting can be boring.
(2) To visit friends can be boring.
VII.
1. Derivation is one type of word formation. It forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme. The majority of
English suffixes change the part of speech when added to a free morpheme or a word, and most prefixes don not.
2. Learner factors are the factors that are involved in second language acquisition. They generally include learners’
VII. motivation, age and learning strategy.
1. ―Redcoat is a compound word, while ―red coad‖ is a noun phrase. The stress of the word, redcoat, is
on red, but the stress of the noun phrase, red coat, is on coat. Redcoat refers to British soldiers and
a red coat means a coat whose color is red.
2. Modern linguistics has the following features, which is distinguished from the linguistics of
previous:
(1) Priority is given to spoken language.
(2) Focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language.
(3) Modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavour to state
objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken;
they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken.
(4) Modern linguistics is theoretically than pedagogically oriented.
Modern linguistics strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in
general.
3. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts by Austin. A speech act consists of three dimensions:
(1) The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called locutionary act.
(2) The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed illocutionary act.
(3) The act of bringing about an effect is known as perlocutionary act. Of these dimensions, the most important
is the illocutionary act.
In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning
intended by the speaker.
I. 1-5 F F T T T 6-10 T T F T T
II. 1-5 b d b c c 6-10 d b b a c
III. 1. maxims 2. Motivation 3. locutionary illocutionary perlocutionary
4. mapping 5. clipping 6. allomorphs 7.acquisition 8. dialect
IV. 1-5 i f a g h 6-10 e d b c V
1. [l] liquid/nasals
2. [v] labiodental/bilabials
3. [dз] affricate/fricatives
4. [u] back/front
5. [ə:] middle/low
V. (a) (b)
S S
NP VP NP VP
Pro V NP Pro VP NP
NP PP V NP P N
Past participle Pro N P N Pro N
Past participle
He found his book on Wall Street. He found his book on Wall Street.
VI.
1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Linguistics is the scientific study
of language.
2. Semantics is defined as the study of meaning, and pragmatics is defined as the study of meaning in context.
VII.
1. Creativity is one of the features of human language. It refers to the fact that language provides opportunities for
sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages. The grammatical rules
and the words of a language are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses langue creatively.
2. In sociolinguistics, taboo refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of or association with particular objects,
actions, or persons. Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing
to the addressee. Taboo and euphemism are actually two sides of the same coin. Taboos are usually expressed by
their euphemistic expressions in our daily life.
3. The general roles language plays are called metafunctions by Hallidy. There are three metafunctions:
(1) Ideational function ---- we use language to talk about our experience of the world, including our inner
world, to describe events, states and the entities involved;
(2) Interpersonal function ---- we use language to interact with others, to establish and maintain relations
with them, to please them, to anger them, and influence their behavior, to get their help or sympathy.
(3) Textual function ---- language as a system organizes messages in a unified manner so that chunks of
messages fit logically with others around them and with the wider context in which the talking or
writing takes place.
I. 1-5 F T T T F 6-10 T T F F T
II. 1-5 c d a c b 6-10 c a c a c
III. 1-5 g e a h i 6-10 c d f b
IV. 1[f v] 2[θ ð] 3 [u: u ɑ:] 4[i: i u: u] 5[dз]
V. 1-6 c a f d e b
VI.
1. Arbitrariness is one of the features of human language. Language contains two subsystems: sounds and meanings. Arbitrariness refers to the relationship between these two subsystems is arbitrary. 2. Voicing refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced. It is one of phonetic distinctive features that can distinguish meaning. According to voicing, consonants are classified into voiced consonants and voiceless consonants.
VII.
(a) (b)
S S NP VP NP VP
Pro V NP Pro Aux V
N
They can fish. They can fish.
VIII.
1. A greenhouse is a compound word and the stress is on the green, while a here house is a noun phrase and its stress is on house. A greenhouse refers to a building with sides and roof of glass, used for growing plants that need protection from the weather. A green house refers to a house whose color is green.
2. Conversion is one types of English word formation. It is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class. This happens more frequently between nouns and verbs. For example, to butter the bread, butter is
converted from a noun into a verb. Look in take a look is a noun converted from a verb.
3. Target domain and source domain are the components of metaphors. That is to say all metaphors are composed of two domains. They allow us to understand one domain of experiences in terms of another. The domain to be conceptualized is called target domain while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source domain. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguistics as mapping. The source domain s concrete and familiar. The target domain is abstract and novel.
I. 1-5 FTTTT 6-10 FT T F T
II. 1-5 d a c c c 6-10 d a d a b
III. 1-6 d b f c a e
IV. 1. [+Human] [+Male] 2. [+Animal] [+Male] 3. [+Plant]
4. [+Abstract] 5. [Instrument] [+Traffic]
V. 1. [θ] voiceless interdental prictive
2. [i:] front high tense vowel
3. [m] bilabial nasal
4. [v] voiced labioldental fricative
5. [p] pvoiceless bilabial stop
V.
1. (1) She can not tolerate/endure/stand /put up with a child.
(2) She is not able to give birth to a baby.
(3) She can not carry/take a child. 2. (1) He hates old men and all the women.
(2) He hates both old men and old women. VII.
1. Compounding is one type of word formation. It combines free morphemes to form new words. The over-whelming
majority of English compounds are the combination words from two of the three classes --- nouns, verbs, and adjectives. In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word. For examples, greenhouse is a noun, and whitewash is a verb.
2. If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation. Free variations of pronunciation of the same word usually occur in different dialects, which is quite common in most of the languages in the world. For example, British people usually pronounce the word economics as [ˊikənmiks] and American people say [ˊ
ekənamiks].
VIII.
1. Semantics and pragmatics both are concerned with the study of meaning, but they study meanings from different
perspectives. Generally peaking, semantics is defined as the study of meaning, and pragmatics is defined as the study of meaning in context. The meanings communicated through language are of two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings. The former is studied in semantics and the latter in pragmatics. So semantics concentrates on meanings that come from linguistic knowledge, while pragmatics concentrates on meanings that people mean by their utterances rather that what they words, phrases and sentences mean by themselves. In other words, semantics is concerned with linguistic meaning, while pragmatic analysis is concerned with speaker meaning.
2. Communicative competence is the most general term to account for both the tacit knowledge of langage and the
ability to use it. According to Hymes(1972), there are four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative
competence:
(1) Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;
(2) Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible;
(3) Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate;
(4) Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done. 3. The three types of antonyms in English are gradable antonyms, complementary antonyms and reversal antonyms.
Gradable antonyms are pairs of words opposite to each other, but the positive of one word does not necessarily
imply the negative of the other, or vice versa. For example, a person who is not rich is not necessary poor.
Complementary antonyms are words opposite to each other and the positive of one implies the negative of the
other. For examples, dead and alive, male and female. Reversal antonyms are words that denote the same relation
or process from one or the other direction. For examples, push and pull, come and go.
?. 1-5 T T F F F 6-10 T F F F T
?.
1. [f] voiceless labiodental fricative
2. [r] alveolar retroflex liquid
3. [η] velar nasal 4. [k] voiceless velar stop
5. [s] voiceless alveolar fricative
?.
1. Could good
2. Might night
3. Led red
4. Best vest
5. Boss moss
?.
?. Column?: inflection Column?: derivation Column?: compounding ?. In a) and b) the words are formed by suffixation; in c) and d), by prefixation ?.
1. Polarity
2. Modality (modalization)
3. Modality (modulation)
4. Polarity
5. Modality (modulation)
?.
boil: +FAT, +WATER, +POT
fry: +FAT, +POT, +SIEVE
steam: +WATER, +POT
stew: +POT, +WATER, +FAT
bake: +OVEV, +FAT
?.
a). The professor’s appointment was shocking.
i. It was shocking that the professor was appointed.
ii. The appointment made by the professor was shocking. b). The design has big squares and circles.
i. The squares and circles in the design are big.
ii. There are circles and big squares in the design. c). The governor is a dirty street fighter.
i. The governor fights against dirty streets.
ii. The governor fights unfairly in the streets.
iii. The governor is a dirty individual who fights in the streets. ?. The maxim of agreement is observed. The implicature is that B doesn’t think the dress is lovely but B doesn’t
want to contradict A.
?.
a).The magician used the wand to touch the child
a). S
NP VP
Det N V NP PP
Det N P NP
Det N
b).The magician touched the child who was carrying the wand.
The magician touched the child with the wand. b). S
NP VP
Det N V NP
Det N PP
P NP
Det N
The magician touched the child with the wand.
?.
1. Intonation and stress generally occur simultaneously in utterance. When intonation contour falls on a
syllable, the nucleus is stressed and the vowel is naturally lengthened a bit. In the meantime, there is a
little pause after the syllable. This simultaneous functioning of the features serves to highlight the
information focus, or to eliminate ambiguity (double interpretations of the same phrase or sentence).
Every component of a sentence contains some information. It may or may not be highlighted in
speech, depending on the speaker’s intention and the situation. Intonation contour can indicate the information focus of the sentence.
2. The study of speech sounds is called Phonetics. It includes articulatory phonetics, which focuses on
the production of sounds; acoustic phonetics, which analyses the physical properties of speech sounds
and auditory phonetics, which focuses on perceptive mechanism of speech sounds.
Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in
perspectives.Phonetics is a part of phonology and provides the means for describing speech sounds;
phonology is concerned with the ways in which these speech sounds form systems and patterns in
human language. Phonetics is static, phonology is dynamic.
?. 1-5 F T T T T 6-10 F T F F T
11-15 T T T F T 16-20 F F T T F
?.
1. retro + act + ive
2. be + friend + ed
3. tele + vise
4. margin
5. en + dear + ment
?. Identify morphological elements
a) 3
b) 1
c) 4
d) 2
e) 6
?.
a) S ? NP VP
b) NP ? Art Adj N PP
c) NP ? Art Adj N
d) NP ? Art N PP
e) NP ? Art N
f) VP ? V NP PP
g) VP ? V PP
h) VP ? V
i) VP ? V S’
j) PP ? P NP
?.
a). The man found the letter.
S
NP VP
Art N’ V NP
The N found Art N’
men the N
letter
b). The students put the books in the classroom.
S
NP VP
Art N’ V NP PP
The N put Art N’ P NP
students the N in Art N’
books the N
classroom
?.
1. MALE
2. LIQUID
3. SPORT
4. ABSTRACT
5. TREE
?
1. Furniture ………… dining table 2. tree ……………… weeping willow 3. pet…………………Persian cat 4. color……………… navy blue 5. book ………………thesaurus 6. fine art …………… oil painting 7. worker …………… bus driver 8. word ……………… link verb 9. science …………… organic chemistry 10. beverage……………orange juice ?..
1. C
2. S
3. C
4. S
5. C
6. C
7. C
8. C
9. C
10. S
?
? Dialect 1: Suffix [me] to any vowel-initial word.
Dialect 2: Suffix [he] to any vowel-initial word.
Dialect 3: Suffix [e] to any vowel-initial word.
? phonetic transcriptions
honest 1. [anəstme] 2. [anəsthe] 3.[anəste]
admire 1. [ædmajrme] 2. [ædmajrhe] 3.[ædmajre]
illegal 1. [iligəlme] 2. [iligəlhe] 3.[iligəle]
?.
1. Function of phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds that form meaningful utterances, to
recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to made up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals
and past tenses, to produce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate context, to know what is
or is not a sound in one’s language, and to know that different phonetic strings may represent the same
morpheme.
2. In discourse or text, deixis is used to keep track of who or what is being talked about more than once. The
speaker /writer will use deixis to maintain reference, as in the following sentence: In the picture, a boy and a girl
are planting a tree. She is holding it, and he is shoveling earth around it.She, he, it refer to already introduced
referents, a girl, a boy, a tree. The reference of a deixis to a preceding expression is technically termed anaphoric
reference. The deixis that replaces the initial expression is called anaphor, and the initial expression called
antecedent. The reversal of the antecedent-anaphor pattern is known as cataphora, Next sentence is an example of
cataphoric reference.: I could hardly believe it. The student didn’t pass the exam.
?.
1. language acquision
2. babbling
3. identifying
4. Semantics
5. derogatoy
6. Dialectal
7. synonym
8. tautology
9. target
10. Place
?.
? [ei] (2) [l] (3) [u] (4) [b] (5) [ə]
?.
u æ ou i u:
+ - - + +
- + - - -
+ - + - +
- - + - +
?..
(1) When two different words are identical in every way except for one phoneme which occurs in the same place,
they are said to form a minimal pair. Pill and bill form a minimal pair in English.
(2) The difference between pill and bill is signaled or shown by the fact that the initial sound of the first world is and
the initial sound of the second word is. The sounds of the two words are identical except for the initial consonants.
and are ,therefore, able to distinguish or contrast words in and are, therefore, able to distinguish or contrast words
in sound and meaning. They are distinctive sounds in English .Any such speech sound segments that can
distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are called phonemes.
?.
1. [w] labiovelar glide
2. [d3 ] voiced palatal affricate
3. [j] palatal glide
4. [h] voiceless glottal fricative
5. [i:] tense high front vowel
?.
1. Pit fit
2. Sake shake
3. Chunk junk
4. Chunk junk
5. Take cake
?.
1. She speaks good Japanese
S
NP VP
Pron Aux V NP
T Adj N
She Pres speak good Japanese
2. The problem would be solved by them.
S
NP2 VP
Det N Aux V PP
T M P NP1
Past Pref Pron
(be-en)
The problem solve by them
?.
The surface structures of the two sentences seem to be the same, but the grammatical relationships in the deep
structures of the two sentences are quite different. In the first sentence Girls want very much to please others. whereas
in the second sentence, Someone finds it easy to please girls.
?.
homonyms: ear/ear bank/bank bear/bear
homophones: the rest of the others
?
1. [č]and [ ts ] are in complementary distribution.
2. [t] occurs before back vowel [ a ],[ o ] and front vowel [ e]
[č] is before front vowel [i]
[ts] occurs before back vowel [u]
3. . /t/ is the phoneme. [t] [č] and [ts] are allophones.
4. . /tatami/ /tukue/ /tutumu/
/tomodati/ /tetudau/ /tizu/
/uti/ /tita/ /kata/
/tegami/ /ato/ /tatemono/
/otoko/ /deguti/ /te/
/hiti/ /natu/ /turi/
?
Affixes in many language like English, may be classified into derivational and inflectional morphemes according
to their linguistic nature. A derivational morpheme is an affix which is used to form a derivative, as re- in reread. It
may change the class specification of the words to which they are added. For example, read + -able ? readable ( verb
? adjective). There are also some derivational morphemes that do not cause a change in class status. For instance, the
prefixes in- in im- + possible ? impossible ( adjective ? adjective ). All derivational morphemes are bound and they
must be attached to bases.
An inflectional morpheme usually refers to an affix which is suffixed to stem rather than to a base. It dose not help
to form a new word or change the class status of the word to which it is suffixed. It only serves as a grammatical
marker showing grammatical meaning (or meanings ) in sentences. All inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes
indicating grammatical categories, such as tense, number, person, gender, case, aspect, mood, voice, and so on. Look
at the following sentence, in which person, number, tense and aspect are marked by different inflectional morphemes,
respectively.
(a) I learn English.
(b) She learns English.
(c) He learned English.
(d) They are learning English.
In sentence (b) the –s at the end of the verb is an ―agreement‖ marker, indicating that the subject of the verb is
the ―third-person‖, ―singular‖, ―present tense‖. The –ed in (c) and the –ing in (d) are inflectional morphemes required
by the syntactic rules of English to show ―tense‖ and ―aspect‖, respectively.
?.
1-5 A B B C C 6-10 B C B B C ?.
1-5 F F T F F 6-10 T F T F T
?.
1. nucleus 2. sounds
3. gaps
4. suprasegmental features 5. free morphemes 6. Derivation 7. transitivity 8. umbrella 9. registers 10. anaphora ?.
1. [i] lax high front vowel 2. [e] mid front vowel 3. [a:] low back vowel 4. [u:] tense high back vowel 5. [u] lax back high vowel ?.
1. psycho + logy 2. un + palat + able 3. holi + day 4. grand + mother 5. morph + em + ic ?..
1. [f]
2. [æ]
3. [j]
4. [ð]
5. [s]
?.
1. INSTRUMENT 2. FLOWER
3. MOTION
4. STATIONERY 5. STATE
?..
1) Vowels and consonants are thought of as the segmental phonemes, of which utterances are composed. They may
go one after another in sequences of speech sounds. Segmental phonemes are used to form syllables, morphemes,
words and utterances.
2) Two different forms, though different in pronunciation, may be identical in meaning. Some speakers in a dialect
of English pronounce the word economics in one way and some speakers in another dialect in another way. The
different pronunciation of economics is free variations.
3) Assimilation in language is a common phonetic process in which two phonemes, usually adjacent to each other,
become identical or similar, or acquire common characteristic, due to the influence of one upon the other when they
occur in the sequential speech sounds. If the change affects the adjacent sounds the process is called contiguous or
juxtapositional assimilation, e.g. /z/ in news become [s] in newspaper. It is also composed of regressive assimilation,
total, partial, assimilation, etc.
?. Apply the reflexive transformation rule and imperative transformation rule to form the following tree:
S
NP VP
Φ V NP
pron
behave yourself
?. Illocutionary acts may be various in form and function. Based on the nature of the illocutionary force or effect,
Searle suggested the following five types of utterances:
1) Representative, which commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition, such as asserting,
concluding e.g. ―I think it is raining.‖
2) Directives, which are attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something, such as requesting,
questioning, e.g. ― I beg you to give me some advice.‖
3) Commissives, which commit the speaker to some future action of undertaking some future promise, such as
promising, offering, threatening, e.g. ―I’ll beat you if you don’t behave yourself.‖
4) Expressives, which express a psychological state, such as thanking, apologizing, welcoming, congratulating,
e.g. ―I apologize to you for my late reply to you last letter.‖
5) Declarations, which effect immediate changes in the institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on
elaborate extra-linguistic institutions, such as declaring war, christening, firing from employment, e.g. As soon as
the employer says to the employee ―you’re friend!‖, the latter immediately loses his job.
?..
Some sentences may be just grammatically well-formed, but semantically they may be not acceptable or
anomalous. For example, The colorless green ideas sleep furiously. By the Standard Theory the semantic component
contains the rules that specify the semantic features of lexical items, which are necessary for the choice of appropriate
lexical items from lexicon. Lexical items or words must be chosen and fitted in according to the selectional restriction
rules. Chomsky and his followers have made quite a few revisions and amendments of their original theories and of
the Standard Theory. Extended Standard Theory, Revised Extended Standard Theory, Governing and Binding Theory
are all the revised theories.
I. 1－5 F T T F F 6－10 T T T F F 11－15 T F F T T 16－20 F T F T T
II. 1. voiced 2. fricative 3. labial 4. alveolar 5. high, vowel
III. 1) The stress of greenhouse is on green while that of green house is on house. Greenhouse is a compound word;
green house is a noun phrase. A greenhouse refers to a building with sides and roof of glass, used for growing
plants that need protection from the weather, while a green house refers to a house whose color is green.
2) The stress of sleeping car is on sleeping while that of sleeping boy is on boy. A sleeping car means a car in
which one can sleep. A sleeping boy means a boy who is sleeping.
IV. Deixis means ―pointing‖ via language.
Person Deixis: we, I, him, it…
Place Deixis: here, there…
Time Deixis: now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, next week, last year, in three days…
Discourse Deixis: in the previous section, in the next chapter, in the rest of this paper, in conclusion, this, that…
V. a) Those who quickly went there made a fortune.
Those who went there made a fortune quickly.
a) The planes which are flying can be dangerous.
It’s dangerous to fly planes.
b) They put fish into cans.
They are able to fish.
c) The design is full of big squares and big circles.
The design is full of circles and big squares.
d) I saw the couple who were in the cafeteria.
In the cafeteria I saw the couple.
VI. The maxim of relation is violated. The implicature is that B doesn’t want to gossip about the hostess.
VII. The two sentences are both wrong. ―This,‖ ―here,‖ ―that,‖ and ―there‖ are all deixis. ―This‖ and ―here‖ are
proximal deixis, while ―that‖ and ―there‖ are distal deixis. ―Bring‖ means to carry something to the speaker;
―take‖ means to carry something away from the speaker. The deixis in both sentences contradict with the two
verbs. The correct sentences should be:
1) Bring that here.
2) Take this there.
VIII.
a) The advantages of this approach to meaning analysis are obvious. Firstly, it is a breakthrough in the formal
representation of meaning. Once formally represented, meaning components can be seen. Secondly, it reveals the
impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis. The limitations of componential
analysis are also apparent. It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicons, but merely to words within the same
semantic field. It is controversial whether semantic features are universal primes of word meanings in all languages.
b) Metaphor is the mapping from the source domain to the target domain. The domain to be conceptualized is called
target domain, while the conceptualizing domain is termed the source domain. The transference of properties of the
source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as mapping. For example, neck is a part
of human body, while the neck in the compound bottleneck is metaphorically used. The properties of human neck
(source domain) have been transferred to the neck of the bottle (target domain).
c) Homonyms are words which have the same form, but different meanings. Words which have the same spelling but
different meanings are called homographs, such as bow (v.) and bow (n., a weapon). Words which have the same pronunciation but different meanings are called homophones. Flour/flower, pale/pail, whole/hole are all homophones.
Homonyms are listed as separate entries in a dictionary, because lexicographers see them as unrelated in sense. A
polyseme is a word which has several related senses. Lexicographers make the distinction between homonyms and
polysemes based on the intuition of native speakers as well as the etymology or history of words.
I. 1－5 C D A B D 6－10 A A B C B 11－15 C A D B B 16－20 D A C D B
II. a) [m] b) [w] c) [u] d) [l] e) [b]
III. 1. This is a dress for beautiful girls.
This is a beautiful dress for girls.
2. Tom hates his boss and I hate his boss too.
Tom hates his boss and I hate my boss too.
3. They finally made a decision on the boat.
They finally chose the boat.
4. Can you see the man who is carrying a pair of binoculars?
Can you see the man through a pair of binoculars?
IV. a. truck b. elevator C. sidewalk d. can e. candy
V. (Relation) The addressee does not think the dress is beautiful.
VI.
S
NP VP
Det N PP V PP
Prep NP Prep NP
Det N Det N
VII. a) The Whit House is a proper noun, which is the estate of the American government. A white house refers to a
house which is painted white.
b) A redcoat refers to a British soldier who is in red coat. A red coat means a coat whose color is red.
c) A bluebird refers to a kind of bird. A blue bird means a bird whose feathers are blue.
d) A lighthouse keeper refers a keeper who keeps lighthouse. A light housekeeper means a housekeeper who is
light.
VIII. The relation between bank12 and bank is homonymy.
IX. 1. Metaphors have three main features: systematicity, creation of similarities, and imaginative rationality.
Metaphors are systematic precisely because they are conceptual in nature. Metaphor can create similarities between
the two domains involved. This runs counter to the traditional view which holds that similarities are inherent in the
entities themselves. But cognitive linguists hold that the similarities relevant to metaphors are experiential rather than
objective. Metaphors are characterized by imaginative rationality. They unite reasoning and imagination. Metaphors
as a form of reasoning by analogy involve categorization, entailment and inference. By metaphors we understand one
kind of thing in terms of another kind of thing.
2. The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular
field. A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon, phonology, syntax shared by members of the group. Varieties of
a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional (geographical) dialects, sociolects (social dialects) and
registers (functional varieties). The standard variety is the form of a language used by the government and
communication media, taught in schools and universities and is the main or only written form. A regional dialect is a
variety of a language spoken by people living in an area. Sociolects are forms of a language that characterize the
speech of different social classes. Register is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to
use.‖
3. Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world. London refers to or denotes
the capital of Great Britain. The word dog denotes a kind of domestic animal. The referential theory, the simplest
theory of meaning, claims that meaning is reference. Words stand not only in relation to the world but also to human
mind. So in addition to reference, there is another dimension of word meaning called sense. For example, when you
hear the expression dog, you will naturally reflect on its features in addition to the kind of animal as the referent of the
expression. Sense is mental representation, the association with something in the speaker/hearer's mind. Words like
dragon, but, of and phrases like a round triangle have sense, but no referent. Words like dog, horse, car and gun have
both referent and sense.
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