passage 8-10

GRE最新题串讲 It is possible for students to obtain advanced degrees in English while knowing little or nothing about traditional scholarly methods. The consequences of this neglect of traditional scholarship are particularly unfortunate for the (5) study of women writers. If the canon-the list of authors whose works are most widely taught-is ever to include more women, scholars must be well trained in historical scholarship and textual editing. Scholars who do not know how to read early manuscripts, locate rare books, establish (10)a sequence of editions, and so on are bereft of crucial tools for revising the canon. To address such concerns, an experimental version of the traditional scholarly methods course was designed to raise students' consciousness about the usefulness of (15)traditional learning for any modern critic or theorist. To minimize the artificial aspects of the conventional course, the usual procedure of assigning a large number of small problems drawn from the entire range of historical periods was abandoned, though this procedure has the obvious (20)advantage of at least superficially familiarizing students with a wide range of reference sources. Instead students were engaged in a collective effort to do original work on a neglected eighteenth-century writer, Elizabeth Griffith, to give them an authentic experience of literary scholarship (25)and to inspire them to take responsibility for the quality of their own work. Griffith's work presented a number of advantages for this particular pedagogical purpose. First, the body of extant scholarship on Griffith was so tiny that it could all (30)be read in a day; thus students spent little time and effort mastering the literature and had a clear field for their own discoveries. Griffith's play The Platonic Wife exists in three versions, enough to provide illustrations of editorial issues but not too many for beginning students to manage. In addi- (35)tion, because Griffith was successful in the eighteenth cen- tury, as her continued productivity and favorable reviews demonstrate, her exclusion from the canon and virtual dis- appearance from literary history also helped raise issues concerning the current canon. (40) The range of Griffith's work meant that each student could become the world's leading authority on a particular Griffith text. For example, a student studying Griffith's Wife in the Right obtained a first edition of the play and studied it for some weeks. This student was suitably (45)shocked and outraged to find its title transformed into A Wife in the Night in Watt's Bibliotheca Britannica. Such experiences, inevitable and common in working on a writer to whom so little attention has been paid, serve to vaccinate the student ---I hope for a lifetime-against credulous use of reference sources. 1.The author of the passage suggests that which of the following is a disadvantage of the strategy employed in the experimental scholarly methods course? (A) Students were not given an opportunity to study women writers outside the canon. (B) Students' original work would not be appreciated by recognized scholars. (C) Little scholarly work has been done on the work of Elizabeth Griffith. (D) Most of the students in the course had had little opportunity to study eighteenth-century literature. (E) Students were not given an opportunity to encoun- ter certain sources of information that could prove useful in their future studies. 2.It can be inferred that the author of the passage con- siders traditional scholarly methods courses to be (A) irrelevant to the work of most students (B) inconsequential because of their narrow focus (C) unconcerned about the accuracy of reference sources (D) too superficial to establish important facts about authors (E) too wide-ranging to approximate genuine scholarly activity Experiments show that insects can function as pollinators of cycads, rare, palmlike tropical plants. Furthermore, cycads removed from their native habitats-and therefore from insects native to those habitats-are usually infertile. Nev- (5) ertheless, anecdotal reports of wind pollination in cycads cannot be ignored. The structure of cycads male cones is quite consistent with the wind dispersal of pollen, clouds of which are released from some of the larger cones. The male cone of Cycas circinalis, for example, sheds almost (10)100 cubic centimeters of pollen, most of which is probably dispersed by wind. Still, many male cycad cones are com- paratively small and thus produce far less pollen. Further- more, the structure of most female cycad cones seems incon- sistent with direct pollination by wind. Only in the Cycas (15)genus are the females' ovules accessible to airborne pollen, since only in this genus are the ovules surrounded by a loose aggregation of megasporophylls rather than by a tight cone. 3.According to the passage, the size of a male cycad cone directly influences which of the following? (A) The arrangement of the male cone's structural elements (B) The mechanism by which pollen is released from the male cone. (C) The degree to which the ovules of female cycads are accessible to airborne pollen (D) The male cone's attractiveness to potential insect pollinators (E) The amount of pollen produced by the male cone 4.The passage suggests that which of the following is true of scientific investigations of cycad pollination? (A) They have not yet produced any systematic evi- dence of wind pollination in cycads. (B) They have so far confirmed anecdotal reports con- cerning the wind pollination of cycads. (C) They have, until recently, produced little evidence in favor of insect pollination in cycads. (D) They have primarily been carried out using cycads transplanted from their native habitats. (E) They have usually concentrated on describing the physical characteristics of the cycad reproductive system. As people age, their cells become less efficient and less able to replace damaged components. At the same time their tissues stiffen. For example, the lungs and the heart muscle expand less successfully, the blood vessels (5) become increasingly rigid, and the ligaments and tendons tighten. Few investigators would attribute such diverse effects to a single cause. Nevertheless, researchers have discov- ered that a process long known to discolor and toughen (10)foods may also contribute to age- related impairment of both cells and tissues. That process is nonenzymatic glycosylation, whereby glucose becomes attached to pro- teins without the aid of enzymes. When enzymes attach glucose to proteins (enzymatic glycosylation), they do so (15)at a specific site on a specific protein molecule for a specific purpose. In contrast, the nonenzymatic process adds glucose haphazardly to any of several sites along any available peptide chain within a protein molecule. This nonenzymatic glycosylation of certain proteins (20)has been understood by food chemists for decades, although few biologists recognized until recently that the same steps could take place in the body. Nonenzymatic glycosylation begins when an aldehyde group (CHO) of glucose and an amino group (NH2) of a protein are (25)attracted to each other. The molecules combine, forming what is called a Schiff base within the protein. This com- bination is unstable and quickly rearranges itself into a stabler, but still reversible, substance known as an Amadori product. (30) If a given protein persists in the body for months or years, some of its Amadori products slowly dehydrate and rearrange themselves yet again, into new glucose-derived structures. These can combine with various kinds of mol- ecules to form irreversible structures named advanced (35)glycosylation end products (AGE's). Most AGE's are yellowish brown and fluorescent and have specific spec- trographic properties. More important for the body, many are also able to cross-link adjacent proteins, particularly ones that give structure to tissues and organs. Although (40)no one has yet satisfactorily described the origin of all such bridges between proteins, many investigators agree that extensive cross-linking of proteins probably contrib- utes to the stiffening and loss of elasticity characteristic of aging tissues. (45) In an attempt to link this process with the develop- ment of cataracts (the browning and clouding of the lens of the eye as people age), researchers studied the effect of glucose on solutions of purified crystallin, the major protein in the lens of the eye. Glucose-free solutions (50) remained clear, but solutions with glucose caused the proteins to form clusters, suggesting that the molecules had become cross-linked. The clusters diffracted light, making the solution opaque. The researchers also discovered that the pigmented cross-links in human (55)cataracts have the brownish color and fluorescence characteristic of AGE's. These data suggest that nonenzymatic glycosylation of lens crystallins may contribute to cataract formation. 5.With which of the following statements concerning the stiffening of aging tissues would the author most likely agree? (A) It is caused to a large degree by an increased rate of cell multiplication. (B) It paradoxically both helps and hinders the longevity of proteins in the human body. (C) It can be counteracted in part by increased ingestion of glucose-free foods. (D) It is exacerbated by increased enzymatic glycosylation. (E) It probably involves the nonenzymatic glycosyla- tion of proteins. 6.According to the passage, which of the following statements is true of the process that discolors and toughens foods? (A) It takes place more slowly than glycosylation in the human body. (B) It requires a higher ratio of glucose to protein than glycosylation requires in the human body. (C) It does not require the aid of enzymes to attach glucose to protein. (D) It proceeds more quickly when the food proteins have a molecular structure similar to that of crystallin proteins. (E) Its effectiveness depends heavily on the amount of environmental moisture. 7.According to the passage, which of the following is characteristic of enzymatic glycosylation of proteins? (A) AGE's are formed after a period of months or years. (B) Proteins affected by the process are made unstable. (C) Glucose attachment impairs and stiffens tissues. (D) Glucose is attached to proteins for specific purposes. (E) Amino groups combine with aldehyde groups to form Schiff bases. 8.According to the passage, which of the following statements is true of Amadori products in proteins? (A) They are more plentiful in a dehydrated environment. (B) They are created through enzymatic glycosylation. (C) They are composed entirely of glucose molecules. (D) They are derived from Schiff bases. (E) They are derived from AGE's 9.Which of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of the passage (lines 19-29)? (A) It offers evidence that contradicts the findings described in the first two paragraphs. (B) It presents a specific example of the process discussed in the first two paragraphs. (C) It explains a problem that the researchers mentioned in the second paragraph have yet to solve. (D) It evaluates the research discoveries described in the previous paragraph. (E) It begins a detailed description of the process introduced in the previous two paragraphs. 10.The passage suggests that which of the following would be LEAST important in determining whether nonenzymatic glycosylation is likely to have taken place in the proteins of a particular tissue? (A) The likelihood that the tissue has been exposed to free glucose (B) The color and spectrographic properties of structures within the tissue. (C) The amount of time that the proteins in the tissue have persisted in the body (D) The number of amino groups within the proteins in the tissue (E) The degree of elasticity that the tissue exhibits Mary Barton, particularly in its early chapters, is a moving response to the suffering of the industrial worker in the England of the 1840's. What is most impressive about the book is the intense and painstaking effort made (5) by the author, Elizabeth Gaskell, to convey the experi- ence of everyday life in working-class homes. Her method is partly documentary in nature: the novel includes such features as a carefully annotated reproduction of dialect, the exact details of food prices in an account of a tea (10)party, an itemized description of the furniture of the Bartons' living room, and a transcription (again anno- tated) of the ballad "The Oldham Weaver." The interest of this record is considerable, even though the method has a slightly distancing effect. (15) As a member of the middle class, Gaskell could hardly help approaching working-class life as an outside observer and a reporter, and the reader of the novel is always conscious of this fact. But there is genuine imag- inative re-creation in her accounts of the walk in Green (20)Heys Fields, of tea at the Bartons' house, and of John Barton and his friend's discovery of the starving family in the cellar in the chapter "Poverty and Death." Indeed, for a similarly convincing re-creation of such families' emotions and responses (which are more crucial than the (25)material details on which the mere reporter is apt to con- centrate), the English novel had to wait 60 years for the early writing of D. H. Lawrence. If Gaskell never quite conveys the sense of full participation that would completely authenticate this aspect of Mary Barton, she (30)still brings to these scenes an intuitive recognition of feelings that has its own sufficient conviction. The chapter "Old Alice's History " brilliantly drama- tizes the situation of that early generation of workers brought from the villages and the countryside to the (35)urban industrial centers. The account of Job Legh, the weaver and naturalist who is devoted to the study of biology, vividly embodies one kind of response to an urban industrial environment: an affinity for living things that hardens, by its very contrast with its environ- (40)ment,into a kind of crankiness. The early chapters― about factory workers walking out in spring into Green Heys Fields; about Alice Wilson, remembering in her cellar the twig- gathering for brooms in the native village that she will never again see; about Job Legh, intent on (45)his impaled insects― capture the characteristic responses of a generation to the new and crushing experience of industrialism. The other early chapters eloquently por- tray the development of the instinctive cooperation with each other that was already becoming an important tradition among workers. 11. Which of the following is most closely analogous to Job Legh in Mary Barton, as that character is described in the passage? (A) An entomologist who collected butterflies as a child (B) A small-town attorney whose hobby is nature photography (C) A young man who leaves his family's dairy farm to start his own business (D) A city dweller who raises exotic plants on the roof of his apartment building (E) A union organizer who works in a textile mill under dangerous conditions As of the late 1980's. neither theorists nor large- scale computer climate models could accurately predict whether cloud systems would help or hurt a warming globe. Some studies suggested that a four percent (5)increase in stratocumulus clouds over the ocean could compensate for a doubling in atmospheric carbon diox- ide, preventing a potentially disastrous planetwide temp- erature increase. On the other hand, an increase in cirrus clouds could increase global warming. (10) That clouds represented the weakest element in cli- mate models was illustrated by a study of fourteen such models. Comparing climate forecasts for a world with double the current amount of carbon dioxide, researchers found that the models agreed quite well if clouds were (15)not included. But when clouds were incorporated, a wide range of forecasts was produced. With such discrepancies plaguing the models, scientists could not easily predict how quickly the world's climate would change, nor could they tell which regions would face dustier droughts or deadlier monsoons. 12.The information in the passage suggests that sci- entists would have to answer which of the following questions in order to predict the effect of clouds on the warming of the globe? (A) What kinds of cloud systems will form over the Earth? (B) How can cloud systems be encouraged to form over the ocean? (C) What are the causes of the projected planetwide temperature increase? (D) What proportion of cloud systems are currently composed of cirrus of clouds? (E) What proportion of the clouds in the atmosphere form over land masses? This is not to deny that the Black gospel music of the early twentieth century differed in important ways from the slave spirituals. Whereas spirituals were created and dis- seminated in folk fashion, gospel music was composed, (5) published, copyrighted, and sold by professionals. Never- theless, improvisation remained central to gospel music. One has only to listen to the recorded repertoire of gospel songs to realize that Black gospel singers rarely sang a song precisely the same way twice and never according to (10)its exact musical notation. They performed what jazz musi- cians call "head arrangements" proceeding from their own feelings and from the way "the spirit" moved them at the time. This improvisatory element was reflected in the man- ner in which gospel music was published. Black gospel (15)composers scored the music intended for White singing groups fully, indicating the various vocal parts and the accompaniment, but the music produced for Black singers included only a vocal line and piano accompaniment. 13.Of the following sentences, which is most likely to have immediately preceded the passage? (A) Few composers of gospel music drew on traditions such as the spiritual in creating their songs. (B) Spirituals and Black gospel music were derived from the same musical tradition. (C) The creation and singing of spirituals, practiced by Black Americans before the Civil War, continued after the war. (D) Spirituals and gospel music can be clearly distinguished from one another. (E) Improvisation was one of the primary charac- teristics of the gospel music created by Black musicians. The age at which young children begin to make moral discriminations about harmful actions committed against themselves or others has been the focus of recent research into the moral development of children. Until recently, (5)child psychologists supported pioneer developmentalist Jean. Piaget in his hypothesis that because of their immaturity, children under age seven do not take into account the inten- tions of a person committing accidental or deliberate harm, but rather simply assign punishment for transgressions on (10)the basis of the magnitude of the negative consequences caused. According to Piaget, children under age seven occupy the first stage of moral development, which is char- acterized by moral absolutism (rules made by authorities must be obeyed) and imminent justice (if rules are broken, (15)punishment will be meted out). Until young children mature, their moral judgments are based entirely on the effect rather than the cause of a transgression. However, in recent research, Keasey found that six- year-old children not only distinguish between accidental and intentional harm, but (20)also judge intentional harm as naughtier, regardless of the amount of damage produced. Both of these findings seem to indicate that children, at an earlier age than Piaget claimed, advance into the second stage of moral develop- ment, moral autonomy, in which they accept social rules (25)but view them as more arbitrary than do children in the first stage. Keasey's research raises two key questions for develop- mental psychologists about children under age seven: do they recognize justifications for harmful actions, and do (30)they make distinctions between harmful acts that are pre- ventable and those acts that have unforeseen harmful con- sequences? Studies indicate that justifications excusing harmful actions might include public duty,self-defense, and provocation. For example, Nesdale and Rule concluded that (35)children were capable of considering whether or not an aggressor's action was justified by public duty: five year olds reacted very differently to "Bonnie wrecks Ann's pretend house" depending on whether Bonnie did it "so somebody won't fall over it" or because Bonnie wanted "to (40)make Ann feel bad."Thus, a child of five begins to under- stand that certain harmful actions, though intentional, can be justified; the constraints of moral absolutism no longer solely guide their judgments. Psychologists have determined that during kindergarten (45)children learn to make subtle distinctions involving harm. Darley observed that among acts involving unintentional harm, six-year-old children just entering kindergarten could not differentiate between foreseeable, and thus preventable, harm and unforeseeable harm for which the perpetrator (50)cannot be blamed. Seven months later, however, Darley found that these same children could make both distinc- tions, thus demonstrating that they had become morally autonomous. 14.It can be inferred form the passage that Piaget would be likely to agree with which of the following state- ments about the punishment that children under seven assign to wrongdoing? (A) The severity of the assigned punishment is deter- mined by the perceived magnitude of negative consequences more than by any other factor. (B) The punishment is to be administered immediately following the transgression. (C) The children assign punishment less arbitrarily than they do when they reach the age of moral autonomy. (D) The punishment for acts of unintentional harm is less severe than it is for acts involving accidental harm. (E) The more developmentally immature a child, the more severe the punishment that the child will assign. Proponents of different jazz styles have always argued that their predecessors, musical style did not include essential characteristics that define jazz as jazz. Thus, 1940's swing was belittled by beboppers of the 1950's, (5)who were themselves attacked by free jazzers of the 1960's. The neoboppers of the 1980's and 1990's attacked almost everybody else. The titanic figure of Black saxo- phonist John Coltrane has complicated the arguments made by proponents of styles from bebop through neobop (10)because in his own musical journey he drew from all those styles. His influence on all types of jazz was immeasurable. At the height of his popularity, Coltrane largely abandoned playing bebop, the style that had brought him fame, to explore the outer reaches of jazz. (15) Coltrane himself probably believed that the only essential characteristic of jazz was improvisation, the one constant in his journey from bebop to open-ended improvisations on modal, Indian, and African melodies. On the other hand, this dogged student and prodigious technician-who (20)insisted on spending hours each day practicing scales from theory books-was never able to jettison completely the influence of bebop, with its fast and elaborate chains of notes and ornaments on melody. Two stylistic characteristics shaped the way Coltrane (25)played the tenor saxophone, he favored playing fast runs of notes built on a melody and depended on heavy, regu- larly accented beats. The first led Coltrane to "sheets of sound." where he raced faster and faster, pile-driving notes into each other to suggest stacked harmonies. The second (30)meant that his sense of rhythm was almost as close to rock as to bebop. Three recordings illustrate Coltrane's energizing explor- ations. Recording Kind of Blue with Miles Davis, Coltrane found himself outside bop, exploring modal melodies. Here (35)he played surging, lengthy solos built largely around repeated motifs-an organizing principle unlike that of free jazz saxophone player Ornette Coleman, who modu- lated or altered melodies in his solos. On Giant Steps, Coltrane debuted as leader, introducing his own composi- (40)tions. Here the sheets of sound, downbeat accents, repe- titions, and great speed are part of each solo, and the variety of the shapes of his phrases is unique. Coltrane's searching explorations produced solid achievement. My Favorite Things was another kind of watershed. Here (45)Coltrane played the soprano saxophone, an instrument seldom used by jazz musicians. Musically, the results were astounding. With the soprano's piping sound, ideas that had sounded dark and brooding acquired a feeling of giddy fantasy. (50) When Coltrane began recording for the Impulse! label, he was still searching. His music became raucous, physical. His influence on rockers was enormous, including Jimi Hendrix, the rock guitarist, who following Coltrane, raised the extended guitar solo using repeated motifs to a kind of rock art form. 15.According to the passage, John Coltrane did all of the following during his career EXCEPT (A) improvise on melodies from a number of different cultures (B) perform as leader as well as soloist (C) spend time improving his technical skills (D) experiment with the sounds of various instruments (E) eliminate the influence of bebop on his own music A special mucous coating that serves as a chemical camouflage allows clown fish to live among the deadly tentacles of the unsuspecting sea anemone . Utterly dependent on this unlikely host for protection from (5)predators, clown fish have evolved in isolated commu- nities, a pattern that has led to unusual behavioral adaptations. The rigidly defined hierarchy of each clown-fish community is dominated by a monogamous breeding pair (10)consisting of the largest fish, a female, and the next largest a male, attended by a fixed number of sexually immature fish ranging in size from large to tiny. A remarkable adaptation is that the development of these juveniles is somehow arrested until the hierarchy changes; then they (15)crow in lockstep, maintaining their relative sizes. While the community thus economizes on limited space and food resources, life is risky for newly spawned clown fish. On hatching, the hundreds of larvae drift off into the plankton. If, within three weeks, the defenseless larval clown fish (20)locates a suitable anemone(either by pure chance or per- haps guided by chemicals secreted by the anemone), it may survive. However, if an anemone is fully occupied, the resident clown fish will repel any newcomer. Though advantageous for established community mem- (25)bers, the suspended and staggered maturation of juveniles might seem to pose a danger to the continuity of the community: there is only one successor for two breeding fish. Should one of a pair die, the remaining fish cannot swim off in search of a mate, nor is one likely to arrive. It (30)would seem inevitable that reproduction must sometimes have to halt, pending the chance arrival and maturation of a larval fish of the appropriate sex. This, however, turns out not to be the case. In experi- ments, vacancies have been contrived by removing an (35)established fish from a community. Elimination of the breeding male triggers the prompt maturation of the largest juvenile. Each remaining juvenile also grows somewhat, and a minuscule newcomer drops in from the plankton. Removal of the female also triggers growth in all (40)remaining fish and acceptance of a newcomer, but the female is replaced by the adult male. Within days, the male's behavior alters and physiological transformation is complete within a few months. Thus, whichever of the breeding pair is lost, a relatively large juvenile can fill (45)the void, and reproduction can resume with a minimal loss of time. Furthermore, the new mate has already proved its ability to survive. This transformation of a male into a female, or pro- tandrous hermaphroditism, is rare among reef fish. The (50)more common protogynous hermaphroditism, where females change into males, does not occur among clown fish. An intriguing question for further research is whether a juvenile clown fish can turn directly into a female or whether it must function first as a male. 16.It can be inferred from the passage that sex change would have been less necessary for the clown fish if (A) the male clown fish were larger than the female (B) each sea anemone were occupied by several varieties of clown fish (C) many mature clown fish of both sexes occupied each sea anemone (D) juvenile clown fish had a high mortality rate (E) both male clown fish and female clown fish were highly territorial 17.The author mentions all of the following as characteristic of the "rigidly defined hierarchy" (line 8) of the clown-fish community EXCEPT: (A) At any time only one female clown fish can be reproductively active (B) The mature clown fish are monogamous (C) The growth of clown fish is synchronized (D) The maximum number of clown fish is fixed (E) There are equal numbers of male juveniles and female juveniles 18.Which of the following, if true, would be LEAST consistent with the author's explanation of the advantage of hermaphroditism for clown fish? (A) The number of individuals in a clown-fish community fluctuates significantly (B) Adult clown fish frequently cannibalize their young (C) The sea anemone tolerates clown fish only during a specific stage of the anemone's life cycle. (D) Juvenile clown fish rarely reach maturity (E) Clown-fish communities are capable of efficiently recruiting solitary adult clown fish Over the years, biologists have suggested two main pathways by which sexual selection may have shaped the evolution of male birdsong. In the first, male competition and intrasexual selection produce relatively short, simple songs used mainly in territorial behavior. In the second, female choice and intersexual selection produce longer, more complicated songs used mainly in mate attraction; like such visual ornamentation as the peacock's tail, elabo- rate vocal characteristics increase the male's chances of being chosen as a mate, and he thus enjoys more repro- ductive success than his less ostentatious rivals. The two pathways are not mutually exclusive, and we can expect to find examples that reflect their interaction. Teasing them apart has been an important challenge to evolutionary biol- ogists. Early research confirmed the role of intrasexual selection. In a variety of experiments in the field, males responded aggressively to recorded songs by exhibiting territorial behavior near the speakers. The breakthrough for research into intersexual selection came in the development of a new technique for investigating female response in the labor- atory. When female cowbirds raised in isolation in sound- proof chambers were exposed to recordings of male song, they responded by exhibiting mating behavior. By quanti- fying the responses, researchers were able to determine what particular features of the song were most important. In further experiments on song sparrows, researchers found that when exposed to a single song type repeated several times or to a repertoire of different song types, females responded more to the latter. The beauty of the experi- mental design is that it effectively rules out confounding variables; acoustic isolation assures that the female can respond only to the song structure itself. If intersexual selection operates as theorized, males with more complicated songs should not only attract females more readily but should also enjoy greater reproductive success. At first, however, researchers doing fieldwork with song sparrows found no correlation between larger reper- toires and early mating, which has been shown to be one indicator of reproductive success; further, common measures of male quality used to predict reproductive success, such as weight, size, age, and territory, also failed to correlate with song complexity. The confirmation researchers had been seeking was finally achieved in studies involving two varieties of war- blers. Unlike the song sparrow, which repeats one of its several song types in bouts before switching to another, the warbler continuously composes much longer and more vari- able songs without repetition. For the first time, researchers found a significant correlation between repertoire size and early mating, and they discovered further that repertoire size had a more significant effect than any other measure of male quality on the number of young produced. The evi- dence suggests that warblers use their extremely elaborate songs primarily to attract females, clearly confirming the effect of intersexual selection on the evolution of birdsong 19. The passage is primarily concerned with (A) showing that intrasexual selection has a greater effect on birdsong than does intersexual selection (B) contrasting the role of song complexity in several species of birds (C) describing research confirming the suspected rela- tionship between intersexual selection and the complexity of birdsong (D) demonstrating the superiority of laboratory work over field studies in evolutionary biology (E) illustrating the effectiveness of a particular approach to experimental design in evolutionary biology An experiment conducted aboard Space Lab in 1983 was the first attempt to grow protein crystals in the low-gravity environment of space. That experiment is still cited as evi- dence that growing crystals in microgravity can increase crystal size: the authors reported that they grew lysozyme protein crystals 1,000 times larger than crystals grown in the same device on Earth. Unfortunately, the authors did not point out that their crystals were no larger than the average crystal grown using other, more standard tech- niques in an Earth laboratory. No research has yet produced results that could justify the enormous costs of producing crystals on a large scale in space. To get an unbiased view of the usefulness of micro- gravity crystal growth, crystals grown in space must be compared with the best crystals that have been grown with standard techniques on Earth. Given the great expense of conducting such experiments with proper controls, and the limited promise of experiments performed thus far, it is questionable whether further experiments in this area should even be conducted. 20.According to the passage, which of the following is true about the Space Lab experiment conducted in 1983? (A) It was the first experiment to take place in the microgravity environment of space. (B) It was the first experiment in which researchers in space were able to grow lysozyme protein crystals greater in size than those grown on Earth. (C) Its results have been superseded by subsequent research in the field of microgravity protein crystal growth. (D) Its results are still considered by some to be evidence for the advantages of microgravity protein crystal growth. (E) Its results are considered by many to be invalid because nonstandard techniques were employed. 21 The passage suggests that the author would most prob- ably agree with which of the following assessments of the results of the Space Lab experiment? (A) Although the results of the experiment are impressive, the experiment was too limited in scope to allow for definitive conclusions. (B) The results of the experiment are impressive on the surface, but the report is misleading. (C) The results of the experiment convincingly confirm what researchers have long suspected. (D) Because of design flaws, the experiment did not yield any results relevant to the issue under investigation. (E) The results of the experiment are too contradictory to allow for easy interpretation. In 1923 the innovative Russian filmmaker Dziga Vertov described filmmaking as a process that leads viewers toward a "fresh perception of the world." Vertov's description of filmmaking should apply to films on the subject of art. Yet films on art have not had a powerful and pervasive effect on the way we see. Publications on art flourish, but these books and articles do not necessarily succeed in teaching us to see more deeply or more clearly. Much writing in art history advances the discourse in the field but is unlikely to inform the eye of one unfamiliar with its polemics. Films, however, with their capacity to present material visually and to reach a broader audience, have the potential to enhance visual literacy (the ability to identify the details that characterize a particular style) more effectively than publications can. Unfortunately, few of the hundred or so films on art that are made each year in the United States are broadcast nationally on prime- time television. The fact that films on art are rarely seen on prime-time television may be due not only to limitations on distribution but also to the shortcomings of many such films. Some of these shortcomings can be attributed to the failure of art historians and filmmakers to collaborate closely enough when making films on art. These professionals are able, within their respective disciplines, to increase our aware- ness of visual forms. For close collaboration to occur, professionals in each discipline need to recognize that films on art can be both educational and entertaining, but this will require compromise on both sides. A filmmaker who is creating a film about the work of an artist should not follow the standards set by rock videos and advertising. Filmmakers need to resist the impulse to move the camera quickly from detail to detail for fear of boring the viewer, to frame the image for the sake of drama alone, to add music for fear of silence. Filmmakers are aware that an art object demands concentration and, at the same time, are concerned that it may not be compelling enough―and so they hope to provide relief by interposing "real" scenes that bear only a tangential relationship to the subject. But a work of art needs to be explored on its own terms. On the other hand, art historians need to trust that one can indicate and analyze, not solely with words, but also by directing the viewer's gaze. The specialized written language of art history needs to be relinquished or at least tempered for the screen. Only an effective collaboration between filmmakers and art historians can create films that will enhance viewers' perceptions of art. 22.The passage suggests that a filmmaker desiring to enhance viewers' perceptions of art should do which of the following? (A) Rely on the precise language of art history when developing scripts for films on art. (B) Rely on dramatic narrative and music to set a film's tone and style. (C) Recognize that a work of art by itself can be compelling enough to hold a viewer's attention (D) Depend more strongly on narration instead of camera movements to guide the viewer's gaze. (E) Emphasize the social and the historical contexts within which works of art have been created. 23.which the following would describe the author's most likely reaction to a claim that films on art would more successfully promote visual literacy if they followed the standards set for rock videos? (A) Ambivalence (B) Indifference (C) Sympathy (D) Interest (E) Disdain Investigators of monkeys' social behavior have always been struck by monkeys' aggressive potential and the con- sequent need for social control of their aggressive behavior. Studies directed at describing aggressive behavior and the (5) situations that elicit it, as well as the social mechanisms that control it, were therefore among the first investigations of monkeys' social behavior. Investigators initially believed that monkeys would compete for any resource in the environment: hungry (10) monkeys would fight over food, thirsty monkeys would fight over water, and, in general, any time more than one monkey in a group sought the same incentive simulta neously, a dispute would result and would be resolved through some form of aggression. However, the motivating (15) force of competition for incentives began to be doubted when experiments like Southwick's on the reduction of space or the withholding of food failed to produce more than temporary increases in intragroup aggression. Indeed, food deprivation not only failed to increase aggression but (20) in some cases actually resulted in decreased frequencies of aggression. Studies of animals in the wild under conditions of extreme food deprivation likewise revealed that starving monkeys devoted almost all available energy to foraging, (25) with little energy remaining for aggressive interaction. Furthermore, accumulating evidence from later studies of a variety of primate groups, for example, the study con- ducted by Bernstein, indicates that one of the most potent stimuli for eliciting aggression is the introduction of an (30) intruder into an organized group. Such introductions result in far more serious aggression than that produced in any other types of experiments contrived to produce com- petition. These studies of intruders suggest that adult members (35) of the same species introduced to one another for the first time show considerable hostility because, in the absence of a social order, one must be established to control interanimal relationships. When a single new animal is introduced into an existing social organization, the (40) newcomer meets even more serious aggression. Whereas in the first case aggression establishes a social order, in the second case resident animals mob the intruder, thereby initially excluding the new animal from the existing social unit. The simultaneous introduction of several animals (45) lessens the effect, if only because the group divides its attention among the multiple targets. If, however, the several animals introduced to a group constitute their own social unit, each group may fight the opposing group as a unit; but, again, no individual is subjected to mass attack, (50) and the very cohesion of the groups precludes prolonged individual combat. The submission of the defeated group, rather than unleashing unchecked aggression on the part of the victorious group, reduces both the intensity and frequency of further attack. Monkey groups (55) therefor see to be organized primarily to maintain their established social order rather than to engage in hostilities per se. 24. It can be inferred from the passage that the establishment and preservation of social order among a group of monkeys is essential in order to (A) keep the monkeys from straying and joining other groups (B) control aggressive behavior among group members (C) prevent the domination of that group by another (D) protect individuals seeking to become members of that group from mass attack (E) prevent aggressive competition for incentives between that group and another 25. The passage supplies information to answer which of the following questions? (A) How does the reduction of space affect intragroup aggression among monkeys in an experimental setting? (B) Do family units within a monkey social group compete with other family units for food? (C) What are the mechanisms by which the social order of an established group of monkeys controls aggression within that group? (D) How do monkeys engaged in aggression with other monkeys signal submission? Bracken fern has been spreading from its woodland strongholds for centuries, but the rate of encroachment into open countryside has lately increased alarmingly through- out northern and western Britain. A tough competitor, 5) bracken reduces the value of grazing land by crowding out other vegetation. The fern is itself poisonous to livestock, and also encourages proliferation of sheep ticks, which not only attack sheep but also transmit diseases. No less impor- tant to some people are bracken's effects on threatened 10) habitats and on the use of uplands for recreational pur- poses, even though many appreciate its beauty. Biological controls may be the only economic solution. One potentially cheap and self-sustaining method of halting the spread of bracken is to introduce natural enemies of the 15) plant. Initially unrestrained by predators of their own, foreign predators are likely to be able to multiply rapidly and overwhelm intended targets. Because bracken occurs throughout the world, there is plenty of scope for this approach. Two candidates, both moths from the Southern 20) Hemisphere, are now being studied. Of course, biological control agents can safely be eleased only if it can be verified that they feed solely on he target weed. The screening tests have so far been raught with difficulties. The first large shipment of moths 25) succumbed to a disease. Growing enough bracken indoors is dfficult, and the moths do not readily exploit cut stems. These are common problems with rearing insects for bio- logical control. Other problems can be foreseen. Policymakers need to 30) consider many factors and opinions such as the cost of control compared to existing methods, and the impact of the clearance of bracken on the landscape, wildlife, and vegetation. In fact, scientists already have much of the information needed to assess the impact of biological 35) control of bracken, but it is spread among many individ- uals, organizations, and government bodies. The potential gains for the environment are likely to outweigh the losses because few plants, insects, mammals, and birds live associated only with bracken, and many would benefit 40) from a return of other vegetation or from a more diverse mosaic of habitats. But legal consequences of attempts at biological control present a potential minefield. For exam- ple, many rural tenants still have the right of "estoyers" the right to cut bracken as bedding for livestock and 45) uses. What would happen if they were deprived of these rights? Once a biological control agent is released, it is difficult to control its speed. What consideration is due landowners who do not want to control bracken? Accord- ing to law, the release of the biological control agents must be 50) authorized by the secretary of state for the environment. But Britain lacks the legal and administrative machinery to assemble evidence for and against release. 26. The final paragraph can best be described as (A) a summation of arguments presented in previous paragraphs (B) the elimination of competing arguments to strengthen a single remaining conclusion (C) an enumeration of advantages to biological control (D) an expansion of the discussion from the particular example of bracken control to the general problem of government regulation (E) an overview of the variety of factors requiring further assessment 27. As it is discussed in the passage, the place of bracken within the forest habitat can best be described as (A) rapidly expanding (B) the subject of controversy (C) well established (D) circumscribed by numerous predators (E) a significant nutrient source Much of the research on hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD has focused on the neurotransmitter serotonin, a chemical that when released from a presynaptic serotonin-secreting neuron causes the transmission of (5) a nerve impulse across a synapse to an adjacent postsynaptic, or target, neuron. There are two major reasons for this emphasis. First, it was discovered early on that many of the major hallucinogens have a molecular structure similar to that of serotonin. In (10) addition, animal studies of brain neurochemistry following administration of hallucinogens invariably reported changes in serotonin levels. Early investigators correctly reasoned that the structural similarity to the serotonin molecule might (15) imply that LSD's effects are brought about by an action on the neurotransmission of serotonin in the brain. Unfortunately, the level of technical expertise in the field of brain research was such that this hypothesis had to be tested on peripheral tissue (20) (tissue outside the brain). Two different groups of scientists reported that LSD powerfully blockaded serotonin's action. Their conclusions were quickly challenged, however. We now know that the action of a drug at one site in the body does not necessarily (25) correspond to the drug's action at another site, especially when one site is in the brain and the other is not. By the 1960's, technical advances permitted the direct testing of the hypothesis that LSD and related (30) hallucinogens act by directly suppressing the activity of serotonin-secreting neurons themselves-the so- called presynaptic hypothesis. Researchers reasoned that if the hllucinogenic drugs act by suppressing the activity of serotonin-secreting neurons, then drugs (35) administered after these neurons had been destroyed should have no effect on behavior, because the system would already be maximally suppressed. Contrary to their expectations, neuron destruction enhanced the effect of LSD and related hallucinogens (40) on behavior. Thus, hallucinogenic drugs apparently do not act directly on serotonin-secreting neurons. However, these and other available data do support an alternative hypothesis, that LSD and related drugs act directly at receptor sites on serotonin target (45) neurons (the postsynaptic hypothesis). The fact that LSD elicits "serotonin syndrome" -that is, causes the same kinds of behaviors as does the adminis- tration of serotonin-in animals whose brains are depleted of serotonin indicates that LSD acts directly (50)on serotonin receptors, rather than indirectly through the release of stores of serotonin. The enhanced effect of LSD reported after serotonin depletion could be due to a proliferation of serotonin receptor sites on serotonin target neurons. This phenomenon often (55) follows neuron destruction or neurotransmitter depletion; the increase in the number of receptor sites appears to be a compensatory response to decreased input. Significantly, this hypothesis is supported by data from a number of different laboratories. 28. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage? (A) Research has suggested that the neurotransmitter serotonin is responsible for the effects of hallucinogenic drogs on the brain and on behavior. (B) Researchers have spent an inadequate amount of time developing theories concerning the way in which the effects of hallucinogenic drugs occur. (C) Research results strongly suggest that hallucinogenic drugs create their effects by acting on the serotonin receptor sites located on target neurons in the brain. (D) Researchers have recently made valuable discoveries concerning the effects of depleting the amount of serotonin in the brain. (E) Researchers have concluded that hallucinogenic drugs suppress the activity of serotonin-secreting neurons. 29. The research described in the passage is primarily concerned with answering which of the following questions? (A) How can researchers control the effects that LSD has on behavior? (B) How are animals' reactions to LSD different from those of human beings? (C) What triggers the effects that LSD has on human behavior? (D) What technical advances would permit researchers to predict more accurately the effects of LSD on behavior? (E) What relationship does the suppression of neuron activity have to the occurrence of "serotonin syndrome"? 30. Which of the following best defines "serotonin syndrome" (line 46) as the term is used in the passage? (A) The series of behaviors, usually associated with the administration of serotonin, that also occurs when LSD is administered to animals whose brains are depleted of serotonin (B) The series of behaviors, usually associated with the administration of LSD, that also occurs when the amount of serotonin in the brain is reduced (C) The maximal suppression of neuron activity that results from the destruction of serotonin- secreting neurons (D) The release of stores of serotonin from serotonin-secreting neurons in the brain (E) The proliferation of serotonin receptor sites that follows depletion of serotonin supplies in the brain 31. Which of the following best describes the organization of the argument that the author of the passage presents in the last two paragraphs? (A) Two approaches to testing a hypothesis are described, and the greater merits of one approach are indicated. (B) The assumptions underlying two hypotheses are outlined, and evidence for and against each hypothesis is discussed. (C) A phenomenon is described, and hypotheses concerning its occurrence are considered and rejected. (D) The reasoning behind a hypothesis is summarized, evidence supporting the hypothesis is presented, and research that counters the supporting evidence is described. (E) A hypothesis is discussed, evidence undermining the hypothesis is revealed, and a further hypothesis based on the undermining evidence is explained 32. The author's attitude toward early researchers' reasoning concerning the implications of similarities in the structures of serotonin and LSD molecules can best be described as one of (A) complete agreeement (B) reluctant support (C) subtle condescension (D) irreverent dismissal (E) strong opposition The origin of the theory that major geologic events may occur at regular intervals can be traced back not to a study of volcanism or plate tectonics but to an investigation of marine extinctions. In the early 1980's, (5) scientists began to look closely at the question of how these extinctions occur. Two paleontologists, Raup and Sepkoski, compiled amaster list of marine species that died out duringthe past 268 million years and noted that there were brief periods during which (10) many species disappeared at once. These mass extinc- tions occurred at surprisingly regular intervals. Later studies revealed that extinctions of terrestrial reptiles and mammals also occurred periodically. These findings, combined with the research of Raup (15) and Sepkoski, led scientists to hypothesize the existence of some kind of cyclically recurring force powerful enough to affect living things profoundly. Speculation that so powerful a force might affect gelogic events as well led geologists to search for (20) evidence of periodicity in episodes of volcanism, seafloor spreading, and plate movement. 33. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with (A) determining the dates of various geologic events (B) defending the conclusions reached by Raup and Sepkoski (C) establishing a link between the disciplines of paleontology and geology (D) proving that mass extinctions of marine animals occur periodcally (E) explaining how a theory concerning geologic events was formulated A recent history of the Chicago meat-packing industry and its workers examines how the industry grew from its appearance in the 1830's through the early 1890's. Meat-packers, the author argues, had (5) good wages, working conditions, and prospects for advancement within the packinghouses, and did not cooperate with labor agitators since labor relations were so harmonious. Because the history maintains that conditions were above standard for the era, the (10) frequency of labor disputes, especially in the mid- 1880's, is not accounted for. The work ignores the fact that the 1880's were crucial years in American labor history, and that the packinghouse workers' efforts were part of the national movement for labor (15) reform. In fact, other historical sources for the late nine- teenth century record deteriorating housing and high disease and infant mortality rates in the industrial community, due to low wages and unhealthy working (20) conditions. Additional data from the University of Chicago suggest that the packinghouses were danger- ous places to work. The government investigation commissioned by President Theodore Roosevelt which eventually led to the adoption of the 1906 (25) Meat Inspection Act found the packinghouses unsanitary, while social workers observed that most of the workers were poorly paid and overworked. The history may be too optimistic because most of its data date from the 1880's at the latest, and the infor- (30) mation provided from that decade is insufficiently analyzed. Conditions actually declined in the 1880's, and continued to decline after the 1880's, due to a reorganization of the packing process and a massive influx of unskilled workers. The deterioration in (35) worker status, partly a result of the new availability of unskilled and hence cheap labor, is not discussed. Though a detailed account of work in the packing- houses is attempted, the author fails to distinguish between the wages and conditions for skilled workers (40) and for those unskilled laborers who comprised the majority of the industry's workers from the 1880's on. While conditions for the former were arguably tolerable due to the strategic importance of skilled workers in the complicated slaughtering, cutting, and (45) packing process (though worker complaints about the rate and conditions of work were frequent), pay and conditions for the latter were wretched. The author's misinterpretation of the origins of the feelings the meat-packers had for their industrial (50) neighborhood may account for the history's faulty generalizations. The pride and contentment the author remarks upon were, arguably, less the products of the industrial world of the packers ---- the giant yards and the intricate plants ---- than of the unity and vibrance (55)of the ethnic cultures that formed a viable community on Chicago's South Side. Indeed, the strength of this community succeeded in generating a social movement that effectively confronted the problems of the industry that provided its livelihood. 34. The passage is primarily concerned with discussing (A) how historians ought to explain the origins of the conditions in the Chicago meat- packing industry (B) why it is difficult to determine the actual nature of the conditions in the Chicago meat-packing industry (C) why a particular account of the conditions in the Chicago meat-packing industry is inaccurate (D) what ought to be included in any account of the Chicago meat-packers' role in the national labor movement (E) what data are most relevant for an accurate account of the relations between Chicago meat-packers and local labor agitators 35. The author of the passage mentions all of the following as describing negative conditions in the meat-packing industry EXCEPT (A) data from the University of Chicago (B) a recent history of the meat-packing industry (C) social workers (D) historical sources for the late nineteenth century (E) government records 36. The author of the passage uses the second paragraph to (A) summarize the main point of the history discussed in the passage (B) explain why the history discussed in the passage has been disparaged by critics (C) evaluate the findings of recent studies that undermine the premises of the history discussed in the passage (D) introduce a hypothesis that will be discussed in detail later in the passage (E) present evidence that is intended to refute the argument of the history discussed in the passage When we consider great painters of the past, the study of art and the study of illusion cannot always be separated. By illusion I mean those contrivances of line color, line, shape, and so forth that lead us to see (5) marks on a flat surface as depicting three-dimensional objects in space. I must emphasize that I am not making a plea, disguised or otherwise, for the exer- cise of illusionist tricks in painting today, although I am, in fact, rather critical of certain theories of non- (10) representational art. But to argue over these theories would be to miss the point. That the discoveries and effects of representation that were the pride of earlier artists have become trivial today I would not deny for a moment. Yet I believe that we are in real danger of (15) losing contact with past masters if we accept the fashionable doctrine that such matters never had anything to do with art. The very reason why the representation of nature can now be considered something commonplace should be of the greatest (20) interest to art historians. Never before has there been an age when the visual image was so cheap in every sense of the word. We are surrounded and assailed by posters and advertisements, comics and magazine illustrations. We see aspects of reality represented (25) on television, postage stamps, and food packages. Painting is taught in school and practiced as a pastime, and many modest amateurs have mastered tricks that would have looked like sheer magic to the fourteenth-century painter Giotto. Even the crude (30) colored renderings on a cereal box might have made Giotto's contemporaries gasp. Perhaps there are people who conclude from this that the cereal box is superior to a Giotto; I do not. But I think- that the victory and vulgarization of representational skills (35) create a problem for both art historians and critics. In this connection it is instructive to remember the Greek saying that to marvel is the beginning of knowledge and if we cease to marvel we may be in danger of ceasing to know. I believe we must restore (40) our sense of wonder at the capacity to conjure up by forms, lines, shades, or colors those mysterious phantoms of visual reality we call "pictures." Even comics and advertisements, rightly viewed, provide food for thought. Just as the study of poetry remains (45) incomplete without an awareness of the language of prose, so, I believe, the study of art will be increasingly supplemented by inquiry into the "linguistics" of the visual image. The way the language of art refers to the visible world is both so obvious and so myste- (50) rious that it is still largely unknown except to artist. who use it as we use all language - without needing to know its grammar and semantics. 37. The author of the passage explicitly, disagrees with which of the following statements' (A) In modern society even nonartists can master techniques that great artists of the fourteenth century did not employ. (B) The ability to represent a three-dimensional object on a flat surface has nothing to do with art. (C) In modern society the victory of representational skills has created a problem for art critics. (D) The way that artists are able to represent the visible world is an area that needs a great deal more study before it can be fully understood. (E) Modern painters do not frequently make use of illusionist tricks in their work. 38. The author suggests which of the following about art historians? (A) They do not believe that illusionist tricks have become trivial. (B) They generally spend little time studying contemporary artists. (C) They have not given enough consideration to how the representation of nature has become commonplace. (D) They generally tend to argue about theories rather than address substantive issues. (E) They are less likely than art critics to study comics or advertisements. 39. Which of the following best states the author's attitude toward comics, as expressed in the passage? (A) They constitute an innovative art form. (B) They can be a worthwhile subject for study. (C) They are critically important to an under-standing of modem art. (D) Their -visual structure is more complex than that of medieval art. (E) They can be understood best if they are examined in conjunction with advertisements. 40.The author's statement regarding how artists use the language of art (lines 48-52) implies that (A)artists are better equipped than are art historians to provide detailed evaluations of other artists' work (B)many artists have an unusually quick, intuitive understanding of language (C)artists can produce works of art even if they cannot analyze their methods of doing so (D) artists of the past, such as Giotto, were better educated about artistic issues than were artists of the author's time (E) most artists probably consider the processes involved in their work to be closely akin to those involved in writing poetry 41. The passage asserts which of the following about commercial art? (A) There are many examples of commercial art whose artistic merit is equal to that of great works of art of the past. (B) Commercial art is heavily influenced by whatever doctrines are fashionable in the serious art world of the time. (C) The line between commercial art and great art lies primarily in how an image is used, not in the motivation for its creation. (D) The level of technical skill required to produce representational imagery in commercial art and in other kinds of art cannot be compared. (E) The pervasiveness of contemporary commercial art has led art historians to undervalue representational skills. 42. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage, about the adherents of "certain theories of nonrepresentational art" (lines 9-10) ? (A) They consider the use of illusion to be inappropriate in contemporary art. (B) They do not agree that marks on a flat surface can ever satisfactorily convey the illusion of three-dimensional space. (C) They do not discuss important works of art created in the past. (D) They do not think that the representation of nature was ever the primary goal of past painters. (E) They concern themselves more with types art such as advertisements and magazine illustrations than with traditional art. 43. It can be inferred from the passage that someone who wanted to analyze the "grammar and semantics" (line52) of the language of art would most appropriately comment on which of the following? (A) The relationship between the drawings in a comic strip and the accompanying text (B) The amount of detail that can be included in a tiny illustration on a postage stamp (C) The sociological implications of the images chosen to advertise a particular product (D) The degree to which various colors used in different versions of the same poster would attract the attention of passersby (E) The particular juxtaposition of shapes in an illustration that makes one shape look as though it were behind another The 1973 Endangered Species Act made into legal policy the concept that endangered species of wildlife are precious as part of a natural ecosystem. The nearly unanimous passage of this act in the United States (5) Congress, reflecting the rising national popularity of environmentalism, masked a bitter debate. Affected industries clung to the former wildlife policy of valuing individual species according to their economic usefulness. They fought to minimize the law's impact (10) by limiting definitions of key terms, but they lost on nearly every issue. The act defined "wildlife" as almost all kinds of animals-from large mammals to invertebrates-and plants. "Taking" wildlife was defined broadly as any action that threatened an (15) endangered species; areas vital to a species' survival could be federally protected as "critical habitats" Though these definitions legislated strong environ- mentalist goals, political compromises made in the enforcement of the act were to determine just what (20) economic interests would be set aside for the sake of ecological stabilization. 44. According to the passage, which of the following does the Endangered Species Act define as a "critical habitat"? (A) A natural ecosystem that is threatened by imminent development (B) An industrial or urban area in which wildlife species have almost ceased to live among humans (C) A natural area that is crucial to the survival of a species and thus eligible for federal protection (D) A wilderness area in which the "taking" of wildlife species is permitted rarely and only under strict federal regulation (E) A natural environment that is protected under law because its wildlife has a high economic value 45.According to the passage, which of the following is an explanation for the degree of support that the Endangered Species Act received in Congress? (A) Concern for the environment had gained increasing national popularity. (B) Ecological research had created new economic opportunities dependent on the survival of certain species. (C) Congress had long wanted to change the existing wildlife policy. (D) The growth of industry had endangered increasing numbers of wildlife species. (E) Legislators did not anticipate that the act could be effectively enforced. 46. It can be inferred from the passage that if business interests had won the debate on provisions of the 1973 Endangered Species Act, which of the following would have resulted? (A) Environmentalist concepts would not have become widely popular. (B) The definitions of key terms of the act would have been more restricted. (C) Enforcement of the act would have been more difficult. (D) The act would have had stronger support from Congressional leaders. (E) The public would have boycotted the industries that had the greatest impact in defining the act. 47. The author refers to the terms "wildlife" (line 11), "taking" (line 13), and "critical habitats" (line 16) most likely in order to (A) illustrate the misuse of scientific language and concepts in political processes (B) emphasize the importance of selecting precise language in transforming scientific concepts into law (C) represent terminology whose definition was crucial in writing environmentalist goals into law (D) demonstrate the triviality of the issues debated by industries before Congress passed the Endangered Species Act (E) show that broad definitions of key terms in many types of laws resulted in ambiguity and thus left room for disagreement about how the law should be enforced From the 1900's through the 1950's waitresses in the United States developed a form of unionism based on the unions' defending the skills that their occupation line included and enforcing standards for the performance (5) of those skills. This "occupational unionism" differed substantially from the "worksite unionism" prevalent among factory workers. Rather than unionizing the workforces of particular employers, waitress locals sought to control their occupation throughout a city. (10) Occupational unionism operated through union hiring halls, which provided free placement services to employers who agreed to hire their personnel only through the union. Hiring halls offered union wait- resses collective employment security, not individual (15) job security-a basic protection offered by worksite unions. That is, when a waitress lost her job, the local did not intervene with her employer but placed her elsewhere; and when jobs were scarce, the work hours available were distributed fairly among all members rather than being assigned according to seniority. 48. The primary purpose of the passage is to (A) analyze a current trend in relation to the past (B) discuss a particular solution to a long-standing problem (C) analyze changes in the way that certain standards have been enforced (D) apply a generalization to an unusual situation (E) describe an approach by contrasting it with another approach 49. Which of the following statements best summarizes a distinction mentioned in the passage between waitress unions and factory, workers' unions? (A) Waitress unions were more successful than factory workers' unions in that they were able to unionize whole cities. (B) Waitress unions had an impact on only certain local areas, whereas the impact of factory workers' unions was national. (C) Waitress union members held primarily, part-time positions, whereas factory workers' unions placed their members in full-time jobs. (D) Waitress unions emphasized the occupation of workers, whereas factory workers' unions emphasized the worksite at which workers were employed. (E) Waitress unions defined the skills of their trade, whereas the skills of factory trades were determined by employers' groups. 50. According to the passage, which of the following was characteristic of the form of union that United States waitresses developed in the first half of the twentieth century? (A) The union represented a wide variety of restaurant and hotel service occupations. (B) The union defined the skills required of waitresses and disciplined its members to meet certain standards. (C) The union billed employers for its members' work and distributed the earnings among all members. (D) The union negotiated the enforcement of occupational standards with each employer whose workforce joined the union. (E) The union ensured that a worker could not be laid off arbitrarily by an employer. 51. The author of the passage mentions "particular employers' (line 8) primarily in order to (A) suggest that occupational unions found some employers difficult to satisfy (B) indicate that the occupational unions served some employers but not others (C) emphasize the unique focus of occupational unionism (D) accentuate the hostility of some employers toward occupational unionism (E) point out a weakness of worksite unionism In prehistoric times brachiopods were one of the most abundant and diverse forms of life on Earth: more than 30,000 species of this clamlike creature line have been cataloged from fossil records. Today (5) brachiopods are not as numerous, and existing species are not well studied, partly because neither the animal's fleshy inner tissue nor its shell has any commercial value. Moreover, in contrast to the greater diversity of the extinct species, the approxi- (10) mately 300 known surviving species are relatively, uniform in appearance. Many zoologists have interpreted this as a sign that the animal has been unable to compete successfully with other marine organisms in the evolutionary struggle. (15) Several things, however, suggest that the conven- tional view needs revising. For example, the genus Lingula has an unbroken fossil record extending over more than half a billion years to the present. Thus, if longevity is any measure, brachiopods are the most (20) successful organisms extant. Further, recent studies suggest that diversity among species is a less impor- tant measure of evolutionary success than is the ability to withstand environmental change, such as when a layer of clay replaces sand on the ocean (25) bottom. The relatively greater uniformity among the existing brachiopod species may offer greater protec- tion from environmental change and hence may reflect highly successful adaptive behavior. The adaptive advantages of uniformity for brachio- (30) pods can be seen by considering specialization, a process that occurs as a result of prolonged coloniza- tion of a uniform substrate. Those that can survive on many surfaces are called generalists, while those that can survive on a limited range of substrates are called (35) specialists. One specialist species, for example, has valves weighted at the base, a characteristic that assures that the organism is properly positioned for feeding in mud and similar substrates; other species secrete glue allowing them to survive on the face of (40) underwater cliffs. The fossil record demonstrates that most brachiopod lineages have followed a trend toward increased specialization. However, during periods of environmental instability, when a partic- ula substrate to which a specialist species has (45) adapted is no longer available, the species quickly dies out. Generalists, on the other hand are not dependent on a particular substrate. and are thus less vulnerable to environmental change. One study of the fossil record revealed a mass extinction of brachiopods (50) following a change in sedimentation from chalk to clay. Of the 35 brachiopod species found in the chalk, only 6 survived in the clay, all of them generalists. As long as enough generalist species are main- tained, and studies of arctic and subarctic seas (55) suggest that generalists are often dominant members of the marine communities there, it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to extinction. 52. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with (A) rejecting an earlier explanation for the longevity of certain brachiopod species (B) reevaluating the implications of uniformity among existing brachiopod species (C) describing the varieties of environmental change to which brachiopods are vulnerable (D) reconciling opposing explanations for brachiopods' lack of evolutionary success (E) elaborating the mechanisms responsible for the tendency among brachiopod species toward specialization 53. The second paragraph makes use of which of the following? (A) Specific examples (B) Analogy (C) Metaphor (D) Quotation (E) Exaggeration 54. The author suggests that the scientists holding the conventional view mentioned in lines 15-16 make which of the following errors? (A) They mistakenly emphasize survival rather than diversity. (B) They misunderstand the causes of specialization. (C) They misuse zoological terminology. (D) They catalog fossilized remains improperly. (E) They overlook an alternative criterion of evolutionary success. 55. It can be inferred from the passage that the decision to study an organism may sometimes be influenced by (A) its practical or commercial benefits to society (B) the nature and prevalence of its fossilized remains (C) the relative convenience of its geographical distribution (D) its similarity to one or more better-known species (E) the degree of its physiological complexity 56. Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the author's claim (lines 56-57) that "it seems unlikely that the phylum is close to extinction"? (A) Generalist species now living in arctic waten give few if any indications of a tendency towards significant future specialization. (B) Zoologists have recently discovered that a common marine organism is a natural predator of brachiopods. (C) It was recently discovered that certain brachiopod species are almost always concentrated near areas rich in offshore oil deposits. (D) The ratio of specialist to Generalist species is slowly but steadily increasing. (E) It is easier for a brachiopod to survive a change in sedimentation than a change in water temperature. 57. Information in the passage supports which of the following statements about brachiopods? Ⅰ. Few brachiopods living in prehistoric times were specialists. Ⅱ. A tendency toward specialization, though typical, is not inevitable. Ⅲ. Specialist species dominate in all but arctic and subarctic waters. (A) I only (B) II only (C) II and III only (D) I and III only (E) I, II and III Since some of the questions require you to distinguish Fine shades of meaning, be sure to consider all the choices before deciding which one is best. Eight times within the pat million years, some- thing in the Earth's climatic equation has changed. allowing snow in the mountains and the northern Line latitudes to accumulate from one season to the next (5) instead of melting away. Each time, the enormous ice sheets resulting from this continual buildup lasted tens of thousands of years until the end of each particular glacial cycle brought a warmer climate. Scientists speculated that these glacial cycles were ultimately (10) driven by astronomical factors: slow, cyclic changes in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and in the tilt and orientation of its spin axis. But up until around 30 years ago, the lack of an independent record of ice- age timing made the hypothesis untestable. (15) Then in the early 1950's Emiliani produced the first complete record of the waxings and wanings of past glaciations. It came from a seemingly odd place. the seafloor. Single-cell marine organisms called "foraminifera" house themselves in shells made (20) from calcium carbonate. When the foraminifera die. sink to the bottom, and become part of seafloor sedi- ments, the carbonate of their shells preserves certain characteristics of the seawater they inhabited. In particular, the ratio of a heavy, isotope of oxygen (25) (oxygen-18) to ordinary oxygen (oxygen- 16) in the carbonate preserves the ratio of the two oxygens in water molecules. It is now understood that the ratio of oxygen iso- topes in seawater closely reflects the proportion of (30) the world's water locked up in glaciers and ice sheets. A kind of meteorological distillation accounts for the link. Water molecules containing the heavier isotope tend to condense and fall as precipitation slightly sooner than molecules containing the lighter isotope. (35) Hence, as water vapor evaporated from warm oceans moves away from its source. its oxygen -18 returns more quickly to the oceans than does its oxygen-16. What falls as snow on distant ice sheets and mountain glaciers is relatively depleted of oxygen -18. As the (40) oxygen-18-poor ice builds up the oceans become relatively enriched in the Isotope. The larger the ice sheets grow, the higher the proportion of oxygen-18 becomes in seawater- and hence in the sediments. Analyzing cores drilled from seafloor sediments, (45) Emiliani found that the isotopic ratio rose and fell in rough accord with the Earth's astronomical cycles. Since that pioneering observation, oxygen-isotope measurements have been made on hundreds of cores A chronology for the combined record enables scien- (50) tists to show that the record contains the very same periodicities as the orbital processes. Over the past 800,000 years, the global ice volume has peaked every 100,000 years, matching the period of the orbital eccentricity variation. In addition, "wrinkles" (55) superposed on each cycle -small decreases or surges in ice volume - have come at intervals of roughly 23,000 and 41,000 years, in keeping with the pre- cession and tilt frequencies of the Earth's spin axis. 58. It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following is true of the water locked in glaciers and ice sheets today? (A) It is richer in oxygen- 18 than frozen water was during past glacial periods. (B) It is primarily located in the northern latitudes of the Earth. (C) Its ratio of oxygen isotopes is the same as that prevalent in seawater during the last ice age. (D) It is steadily decreasing in amount due to increased thawing during summer months. (E) In comparison with seawater, it is relatively poor in oxygen-18. 59. The discussion of the oxygen-isotope ratios in paragraph three of the passage suggests that which of the following must be assumed if the conclusions described in lines 49-58 are to be validly drawn? (A) The Earth's overall annual precipitation rates do not dramatically increase or decrease over time. (B) The various chemicals dissolved in seawater have had the same concentrations over the past million years. (C) Natural processes unrelated to ice formation do not result in the formation of large quantities of oxygen- 18. (D) Water molecules falling as precipitation usually fall on the open ocean rather than on continents or polar ice packs. (E) Increases in global temperature do not increase the amount of water that evaporates from the oceans. 60. The passage suggests that the scientists who first constructed a coherent. continuous picture of past variations in marine-sediment isotope ratios did which of the following? (A) Relied primarily on the data obtained from the analysis of Emiliani's core samples. (B) Combined data derived from the analysis of many different core samples. (C) Matched the data obtained by geologists with that provided by astronomers. (D) Evaluated the isotope-ratio data obtained in several areas in order to eliminate all but the most reliable data. (E) Compared data obtained from core samples in many different marine environments with data samples derived from polar ice caps. Before Laura Gilpin (1891-1979), few women in the history of photography had so devoted themselves to chronicling the landscape. Other women had photo- line graphed the land, but none can be regarded as a land- (5) scape photographer with a sustained body of work documenting the physical terrain. Anne Brigman often photographed woodlands and coastal areas, but They were generally settings for her artfully placed subjects. Dorothea Lange's landscapes were always (10) conceived of as counterparts to her portraits of rural women. At the same time that Gilpin's interest in landscape work distinguished her from most other women pho- tographers, her approach to landscape photography set (15) her apart from men photographers who, like Gilpin, documented the western United States. Western American landscape photography grew out of a male tradition, pioneered by photographers attached to government and commercial survey teams that went (20) west in the 1860's and 1870's. These explorer- photographers documented the West that their employers wanted to see: an exotic and majestic land shaped by awesome natural forces, unpopulated and ready for American settlement. The next generation (25) of male photographers, represented by Ansel Adams and Eliot Porter, often worked with conservationist groups rather than government agencies or commer- cial companies, but they nonetheless preserved the "heroic" style and maintained the role of respectful (30) outsider peering in with reverence at a fragile natural world. For Gilpin, by contrast, the landscape was neither an empty vista awaiting human settlement nor a jewel-like scene resisting human intrusion, but a (35) peopled landscape with a rich history and tradition of its own, an environment that shaped and molded the lives of its inhabitants. Her photographs of the Rio Grande, for example, consistently depict the river in terms of its significance to human culture: as a source (40) of irrigation water, a source of food for livestock, and a provider of town sites. Also instructive is Gilpin's general avoidance of extreme close-ups of her natural subjects: for her, emblematic details could never suggest the intricacies of the interrelationship between (45) people and nature that made the landscape a compel- ling subject. While it is dangerous to draw conclusions about a"feminine" way of seeing from the work of one woman, it can nonetheless be argued that Gilpin's unique approach to landscape photography was anal- (50) ogous to the work of many women writers who, far more than their male counterparts, described the land- scape in terms of its potential to sustain human life. Gilpin never spoke of herself as a photographer with a feminine perspective: she eschewed any (55) discussion of gender as it related to her work and maintained little interest in interpretations that relied on the concept of a "woman's eye." Thus it is ironic that her photographic evocation of a historical landscape should so clearly present a distinctively feminine approach to landscape photography. 61. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage? (A) Gilpin's landscape photographs more accurately documented the Southwest than did the photographs of explorers and conservationists. (B) Gilpin's style of landscape photography substantially influenced the heroic style practiced by her male counterparts. (C) The labeling of Gilpin's style of landscape photography as feminine ignores important ties between it and the heroic style. (D) Gilpin's work exemplifies an arguably feminine style of landscape photography that contrasts with the style used by her male predecessors. (E) Gilpin's style was strongly influenced by the work of women writers who described the landscape in terms of its relationship to people. 62. It can be inferred from the passage that the teams mentioned in line 19 were most interested in which of the following aspects of the land in the western United States? (A) Its fragility in the face of increased human intrusion (B) Its role in shaping the lives of indigenous peoples (C) Its potential for sustaining future settlements (D) Its importance as an environment for RARE PLANTS AND ANIMALS (E) Its unusual vulnerability to extreme natural forces 63.The passage suggests that a photographer who practiced the heroic style would be most likely to emphasize which of the following in a photographic series focusing on the Rio Grande ? (A) Indigenous people and their ancient customs relating to the river (B) The exploits of navigators and explorers (C) Unpopulated, pristine parts of the river and its surroundings (D) Existing commercial ventures that relied heavily on the river (E) The dams and other monumental engineering structures built on the river 64. Based on the description of her works in the passage, which of the following would most likely be a subject for a photograph taken by Gilpin? (A) A vista of a canyon still untouched by human culture (B) A portrait of a visitor to the West against a desert backdrop (C) A view of historic Native American dwellings carved into the side of a natural cliff (D) A picture of artifacts from the West being transported to the eastern United States for retail sale (E) An abstract pattern created by the shadows of clouds on the desert keys： (1-30)CBEEE CDDED DABCE CEECD CCEDA ECCCA (31-60)EBECB EBCBA EAECA BCEDB CBAEA ABECB (61-64)DCCC E?EAE CDDBD DABAE CEECD ACE DAECC CAEBE DBEDC BCEAE CABCE DBCB，AEAAB, ECB, DCCC