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The Doctrine of the Mean
By Confucius
What Heaven has conferred is called The Nature; an accordance with
this nature is called The Path of duty; the regulation of this path
is called Instruction.
The path may not be left for an instant. If it could be left, it would
not be the path. On this account, the superior man does not wait till
he sees things, to be cautious, nor till he hears things, to be apprehensive.
There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more
manifest than what is minute. Therefore the superior man is watchful
over himself, when he is alone.
While there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, or joy, the
mind may be said to be in the state of Equilibrium. When those feelings
have been stirred, and they act in their due degree, there ensues
what may be called the state of Harmony. This Equilibrium is the great
root from which grow all the human actings in the world, and this
Harmony is the universal path which they all should pursue.
Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and
a happy order will prevail throughout heaven and earth, and all things
will be nourished and flourish.
Chung-ni said, "The superior man embodies the course of the Mean;
the mean man acts contrary to the course of the Mean.
"The superior man's embodying the course of the Mean is because he
is a superior man, and so always maintains the Mean. The mean man's
acting contrary to the course of the Mean is because he is a mean
man, and has no caution."
The Master said, "Perfect is the virtue which is according to the
Mean! Rare have they long been among the people, who could practice
it!
The Master said, "I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not
walked in:-The knowing go beyond it, and the stupid do not come up
to it. I know how it is that the path of the Mean is not understood:-The
men of talents and virtue go beyond it, and the worthless do not come
up to it.
"There is no body but eats and drinks. But they are few who can distinguish
flavors."
The Master said, "Alas! How is the path of the Mean untrodden!"
The Master said, "There was Shun:-He indeed was greatly wise! Shun
loved to question others, and to study their words, though they might
be shallow. He concealed what was bad in them and displayed what was
good. He took hold of their two extremes, determined the Mean, and
employed it in his government of the people. It was by this that he
was Shun!"
The Master said "Men all say, 'We are wise'; but being driven forward
and taken in a net, a trap, or a pitfall, they know not how to escape.
Men all say, 'We are wise'; but happening to choose the course of
the Mean, they are not able to keep it for a round month."
The Master said "This was the manner of Hui:-he made choice of the
Mean, and whenever he got hold of what was good, he clasped it firmly,
as if wearing it on his breast, and did not lose it."
The Master said, "The kingdom, its states, and its families, may be
perfectly ruled; dignities and emoluments may be declined; naked weapons
may be trampled under the feet; but the course of the Mean cannot
be attained to."
Tsze-lu asked about energy.
The Master said, "Do you mean the energy of the South, the energy
of the North, or the energy which you should cultivate yourself?
"To show forbearance and gentleness in teaching others; and not to
revenge unreasonable conduct:-this is the energy of southern regions,
and the good man makes it his study.
"To lie under arms; and meet death without regret:-this is the energy
of northern regions, and the forceful make it their study.
"Therefore, the superior man cultivates a friendly harmony, without
being weak.-How firm is he in his energy! He stands erect in the middle,
without inclining to either side.-How firm is he in his energy! When
good principles prevail in the government of his country, he does
not change from what he was in retirement. How firm is he in his energy!
When bad principles prevail in the country, he maintains his course
to death without changing.-How firm is he in his energy!"
The Master said, "To live in obscurity, and yet practice wonders,
in order to be mentioned with honor in future ages:-this is what I
do not do.
"The good man tries to proceed according to the right path, but when
he has gone halfway, he abandons it:-I am not able so to stop.
"The superior man accords with the course of the Mean. Though he may
be all unknown, unregarded by the world, he feels no regret.-It is
only the sage who is able for this."
The way which the superior man pursues, reaches wide and far, and
yet is secret.
Common men and women, however ignorant, may intermeddle with the knowledge
of it; yet in its utmost reaches, there is that which even the sage
does not know. Common men and women, however much below the ordinary
standard of character, can carry it into practice; yet in its utmost
reaches, there is that which even the sage is not able to carry into
practice. Great as heaven and earth are, men still find some things
in them with which to be dissatisfied. Thus it is that, were the superior
man to speak of his way in all its greatness, nothing in the world
would be found able to embrace it, and were he to speak of it in its
minuteness, nothing in the world would be found able to split it.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "The hawk flies up to heaven; the
fishes leap in the deep." This expresses how this way is seen above
and below.
The way of the superior man may be found, in its simple elements,
in the intercourse of common men and women; but in its utmost reaches,
it shines brightly through Heaven and earth.
The Master said "The path is not far from man. When men try to pursue
a course, which is far from the common indications of consciousness,
this course cannot be considered The Path.
"In the Book of Poetry, it is said, 'In hewing an ax handle, in hewing
an ax handle, the pattern is not far off. We grasp one ax handle to
hew the other; and yet, if we look askance from the one to the other,
we may consider them as apart. Therefore, the superior man governs
men, according to their nature, with what is proper to them, and as
soon as they change what is wrong, he stops.
"When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and
exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from
the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to
others.
"In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not one
of which have I as yet attained.-To serve my father, as I would require
my son to serve me: to this I have not attained; to serve my prince
as I would require my minister to serve me: to this I have not attained;
to serve my elder brother as I would require my younger brother to
serve me: to this I have not attained; to set the example in behaving
to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me: to this I have
not attained. Earnest in practicing the ordinary virtues, and careful
in speaking about them, if, in his practice, he has anything defective,
the superior man dares not but exert himself; and if, in his words,
he has any excess, he dares not allow himself such license. Thus his
words have respect to his actions, and his actions have respect to
his words; is it not just an entire sincerity which marks the superior
man?"
The superior man does what is proper to the station in which he is;
he does not desire to go beyond this.
In a position of wealth and honor, he does what is proper to a position
of wealth and honor. In a poor and low position, he does what is proper
to a poor and low position. Situated among barbarous tribes, he does
what is proper to a situation among barbarous tribes. In a position
of sorrow and difficulty, he does what is proper to a position of
sorrow and difficulty. The superior man can find himself in no situation
in which he is not himself.
In a high situation, he does not treat with contempt his inferiors.
In a low situation, he does not court the favor of his superiors.
He rectifies himself, and seeks for nothing from others, so that he
has no dissatisfactions. He does not murmur against Heaven, nor grumble
against men.
Thus it is that the superior man is quiet and calm, waiting for the
appointments of Heaven, while the mean man walks in dangerous paths,
looking for lucky occurrences.
The Master said, "In archery we have something like the way of the
superior man. When the archer misses the center of the target, he
turns round and seeks for the cause of his failure in himself."
The way of the superior man may be compared to what takes place in
traveling, when to go to a distance we must first traverse the space
that is near, and in ascending a height, when we must begin from the
lower ground.
It is said in the Book of Poetry, "Happy union with wife and children
is like the music of lutes and harps. When there is concord among
brethren, the harmony is delightful and enduring. Thus may you regulate
your family, and enjoy the pleasure of your wife and children."
The Master said, "In such a state of things, parents have entire complacence!"
The Master said, "How abundantly do spiritual beings display the powers
that belong to them!
"We look for them, but do not see them; we listen to, but do not hear
them; yet they enter into all things, and there is nothing without
them.
"They cause all the people in the kingdom to fast and purify themselves,
and array themselves in their richest dresses, in order to attend
at their sacrifices. Then, like overflowing water, they seem to be
over the heads, and on the right and left of their worshippers.
"It is said in the Book of Poetry, 'The approaches of the spirits,
you cannot sunrise; and can you treat them with indifference?'
"Such is the manifestness of what is minute! Such is the impossibility
of repressing the outgoings of sincerity!"
The Master said, "How greatly filial was Shun! His virtue was that
of a sage; his dignity was the throne; his riches were all within
the four seas. He offered his sacrifices in his ancestral temple,
and his descendants preserved the sacrifices to himself.
"Therefore having such great virtue, it could not but be that he should
obtain the throne, that he should obtain those riches, that he should
obtain his fame, that he should attain to his long life.
"Thus it is that Heaven, in the production of things, is sure to be
bountiful to them, according to their qualities. Hence the tree that
is flourishing, it nourishes, while that which is ready to fall, it
overthrows.
"In the Book of Poetry, it is said, 'The admirable amiable prince
displayed conspicuously his excelling virtue, adjusting his people,
and adjusting his officers. Therefore, he received from Heaven his
emoluments of dignity. It protected him, assisted him, decreed him
the throne; sending from Heaven these favors, as it were repeatedly.'
"We may say therefore that he who is greatly virtuous will be sure
to receive the appointment of Heaven."
The Master said, "It is only King Wan of whom it can be said that
he had no cause for grief! His father was King Chi, and his son was
King Wu. His father laid the foundations of his dignity, and his son
transmitted it.
"King Wu continued the enterprise of King T'ai, King Chi, and King
Wan. He once buckled on his armor, and got possession of the kingdom.
He did not lose the distinguished personal reputation which he had
throughout the kingdom. His dignity was the royal throne. His riches
were the possession of all within the four seas. He offered his sacrifices
in his ancestral temple, and his descendants maintained the sacrifices
to himself.
"It was in his old age that King Wu received the appointment to the
throne, and the duke of Chau completed the virtuous course of Wan
and Wu. He carried up the title of king to T'ai and Chi, and sacrificed
to all the former dukes above them with the royal ceremonies. And
this rule he extended to the princes of the kingdom, the great officers,
the scholars, and the common people. If the father were a great officer
and the son a scholar, then the burial was that due to a great officer,
and the sacrifice that due to a scholar. If the father were a scholar
and the son a great officer, then the burial was that due to a scholar,
and the sacrifice that due to a great officer. The one year's mourning
was made to extend only to the great officers, but the three years'
mourning extended to the Son of Heaven. In the mourning for a father
or mother, he allowed no difference between the noble and the mean.
The Master said, "How far-extending was the filial piety of King Wu
and the duke of Chau!
"Now filial piety is seen in the skillful carrying out of the wishes
of our forefathers, and the skillful carrying forward of their undertakings.
"In spring and autumn, they repaired and beautified the temple halls
of their fathers, set forth their ancestral vessels, displayed their
various robes, and presented the offerings of the several seasons.
"By means of the ceremonies of the ancestral temple, they distinguished
the royal kindred according to their order of descent. By ordering
the parties present according to their rank, they distinguished the
more noble and the less. By the arrangement of the services, they
made a distinction of talents and worth. In the ceremony of general
pledging, the inferiors presented the cup to their superiors, and
thus something was given the lowest to do. At the concluding feast,
places were given according to the hair, and thus was made the distinction
of years.
"They occupied the places of their forefathers, practiced their ceremonies,
and performed their music. They reverenced those whom they honored,
and loved those whom they regarded with affection. Thus they served
the dead as they would have served them alive; they served the departed
as they would have served them had they been continued among them.
"By the ceremonies of the sacrifices to Heaven and Earth they served
God, and by the ceremonies of the ancestral temple they sacrificed
to their ancestors. He who understands the ceremonies of the sacrifices
to Heaven and Earth, and the meaning of the several sacrifices to
ancestors, would find the government of a kingdom as easy as to look
into his palm!"
The Duke Ai asked about government.
The Master said, "The government of Wan and Wu is displayed in the
records,-the tablets of wood and bamboo. Let there be the men and
the government will flourish; but without the men, their government
decays and ceases.
"With the right men the growth of government is rapid, just as vegetation
is rapid in the earth; and, moreover, their government might be called
an easily-growing rush.
"Therefore the administration of government lies in getting proper
men. Such men are to be got by means of the ruler's own character.
That character is to be cultivated by his treading in the ways of
duty. And the treading those ways of duty is to be cultivated by the
cherishing of benevolence.
"Benevolence is the characteristic element of humanity, and the great
exercise of it is in loving relatives. Righteousness is the accordance
of actions with what is right, and the great exercise of it is in
honoring the worthy. The decreasing measures of the love due to relatives,
and the steps in the honor due to the worthy, are produced by the
principle of propriety.
"When those in inferior situations do not possess the confidence of
their superiors, they cannot retain the government of the people.
"Hence the sovereign may not neglect the cultivation of his own character.
Wishing to cultivate his character, he may not neglect to serve his
parents. In order to serve his parents, he may not neglect to acquire
knowledge of men. In order to know men, he may not dispense with a
knowledge of Heaven.
"The duties of universal obligation are five and the virtues wherewith
they are practiced are three. The duties are those between sovereign
and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between
elder brother and younger, and those belonging to the intercourse
of friends. Those five are the duties of universal obligation. Knowledge,
magnanimity, and energy, these three, are the virtues universally
binding. And the means by which they carry the duties into practice
is singleness.
"Some are born with the knowledge of those duties; some know them
by study; and some acquire the knowledge after a painful feeling of
their ignorance. But the knowledge being possessed, it comes to the
same thing. Some practice them with a natural ease; some from a desire
for their advantages; and some by strenuous effort. But the achievement
being made, it comes to the same thing."
The Master said, "To be fond of learning is to be near to knowledge.
To practice with vigor is to be near to magnanimity. To possess the
feeling of shame is to be near to energy.
"He who knows these three things knows how to cultivate his own character.
Knowing how to cultivate his own character, he knows how to govern
other men. Knowing how to govern other men, he knows how to govern
the kingdom with all its states and families.
"All who have the government of the kingdom with its states and families
have nine standard rules to follow;-viz., the cultivation of their
own characters; the honoring of men of virtue and talents; affection
towards their relatives; respect towards the great ministers; kind
and considerate treatment of the whole body of officers; dealing with
the mass of the people as children; encouraging the resort of all
classes of artisans; indulgent treatment of men from a distance; and
the kindly cherishing of the princes of the states.
"By the ruler's cultivation of his own character, the duties of universal
obligation are set forth. By honoring men of virtue and talents, he
is preserved from errors of judgment. By showing affection to his
relatives, there is no grumbling nor resentment among his uncles and
brethren. By respecting the great ministers, he is kept from errors
in the practice of government. By kind and considerate treatment of
the whole body of officers, they are led to make the most grateful
return for his courtesies. By dealing with the mass of the people
as his children, they are led to exhort one another to what is good.
By encouraging the resort of an classes of artisans, his resources
for expenditure are rendered ample. By indulgent treatment of men
from a distance, they are brought to resort to him from all quarters.
And by kindly cherishing the princes of the states, the whole kingdom
is brought to revere him.
"Self-adjustment and purification, with careful regulation of his
dress, and the not making a movement contrary to the rules of propriety
this is the way for a ruler to cultivate his person. Discarding slanderers,
and keeping himself from the seductions of beauty; making light of
riches, and giving honor to virtue-this is the way for him to encourage
men of worth and talents. Giving them places of honor and large emolument.
and sharing with them in their likes and dislikes-this is the way
for him to encourage his relatives to love him. Giving them numerous
officers to discharge their orders and commissions:-this is the way
for him to encourage the great ministers. According to them a generous
confidence, and making their emoluments large:-this is the way to
encourage the body of officers. Employing them only at the proper
times, and making the imposts light:-this is the way to encourage
the people. By daily examinations and monthly trials, and by making
their rations in accor
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