费耶阿本德

AgainstMthodFourthEditionPaulFyrabndVERSOLondonNwYorkAnalyticalIndxBingaSktchofthMainArgumntIntrodnction1Scincisanssntiallyanarchicntrpris:thorticalanarchismismorhumanitarianandmorliklytoncouragprogrssthanitslawandordraltrnatis.17Thisisshownbothbyanxaminationofhistoricalpisodsandbyanabstractanalysisofthrlationbtwnidaandaction.Thonlyprinciplthatdosnotinhibitprogrssis:anythinggos.213Forxampl,wmayushypothssthatcontradictwllconfirmdthorisandorwllstablishdxprimntalrsults.Wmayadancscincbyprocdingcountrinductily.317Thconsistncyconditionwhichdmandsthatnwhypothssagrwithaccptdthorisisunrasonablbcausitprsrstholdrthory,andnotthbttrthory.Hypothsscontradictingwllconfirmdthorisgiusidncthatcannotbobtaindinanyothrway.Prolifrationofthorisisbnficialforscinc,whiluniformityimpairsitscriticalpowr.Uniformityalsondangrsthfrdlopmntofthindiidual.4Thrisnoida,howrancintandabsurd,thatisnotcapablofimproingourknowldg.Thwholhistoryofthoughtisabsorbdintoscincandisusdforimproingrysinglthory.Norispoliticalintrfrncrjctd.Itmaybnddtoorcomthchauinismofscincthatrsistsaltrnatistothstatusquo.xxxANALYTICALINDEX533Nothoryragrswithallthfactsinitsdomain,ytitisnotalwaysththorythatistoblam.Factsarconstitutdbyoldridologis,andaclashbtwnfactsandthorismaybproofofprogrss.Itisalsoafirststpinourattmpttofindthprinciplsimplicitinfamiliarobsrationalnotions.649AsanxamplofsuchanattmptIxaminthtowrargumntwhichthAristotliansusdtorfutthmotionoftharth.Thargumntinolsnaturalintrprtationsidassocloslyconnctdwithobsrationsthatitndsaspcialfforttoralizthirxistncandtodtrminthircontnt.GaliloidntifisthnaturalintrprtationswhicharinconsistntwithCoprnicusandrplacsthmbyothrs.76Thnwnaturalintrprtationsconstitutanwandhighlyabstractobsrationlanguag.Thyarintroducdandconcaldsothatonfailstonoticthchangthathastaknplac(mthodofanamnsis).Thycontainthidaofthrlatiityofallmotionandthlawofcircularinrtia.874Inadditiontonaturalintrprtations,GaliloalsochangssnsationsthatsmtondangrCoprnicus.Hadmitsthatthrarsuchsnsations,hpraissCoprnicusforhaingdisrgarddthm,hclaimstoharmodthmwiththhlpofthtlscop.Howr,hoffrsnothorticalrasonswhythtlscopshouldbxpctdtogiatrupicturofthsky.983Nordosthinitialxprincwiththtlscopproidsuchrasons.Thfirsttlscopicobsrationsofthskyarindistinct,indtrminat,contradictoryandinconflictwithwhatryoncanswithhisunaiddys.AndthonlythorythatcouldhahlpdtosparattlscopiCillusionsfromridicalphnomnawasrfutdbysimpltsts.ANALYTICALINDEXXXXI10101Onthothrhand,thrarsomtlscopicphnomnawhicharplainlyCoprnican.GalilointroducsthsphnomnaasindpndntidncforCoprnicuswhilthsituationisrathrthatonrfutdiwCoprnicanismhasacrtainsimilaritywithphnomnamrgingfromanothrrfutdiwthidathattlscopicphnomnaarfaithfulimagsofthsky.11105Such'irrational'mthodsofsupportarnddbcausofth'unndlopmnt'(Marx,Lnin)ofdiffrntpartsofscinc.Coprnicanismandothrssntialingrdintsofmodrnscincsuridonlybcausrasonwasfrquntlyorruldinthirpast.12123Galilo'smthodworksinothrfildsaswll.Forxampl,itcanbusdtoliminatthxistingargumntsagainstmatrialism,andtoputanndtothphilosophicalmindbodyproblm(thcorrspondingscintificproblmsrmainuntouchd,howr).Itdosnotfollowthatitshouldbunirsallyapplid.13125ThChurchatthtimofGalilonotonlykptclosrtorasonasdfindthnand,inpart,nnow:italsoconsidrdththicalandsocialconsquncsofGalilo'siws.ItsindictmntofGalilowasrationalandonlyopportunismandalackofprspcticandmandarision.14135Galilo'sinquirisformdonlyasmallpartofthsocalldCoprnicanRolution.Addingthrmaininglmntsmaksitstillmordifficulttorconcilthdlopmntwithfamiliarprinciplsofthoryaluation.15149Thrsultsobtaindsofarsuggstabolishingthdistinctionbtwnacontxtofdiscoryandacontxtofjustification,normsandfacts,obsrationaltrmsandthorticaltrms.Nonofthsdistinctionsplaysarolinscintificpractic.Attmptstonforcthmwouldhadisastrousconsquncs.Poppr'scriticalrationalismfailsforthsamrasons.XXXllANALYTICALINDEXAppndix116169Finally,thkindofcomparisonthatundrlismostmthodologisispossiblonlyinsomrathrsimplcass.Itbraksdownwhnwtrytocomparnonscintificiwswithscincandwhnwconsidrthmostadancd,mostgnralandthrformostmythologicalpartsofscincitslf.Appndix221717223Nithrscincnorrationalityarunirsalmasursofxcllnc.Thyarparticulartraditions,unawarofthirhistoricalgrounding.18241Ytitispossibltoaluatstandardsofmtionalityandtoimprothm.Thprinciplsofimpromntarnithrabotraditionnorbyondchanganditisimpossibltonailthmdown.19249Scincisnithrasingltradition,northbsttraditionthris,xcptforpoplwhohabcomaccustomdtoitsprsnc,itsbnfitsanditsdisadantags.Inadmocracyitshouldbsparatdfromthstatjustaschurchsarnowsparatdfromthstat.W2Thpointofiwundrlyingthisboolisnotthrsultofawllplanndtrainofthoughtbutofargumntspromptdbyaccidntalncountrs.Angratthwantondstructionofculturalachimntsfromwhichwallcouldhalarnd,atthconcitdassurancwithwhichsomintllctualsintrfrwiththlisofpopl,andcontmptforthtraclyphrassthyustombllishthirmisdds,wasandstillisthmotiforcbhindmywork.IntroductionScincisanssntiallyanarchicntrpris:thorticalanarchismismorhumanitarianandmorliklytoncouragprogrssthanitslawandordraltrnatis.Ordnungisthutzutagmistnsdort,wonichtsist.EsistinManglrschinung.Brcht'Thfollowingssayiswrittninthconictionthatanarchism,whilprhapsnotthmostattractipoliticalphilosophy,iscrtainlyxcllntmdicinforpistmology,andforthphilosophyofscinc.'Thrasonisnotdifficulttofind.(Historygnrally,andthhistoryofrolutioninparticular,isalwaysrichrincontnt,morarid,mormanysidd,morlilyandsubtlthann'thbsthistorianandthbstmthodologistcanimagin.'Historyisfullof(accidntsandconjunctursandcuriousjuxtapositionsofnts'landitdmonstratstousth'complxityofhumanchangandthunprdictablcharactrofthultimatconsquncsofanyginactordcisionofmn:3Arwrallytoblithatthnaiandsimplminddrulswhichmthodologiststakasthirguidarcapablofaccountingforsucha'mazofintractions'?4Andisitnot1.'Historyasawhol,andthhistoryofrolutionsinparticular,isalwaysrichrincontnt,morarid,mormultiform,morlilyandingniousthanisimagindbynthbstpartis,thmostconsciousanguardsofthmostadancdclasss'(V.LLnin,'LftWingCommunismAnInfantilDisordr:SlctdWorks,Vol.3,London,1967,p.401).Lninisaddrssingpartisandrolutionaryanguardsrathrthanscintistsandmthodologists;thlsson,howr,isthsam.Cf.footnot5.2.HrbrtButtrfild,ThWhigIntrprtationofHistory,NwYork,1965,p.66.3.Ibid.,p.21.4.Ibid.,p.25,cf.Hgl,Philosophidl'Gschicht,Wrk,Vol.9,d.EdwardGans,Brlin,1837,p.9:'Butwhatxprincandhistorytachusisthis,thatnationsandgornmntshanrlarndanythingfromhistory,oractdaccordingtorulsthatmighthadridfromit.Erypriodhassuchpculiarcircumstancs,isinsuchanindiidualstat,thatdcisionswillhatobmad,anddcisionscanonlybmad,initandoutofit:'Vryclr';'shrwdandryclr';'NB'writsLnininhismarginalnotstothispassag.(CollctdWorks,Vol.38,London,1961,p.307.)2AGAINSTMETHODclarthatsuccssfulparticipationinaprocssofthiskindispossiblonlyforaruthlssopportunistwhoisnottidtoanyparticularphilosophyandwhoadoptswhatrprocdursmstofitthoccasion?Thisisinddthconclusionthathasbndrawnbyintlligntandthoughtfulobsrrs.'Tworyimportantpracticalconclusionsfollowfromthis[charactrofthhistoricalprocss]:writsLnin,5continuingthpassagfromwhichIhajustquotd.'First,thatinordrtofulfilitstask,throlutionaryclass[L.thclassofthoswhowanttochangithrapartofsocitysuchasscinc,orsocityasawhol]mustbabltomastrallformsoraspctsofsocialactiitywithoutxcption[itmustbabltoundrstand,andtoapply,notonlyonparticularmthodology,butanymthodology,andanyariationthrofitcanimagin];scond[it]mustbradytopassfromontoanothrinthquickstandmostunxpctdmannr:'Thxtrnalconditions',writsEinstin,6'whicharstfor[thscintist]bythfactsofxprincdonotprmithimtolthimslfbtoomuchrstrictd,inthconstructionofhisconcptualworld,bythadhrnctoanpistmologicalsystm.H,thrfor,mustappartothsystmaticpistmologistasatypofunscrupulousopportunist:Acomplxmdiumcontainingsurprisingandunforsndlopmntsdmandscomplxprocdursanddfisanalysisonthbasisofrulswhich5.Ibid.Wshrryclarlyhowafwsubstitutionscanturnapoliticallssonintoalssonformthodology.Thisisnotatallsurprising.MthodologyandpoliticSarbothmansformoingfromonhistoricalstagtoanothr.Walsoshowanindiidual,suchasLnin,whoisnotintimidatdbytraditionalboundarisandwhosthoughtisnottidtothidologyofaparticularprofssion,cangiusfuladictoryon,philosophrsofscincincludd.Inth'19thcnturythidaofanlasticandhistoricallyinformdmthodologywasamattrofcours.ThusErnstMachwrotinhisbookErknntnistll1dIrrtum,Nudruck,WissnschaftlichBuchgsllschaft,Darmstadt,1980,p.200:'Itisoftnsaidthatrsarchcannotbtaught.Thatisquitcorrct,inacrtainsns.Thschmataofformallogicandofinductilogicaroflittlusforthintllctualsituationsarnrxactlythsam.Butthxamplsofgratscintistsarrysuggsti:Thyarnotsuggstibcauswcanabstractrulsfromthmandsubjctfuturrsarchtothirjurisdiction;thyarsuggstibcausthymakthmindnimblandcapablofinntingntirlynwrsarchtraditions.ForamordtaildaccountofMach'sphilosophysmyssayFarwlltoRasoll,London,1987,Chaptr7,aswllasVol.2,Chaptrs5and6ofmyPhilosophicalPaprs,Cambridg,1981.6.AlbrtEinstin,AlbrtEinstin:PhilosophrScintist,d.P.A.Schilpp,NwYork,1951,pp.683f.PAULFEYERABEND3habnstupinadancandwithoutrgardtothrchangingconditionsofhistory.Nowitis,ofcours,possibltosimplifythmdiuminwhichascintistworksbysimplifyingitsmainactors.Thhistoryofscinc,aftrall,dosnotjustconsistoffactsandconclusionsdrawnfromfacts.Italsocontainsidas,intrprtationsoffacts,problmscratdbyconflictingintrprtations,mistaks,andsoon.Onclosranalysiswnfindthatscincknowsno'barfacts'atallbutthatth'facts'thatntrourknowldgaralradyiwdinacrtainwayandar,thrfor,ssntiallyidational.Thisbingthcas,thhistoryofscincwillbascomplx,chaotic,fullofmistaks,andntrtainingasthidasitcontains,andthsidasinturnwillbascomplx,chaotic,fullofmistaks,andntrtainingasarthmindsofthoswhoinntdthm.Conrsly,alittlbrainwashingwillgoalongwayinmaltingthhistoryofscincdullr,simplr,moruniform,mor'objcti'andmorasilyaccssibltotratmntbystrictandunchangablruls.Scintificducationaswknowittodayhasprcislythisaim.Itsimplifis'scinc'bysimplifyingitsparticipants:first,adomainofrsarchisdfind.Thdomainissparatdfromthrstofhistory(physics,forxampl,issparatdfrommtaphysicsandfromthology)andgina'logic'ofitsown.Athoroughtraininginsucha'logic'thnconditionsthosworltinginthdomain;itmaksthiractionsmoruniformanditfrzslargpartsofthhistoricalprocssaswll.Stabl'facts'arisandprsrdspitthicissitudsofhistory.Anssntialpartofthtrainingthatmakssuchfactsapparconsistsinthattmpttoinhibitintuitionsthatmightladtoablurringofboundaris.Aprson'srligion,forxampl,orhismtaphysics,orhissnsofhumour(hisnaturalsnsofhumourandnotthinbrdandalwaysrathrnastyltindofjocularityonfindsinspcializdprofssions)mustnothathslightstconnctionwithhisscintificactiity.Hisimaginationisrstraind,andnhislanguagcasstobhisown.Thisisagainrflctdinthnaturofscintific'facts'whicharxprincdasbingindpndntofopinion,blif,andculturalbackground.Itisthuspossibltocratatraditionthatishldtogthrbystrictruls,andthatisalsosuccssfultosomxtnt.Butisitdsirabltosupportsuchatraditiontothxclusionofrythingls?Shouldwtransfrtoitthsolrightsfordalinginknowldg,sothatanyrsultthathasbnobtaindbyothrmthodsisatoncruldoutofcourt?4AGAINSTMETHODAnddidscintistsrrmainwithinthboundarisofthtraditionsthydfindinthisnarrowway?ThsarthqustionsIintndtoaskinthprsntssay.AndtothsqustionsmyanswrwillbafirmandrsoundingNO.Thrartworasonswhysuchananswrsmstobappropriat.!Thfirstrasonisthatthworldwhichwwanttoxplorisalarglyunlmownnti!y'.Wmust,thrfor,kpouroptionsopnandwmustrstrictourlsinadanc.Epistmologicalprscriptionsmaylooksplndidwhncompardwithothrpistmologicalprscriptions,orwithgnralprinciplsbutwhocanguarantthatthyarthbstwaytodiscor,notjustafwisolatd'facts:butalsosomdplyingscrtsofnatur?Thscondrasonisthatascintificducationasdscribdabo(andaspractisdinourschools)cannotbrconcild}withahumanit!l='!llit.Itisinconflict'withthcultiationofindiVidualitywhichalonproducs,orcanproduc,wlldlopdhumanbings';7it'maimsbycomprssion,likaChinslady'sfoot,rypartofhumannaturwhichstandsoutprominntly,andtndstomakaprsonmarkdlydiffrntinoutlin'Sfromthidalsofrationalitythathappntobfashionablinscinc,orinthphilosophyofscinc.Thattmpttoincraslibrty,toladafullandrwardinglif,andthcorrspondingattmpttodiscorthscrtsofnaturandofman,ntails,thrfor,thrjctionofallunirsalstandardsandofallrigidtraditions.(Naturally,italsontailsthrjctionofalargpartofcontmporaryscinc.)Itissurprisingtoshowrarlythstultifyingffctof'thLawsofRason'orofscintificpracticisxamindbyprofssionalanarchists.Profssionalanarchistsopposanykindofrstrictionandthydmandthatthindiidualbprmittdtodlopfrly,unhamprdbylaws,dutisorobligations.Andytthyswallowwithoutprotstallthsrstandardswhichscintistsandlogiciansimposuponrsarchanduponanylundoflmowldgcratingandlmowldgchangingactiity.OccaSionally,thlawsofscintificmthod,orwhatarthoughttobthlawsofscintificmthodbyaparticularwritr,arnintgratdintoanarchismitslf.'Anarchismisaworldconcptbasduponamchanical7.JohnStuartMill.'OnLibrty:inTIlPhilosophyofJohnStuartMill.d.MarshallCohn.NwYork.1961.p.258.8.Ibid.p.265.PAULFEYERABEND5xplanationofallphnomna;writsKropotlan.9'Itsmthodofinstigationisthatofthxactnaturalscincsthmthodofinductionanddduction:'Itisnotsoclar;writsamodrn'radical'profssoratColumbia,10'thatscintificrsarchdmandsanabsolutfrdomofspchanddbat.Rathrthidncsuggststhatcrtainlandsofunfrdomplacnoobstaclinthwayofscinc:Thrarcrtainlysompopltowhomthisis'notsoclar:Ltus,thrfor,startwithouroutlinofananarchisticmthodologyandacorrspondinganarchisticscinc.Thrisnondtofarthatthdiminishdconcrnforlawandordrinscincandsocitythatcharactrizsananarchismofthislandwillladtochaos.Thhumannroussystmistoowllorganizdforthat.11Thrmay,ofcours,comatimwhnitwillbncssarytogirasonatmporaryadantagandwhnitwillbwistodfnditsrulstothxclusionofrythingls.Idonotthinkthatwarliinginsuchatimtoday.129.PtrAlxiichKropotkin.'ModrnScincandAnarchism;KropotkinsRolutionaryPamphlts.d.R.W.Baldwin.NwYork.1970.pp.1502.'ItisonofIbsn'sgratdistinctionsthatnothingwasalidforhimbutscinc:B.Shaw.BacktoMthuslah,NwYork.1921,p.xcii.CommntingonthsandsimilarphnomnaStrindbrgwrits(Antibarbarus):'AgnrationthathadthcouragtogtridofGod,tocrushthstatandchurch,andtoorthrowsocityandmorality,stillbowdbforScinc.AndinScinc,whrfrdomoughttorign,thordrofthdaywasbliinthauthoritisoroffwithyourhad'10.R.P.Wolff.ThPortyofLibralism,Boston,1968,p.15.ForacriticismofWolffs1footnot52ofmyssay'AgainstMthod;inMinnsotaStudisinthPhilosophyofScinc.Vol.4,Minnapolis,1970.11.Eninundtrmindandambiguoussituations,uniformityofactionissoonachidandadhrdtotnaciously.SMuzafrShrif.ThPsychologyofSocialNorms,NwYork,1964.12.Thiswasmyopinionin1970whnIwrotthfirstrsionofthisssay.Timshachangd.ConsidringsomtndncisinUSducation('politicallycorrct'acadmicmnus.tc.),inphilosophy(postmodrnism)andinthworldatlargIthinkthatrasonshouldnowbgingratrwightnotbcausitisandalwayswasfundamntalbutbcausitsmstobndd,incircumstancsthatoccurrathrfrquntlytoday(butmaydisappartomorrow),tocratamorhumanapproach.1Thisisshownbothbyanxaminationofhistoricalpisodsandbyanabstractanalysisofthrlationbtwnidaandaction.Thonlyprinciplthatdosnotinhibitprogrssis:anythinggos.Thidaofamthodthatcontainsfirm,unchanging,andabsolutlybindingprinciplsforconductingthbusinssofscincmtsconsidrabldifficultywhnconfrontdwiththrsultsofhistoricalrsarch.Wfind,thn,thatthrisnotasinglrul,howrplausibl,andhowrfirmlygrounddinpistmology,thatisnotiolatdatsomtimorothr.Itbcomsidntthatsuchiolationsarnotaccidntalnts,thyarnotrsultsofinsufficintknowldgorofinattntionwhichmighthabnaoidd.Onthcontrary,wsthatthyarncssaryforprogrss.Indd,onofthmoststrildngfatursofrcntdiscussionsinthhistoryandphilosophyofscincisthralizationthatntsanddlopmnts,suchasthinntionofatomisminantiquity,thCoprnicanRolution,thrisofmodrnatomism(ldnticthory;disprsionthory;strochmistry;quantumthory),thgradualmrgncofthwathoryoflight,occurrdonlybcaussomthinkrsithrdciddnottobboundbycrtain'obious'mthodologicalruls,orbcausthyunwittinglybrokthm.Thislibralpractic,Irpat,isnotjustafactofthhistoryofscinc.Itisbothrasonablandabsolutlyncssaryforthgrowthofknowldg.Morspcifically,oncanshowthfollowing:ginanyrul,howr'fundamntal'or'rational',thraralwayscircumstancswhnitisadisablnotonlytoignorthrul,buttoadoptitsopposit.Forxampl,thrarcircumstancswhnitisadisabltointroduc,laborat,anddfndadhochypothss,orhypothsswhichcontradictwllstablishdandgnrallyaccptdxprimntalrsults,orhypothsswhoscontntissmallrthanthcontntofthxistingandmpiricallyadquataltrnati,orslfinconsistnthypothss,andsoon.11.OnofthfwthinkrstoundrstandthisfaturofthdlopmntofknowldgwasNilsBohr:'hwouldnrtrytooutlinanyfinishdpictur,butwouldpatintlygothroughallthphassofthdlopmntofaproblm,startingfromsomapparntparadox,andgraduallyladingtoitslucidation.Infact,hnr8AGAINSTMETHODThrarncircumstancsandthyoccurrathrfrquntlywhnargumntlossitsforwardlooldngaspctandbcomsahindranctoprogrss.Nobodywouldclaimthatthtachingofsmallchildrnisxclusilyamattrofargumnt(thoughargumntmayntrintoit,andshouldntrintoittoalargrxtntthaniscustomary),andalmostryonnowagrsthatwhatlookslikarsultofrasonthmastryofalanguag,thxistncofarichlyarticulatdprcptualworld,logicalabilityisdupartlytoindoctrinationandpartlytoaprocssofgrowththatprocdswiththforcofnaturallaw.Andwhrargumntsdosmtohaanffct,thisismoroftndutothirphysicalrptitionthantothirsmanticcontnt.Haingadmittdthismuch,wmustalsoconcdthpossibilityofnonargumntatigrowthinthadultaswllasin(ththorticalpartsof)institutionssuchasscinc,rligion,prostitution,andsoon.Wcrtainlycannottakitforgrantdthatwhatispossiblforasmallchildtoacquirnwmodsofbhaiouronthslightstproocation,torgarddachidrsultsinanyothrlightthanasstartingpointsforfurthrxploration.Inspculatingaboutthprospctsofsomlinofinstigation,hwoulddismissthusualconsidrationofsimplicity,lgancornconsistncywiththrmarkthatsuchqualitiscanonlybproprlyjudgdaftr[myitalics]thnt.'1.RosnfldinNilsBohr.HisLifandWorkassnbyhisFrindsandCollagus,S.Rosntal(d.),NwYork,1967,p.117.Nowscincisnracompltdprocss,thrforitisalways'bfor'thnt.Hncsimplicity,lgancorconsistncyarnrncssaryconditionsof(scintific)practic.Considrationssuchasthsarusuallycriticizdbythchildishrmarkthatacontradiction'ntails'rything.Butcontradictionsdonot'ntail'anythingunlsspoplusthmincrtainways.Andpoplwillusthmasntailingrythingonlyifthyaccptsomrathrsimplminddrulsofdriation.Scintistsproposingthoriswithlogicalfaultsandobtainingintrstingrsultswiththirhlp(forxampl:thrsultsofarlyformsofthcalculus;ofagomtrywhrlinsconsistofpoints,plansoflinsandolumsofplans;thprdictionsoftholdrquantumthoryandofarlyformsofthquantumthoryofradiationandsoon)Vidntlyprocdaccordingtodiffrntruls.Thcriticismthrforfallsbackonitsauthorsunlssitcanbshownthatalogicallydcontaminatdscinchasbttrrsults.Suchadmonstrationisimpossibl.Logicallyprfctrsions(ifsuchrsionsxist)usuallyarrionlylongaftrthimprfctrsionshanrichdscincbythircontributions.Forxampl,wamchanicswasnota'logicalrconstruction'ofprcdingthoris;itwasanattmpttoprsrthirachimntsandtosolthphysicalproblmsthathadarisnfromthirus.Boththachimntsandthproblmswrproducdinawayrydiffrntfromthwaysofthoswhowanttosubjctrythingtothtyrannyof'logic'.PAULFEYERABEND9slidintothmwithoutanynoticablffortisbyondthrachofhisldrs.Onshouldrathrxpctthatcatastrophicchangsinthphysicalnironmnt,wars,thbrakdownofncompassingsystmsofmorality,politicalrolutions,willtransformadultractionpattrnsaswll,includingimportantpattrnsofargumntation.Suchatransformationmayagainbanntirlynaturalprocssandthonlyfunctionofarationalargumntmayliinthfactthatitincrassthmntaltnsionthatprcddandcausdthbhaiouraloutburst.Now,ifthrarnts,notncssarilyargumnts,whichcausustoadoptnwstandards,includingnwandmorcomplxformsofargumntation,isitthnnotuptothdfndrsofthstatusquotoproid,notjustcountrargumnts,butalsocontrarycauss?('Virtuwithouttrrorisinffcti:saysRobspirr.)Andiftholdformsofargumntationturnouttobtoowakacaus,mustnotthsdfndrsithrgiuporrsorttostrongrandmor'irrational'mans?(Itisrydifficult,andprhapsntirlyimpossibl,tocombatthffctsofbrainwashingbyargumnt.)Enthmostpuritanicalrationalistwillthnbforcdtostoprasoningandtouspropagandaandcorcion,notbcaussomofhisrasonshacasdtobalid,butbcausthpsychologicalconditionswhichmakthmffcti,andcapablofinfluncingothrs,hadi