spelling rule(单词拼写规则,全文英文)

spelling rule(单词拼写规则,全文英文) Spelling Rule Examples Exceptions To form the plural of most nouns, simply add -s cat > cats dog > dogs Surviving Old English plural forms: deer > deer; sheep > sheep; ox > oxen; man > men; woman > women; child > children; brother (in a religious sense) > brethren; foot > feet; tooth > teeth. Some compound nouns: passer-by > passers-by; mother-in-law > mothers-in-law. Plural forms of not fully naturalized foreign words: chateau > chateaux; Plural forms of metric crisis > crises; formula > formulae; index > indices; stimulus > stimuli abbreviations: 100 km (kilometres) 60 g (grams) 2.5 l (litres) Note that with non-metric measurements plural s is optional: 60 lb or 60 lbs To form the plural of nouns ending in s, sh, ss, z, x or ch, add -es to facilitate pronunciation gas > gases dish > dishes boss > bosses box > boxes watch > watches To form the plural of nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to an i and then add -es lady > ladies baby > babies strawberry > strawberries laboratory > laboratories lay-by > lay-bys (BrE); stand-by > stand-bys Family names: Mr. & Mrs. Brady > The Bradys To form the plural of a number of long established English nouns ending in f or fe (but not ff or ffe!) change the f to a v and then add -es half > halves leaf > leaves life > lives knife > knives Most other nouns ending in f or fe simply add -s as usual, but there are some cases in which the -ves plural formation is optional: belief > beliefs; chief > chiefs; handkerchief > handkerchiefs (but note handkerchieves is an option in British English); safe > safes Caution is advised and, if in doubt, consult a dictionary. To form the plural of imported nouns ending in o and long established in English, add -es cargo > cargoes domino > dominoes echo > echoes embargo > embargoes hero > heroes potato > potatoes tomato > tomatoes tornado > tornadoes torpedo > torpedoes veto > vetoes For less naturalized nouns ending in o, add -s only: kilo > kilos; piano > pianos; kimono > kimonos; radio > radios In a few cases the -es plural formation is optional. When in any doubt, consult your dictionary! archipelago > archipelagos/archipelagoes fiasco > fiascos/fiascoes halo > halos/haloes mango > mangos/mangoes Spelling Rule Examples Exceptions A final silent e is usually dropped before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel -able It is not so easy to predict when a final e should be dropped before adding the suffix -able. Generally speaking, this is more common in American English. In some cases it is optional: e.g. likable or likeable Words ending in -ce and -ge usually keep their e to clarify the pronunciation of a preceding consonantal sound: noticeable, peaceable, knowledgeable, manageable The final e is also retained for words ending in -ee: agreeable, foreseeable -age store > storage acreage and mileage Note that linage and lineage are entirely different words. -ed clone > cloned -est cute > cutest -ing dive > diving write > writing You must retain the e when it is needed to distinguish meaning (cf. dying & dyeing or singing & singeing). Sometimes the e is kept to clarify pronunciation of a preceding consonantal sound (e.g. ageing). American English seems to be less particular about this (aging). The final e is also kept for words ending in -ee, -oe, or -ye: fleeing, canoeing, eyeing -ous fame > famous pore > porous Words ending in -ge keep their e to clarify the pronunciation of a preceding consonantal sound: advantageous, courageous For words ending in -ce this final e becomes an i: space > spacious -y ice > icy bone > bony The final e is not dropped before adding the suffix -y if the preceding letter is u: gluey (but note gluier). Note also pricey and spacey. Remember that holy and holey are very different words! When a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a stressed syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the consonant is usually doubled -able control > controllable In British English, a final letter l following a single vowel is doubled even if the syllable is unstressed: travel > travelled. American English not only adheres to the usual rule requiring the final syllable to be stressed before doubling, it doubles the final l in all forms of the verb, thereby eliminating this particular spelling headache altogether: AmE enroll > enrolled and fulfill > fulfilled; BrE enrol > enrolled and fulfil > fulfilled. -ed stop > stopped admit > admitted In the following cases the stress in the final syllable is secondary: kidnap > kidnapped program > programmed Consult a dictionary before doubling a final s to form noun plurals, especially in monosyllabic words: gas > gases; bus > buses (but AmE busses). A final z is always doubled: fez > fezzes; quiz > quizzes. In words of more than one syllable, both British and American English follow the usual stress rule when adding -es to form the third person singular of the present tense: focus > focuses; nonplus > nonplusses. In British English (as in the case involving a final l above), a stressed syllable is not a prerequisite for doubling the s before -ed and -ing to form past tenses and gerunds. So BrE grants you the option of either focussed or focused and focussing or focusing. AmE, on the other hand, prefers the latter variants (focused and focusing), which follow the general rule about stress. Instead of doubling a final consonant c, which only occurs in unstressed syllables, it becomes ck before the addition of a suffix: traffic > trafficking; frolic > frolicking. The consonants h, w, x and y are never doubled (e.g. affix > affixing), and neither are silent consonants found in words of foreign origin: crochet > crocheting; ricochet > ricocheting. -er big > bigger -ing begin > beginning refer > referring -ish red > reddish Spelling Rule Examples Exceptions ante- or anti- ? Choose the prefix ante-if your word has connotations of before or ahead, and anti- if it means opposite or against ante- does not usually have to be followed by a hyphen: antecedent, antedate, antenatal, anteroom Even with anti- most words require no hyphenation: antibiotic, anticlockwise, anticyclone, antidepressant, antifreeze anti- is always followed bya hyphen before an i or a capital letter: anti-inflammatory anti-French There are, however, many other anti- words that are hyphenated by convention, according to personal preference, or to avoid a vowel clash: anti-aircraft fire, anti-establishment, anti-government, anti-gravity, anti-personnel mines, etc. Whenever you're in doubt, please consult a good dictionary! fore- or for- ? Choose the prefix fore- if your word has the meaning of before or ahead; otherwise you need for- forefather, foresight, forecast, forerunner, foreshadow, forestall, foretaste, foretell, forewarn, etc. forbid, forfeit, forget, forgive, forgo, forlorn, forsake, forswear, etc. Spelling Rule Examples Exceptions -able or -ible ? The suffix -able is far more common than -ible Most roots, including all modern ones, add -able: drink > undrinkable read > readable wash > washable You'll find -ible only in a few old words that are derived directly from (or modeled on) Latin: flex > flexible comprehend > comprehensible respond > responsible Lat. edere (to eat) > edible -ance or -ence & -ant or -ent ? Here we present a few useful rules for when to add the suffixes -ance or -ence and -ant or -ent. However, because these rules are not 100% reliable, it's safest to consult a dictionary! -ance is always added to a hard c or g: elegance, significance. If the preceding c or g is soft choose -ence: innocence, intelligence. Note the unique spellings of allegiance and vengeance If other forms of the word end in an a-suffix, then your choice is likely to be -ance/-ant: dominate > dominance ignoramus > ignorant vigilante > vigilance violate > violence Verbs ending in -ear, -ure and -y have noun forms ending in -ance: appear > appearance endure > endurance defy > defiance Verbs ending in -ere will have noun-forms ending in -ence: interfere > interference persevere > perseverance The core syllables -cid-, -fid-, -sid-, -vid-, -flu-, -qu- and -sist- are usually followed by -ence: incidence, confidence, subsidence, evidence, influence, consequence, insistence assistance, resistance To form nouns from verbs -er or -ur, ending in a stressed add -ence: confer > conference concur > concurrence (Note here the typical doubling of the r in a stressed syllable before the addition of a suffix beginning with a vowel.) To form nouns from verbs ending in an unstressed -er, add -ance: utter > utterance hinder > hindrance differ > difference -ce or -se ? During centuries of separation from the motherland, American English retained the original -seendingin certain words borrowed fromFrench. British English modified it to -ce AmE: defense, license (noun & verb), offense, pretense, vise (tool) BrE: defence, licence (noun form only [cf. to license]), offence, pretence, vice Note that even in British English any related adjectives have to be spelt with an s: defensive, offensive Note from the example of licence/license above that British English, perhaps under the influence of advice (n.) and to advise, sometimes utilizes -ce/-se to help distinguish between a noun and a verb: BrE: practice (n.) > practise (v.) American English, which tends to prioritize simpler orthography, often loses out on the ability to make such subtle distinctions: AmE: license (n.) > license (v.) practice (n.) > practice (v.) -cede or -ceed ? The ending -cede is far more common than -ceed concede, precede, recede You'll find -ceed only in exceed, proceed and succeed. Note the unique spelling of supersede. -ch or -tch ? Choose-chif it is to be preceded by either a consonant or two vowels. If it is to be preceded by a single vowel, you need-tch filch, bench, church approach, touch, coach One exception to this rule, namely the letter h: aitch catch, fetch, watch A handful of very common words are exceptions to this rule and so you should try to memorize them: attach, detach, enrich, much, rich, sandwich, spinach, such, which -ction or -xion ? The ending -ction is far more common than-xion reaction, reduction, etc. -xion is only found in a few words like complexion, crucifixion, effluxion, flexion, fluxion, prefixion, retroflexion and transfixion connection, deflection, inflection, reflection In BrE only, you may come across the following variants: connexion, deflexion, inflexion and reflexion. -er or -or ? The ending -er is far more common than -or -er is added to most verbs (and certainly all modern ones) for someone or something that performs an activity: player, baker, singer,etc. A few -er nouns are created from nouns or adjectives: law > lawyer prison > prisoner foreign > foreigner Note the following words: adapter (a person who adapts); adviser; caster, conjurer and conveyer; and resister (a person who resists). Especially in British English, an adaptor is a device to make two pieces of (usually electrical) equipment compatible, as well as being an accepted variant of adapter (someone who adapts something); the variant advisor is not uncommon but is still rather controversial; the variants castor, conjuror and conveyer are quite correct; and a resistor is an electronic component. -or is found in words of French or classical origin: mayor, donor. Many end in -ator, -itor, -ctor, -essor and -utor: curator, auditor, director, professor, tutor -ise or -ize ? The verbal suffix -ize is far more common than-ise criticize, demoralize, realize, vandalize In BrE, under the influence of neighboring French, the -ise ending is a widespread alternative, but if chosen it should be used consistently: criticise, demoralise, realise, vandalise, etc. Note these common verbs, which are always spelt with -ise: advertise, chastise, despise, disguise, franchise, merchandise and surmise Note, too, all verbs ending in -cise, -prise and -vise: exercise, surprise, advise -or or -our ? Words of primarily French origin ending in -our in British English end in -or inAmerican English BrE: colour, favour, honour AmE: color, favor, honor British English also often uses -or: error, terror, stupor Note that even British English drops the u before the addition of a suffix to certain words: vapour > vaporize; honour > honorific/honorary Please refer to a dictionary! -re or -er ? While British English retains the -reending in words of French origin, American English generally prefers -er BrE: centre, metre, theatre AmE: center, meter, theater Even in American English -re is found in some words, especially if the stem ends in the letter c: acre, massacre, mediocre; but note also cadre and ogre. -yse or -yze ? The verbal suffix -yse is British and -yzeisAmerican BrE: analyse, paralyse AmE: analyze, paralyze Spelling Rule Examples Exceptions -ae/oe or -e ? ae and oe in words of Greek or Latin origin are retained inBritish English and replaced with a simple e in American English BrE: archaeology, gynaecology, haemoglobin, diarrhoea, foetus, oesophagus AmE: archeology, gynecology, hemoglobin, diarrhea, fetus, esophagus Even in British English there is a slow trend toward simplification: For example, the form encyclopedia is now much more common than encyclopaedia. -ie- or -ei- ? In the case of 'ee' /i:/ sounds i goes beforee except after c believe, chief, siege ceiling, receive, deceit Beware of words that have varied pronunciation: either, neither, heinous Some common names: Keith, Sheila, Neil, Madeira Latin words like species Others: caffeine, protein, inveigle, seize, weird q_? q is almost invariably followed byu quack, quality, queen, question, quiz, quote Acronyms & non-English words: Qantas (Australian Airline), Al Qaeda (Islamist terror franchise), Qatar (Gulf state), etc. alright / all right all right is widely regarded as the correct form already / all ready Are you all ready to leave? It's already 8 o'clock. altogether / all together There are altogether two occasions per year when the family are all together. anyone / any one Anyone can use the library and borrow any one of 10,000 books. cannot / can not cannot is the correct form in British English, while can not is generally preferred in American English. Note that even BrE sometimes allows you to use can not for emphasis: She can not only speak French but German too! ever / -ever ever is only separated from a wh-word for the sake of emphasis: "You can go wherever you like and do whatever you want!" but "Where ever have you been and what ever have you been up to?". everyone / every one Everyone is the same as 'everybody' and applies to people only. Every one means 'each single one' and applies to both people and things: Everyone went to the restaurant and every one of them chose spaghetti. inasmuch as / in as much as Both forms are correct but inasmuch as now seems to be the more common variant: He is responsible for the accident inasmuch as he failed to prevent it. insofar as / in so far as Both forms are correct but in so far as now seems to be more common variant: She appreciated him in so far as he was always very positive. into / in to These forms mean slightly different things and are sometimes confused in modern English. Into is a preposition: They got into their car. With in to we have the adverb in followed by the preposition to: She accompanied her friend in to dinner. maybe / may be He may be moving to Chicago, but maybe he'll stay in LA a while longer. no-one / no one Nowadays both forms are considered correct, but purists would make this fine distinction: No-one (= nobody) has so far been charged with causing the accident because no one person (= no particular individual) is to blame. onto / on to It seems that onto does not enjoy the same dominant status as into above. In modern-day English, onto and on to are both regarded as correct prepositional forms. In cases where the on is an adverb, however, on to must be used: He got up onto the stage, smiled and then went on to talk about his amazing experience. sometime / some time She'll do it sometime when she gets some time.