自考英语词汇学笔记整理(含下载)

自考英语词汇学笔记整理(含下载) 自考英语词汇学笔记整理,含下载, Chapter 1 1 - The definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 1 一个单词定义包括以下几点: , 1 ,最小的自由形式的语言; , 2 ,固定的语音; , 3 ,固定的意义; , 4 ,在一个句子中可以单独运作的一种形式。 词是语言中的最小的自由形式,词有固定的语音,固定的意义固定的句法结构 2- Sound and Meaning: symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and convention al. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 2 -声音和意义:象征性联系几乎总是任意和常规。 狗称为狗不是因为声音和三个字母构成单词只是自动显示该动物的问题。 3- Old English, the speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted fr om选自…. the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination. 3 -古英语,讲话的时间是非常代表更忠实地以书面形式比今天。内部原因是,英文字母表选自从罗马人, 使一些字母必须做的双重职责或结合在一起工作。 在语言中它没有一个单独的字母表现每一个语音, Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. 另一个原因是,已经改变的发音速度超过拼写多年来,在某些情况下,两国已制定相距甚远。 A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. 第三个原因是,是由于早起抄写员造成的。 最后是借款,这是一个丰富了英语词汇重要的渠道, 5 - Vocabulary: All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words. 5 -词汇:所有的文字语言弥补其词 汇。 , ,不仅不能提及的总人数中的词的语言,但它可以支持所有用在一个特定的历史时期的词。我们还用 它来指所有的话,某一方言,这是一种特定图书,某一学科的话和所拥有的独立的个人。一般估计,当今英语 词汇超过万字。 words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words. 词用在一个特定的历史时期。我们还用它来指所有的话,某一方言,这是一种特定图书,某一学科的话和所 拥有的独立的个人。一般估计,当今英语词汇超过万字。words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day Engli 用在一个特定的历史时期。我们还用它来指所有的话,某一方言,sh vocabulary is over million words.词 这是一种特定图书,某一学科的话和所拥有的独立的个人。一般估计,当今英语词汇超过万字。words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over million words.词用在一个特定的历史时期。我 们还用它来指所有的话,某一方言,这是一种特定图书,某一学科的话和所拥有的独立的个人。一般估计,当 今英语词汇超过万字。 6 - Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin. 6 -词可能落入基本词股票和nonbasic词汇的使用频率,把内容和功能的话的话的概念,并纳入本地话和 外来词的来源。 7 - The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics. 7 -基本词股票的基础,积累了数百年的词汇和各种形式的共同核心的语言。虽然词的基本词股票构成的一 小部分英语词汇,但它是最重要的一部分。这些话具有明显的特点。 8 - All national character. Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language Natural phenomena/Human body and relations/Names of plants and animals/Action, size, domain, state/Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions 所有的民族性格。词的基本词股票指最常见的事物和现象我们周围的世界,这是必不可少的所有的人谁的语 言 自然现象/人体关系/地名的植物和动物/行动,大小,网域,国家/数词,代词,介词,连词 9 - Stability. Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries. 9 -稳定性。词的基本词库存已使用了数百年。 10 - Productivity . Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes. 10 -生产力。词的基本词股票大多根词或单音节词。他们可以分别单独使用,同时可以形成新词与其他根 源和词缀。 11 - Polysemy. Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undertone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous. 11 -多义词。词属于基本词股票往往拥有一个以上的意义,因为其中大部分潜在语义变化的过程中使用, 多义。 并成为 12 - Collocability . Many words of the basic word stock quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like. 12 - Collocability 。许多词的基本词股票相当多的一套表现形式,惯用用法,成语和谚语等。 13 - Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas 13 -术语组成的技术名词,特别是学科和学术的领域。 14 - Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business. 14 -术语指的是专门的词汇,其中的成员特别是艺术,科学,行业之间的沟通,如在自己的业务。 15 - Slang belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words l ike cant, jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. Slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether. Slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive. 15 -俚语属于不合 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 的语言,一类,似乎站在一般标准之间的话包括非正式的向任何人提供,并在组词 如不能,行话和隐语,所有这些都是相关的,或最可以,具体的人口群体。 俚语创建改变或扩大现有的含义的话虽然有些俚语的话完全是新造词。俚语是丰富多彩的,生硬的,表现力和 令人印象深刻。 16 - Argot generally refers to the jargon of criminals 16 -哤通常指行话罪犯. 17 - Dialectal words are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. 17 -方言词用字只有讲方言的问题。 18 - Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. 18 - Archaisms字词或形式,一度被普遍使用,但现在只限于专业或有限地使用。 19 - Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. 19 -新词是新成立的字或词句,或词已采取新的含义。 20 - By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals, which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity. 20 -通过概念,词可以分为文字和内容功能的话。内容词表示明确的概念,因此被称为实词。它们包括名 词,动词,形容词,副词和数字,这意味着物体的现象,采取行动,质量,状况,程度,数量。 21 - Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. 21 -虚词没有自己的概念。因此,他们也呼吁空话。作为其主要职能是表达概念之间的关系,词与词之间 的关系以及句子之间,他们被称为形式的话。介词,连词,辅助设备和物品属于这一类。 22 - However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words. 22 -但是,迄今虚词做更多的工作表达英文平均比内容的话。 23 - Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes; the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. 23 -母语词话使英国在15世纪由德国部落的角度,在撒克逊人,和朱特人,从而被称为盎格鲁撒克逊人 的话。 24 - Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features: Neutral in style. they are not stylistically specific. Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropiate in formal style. Frequent in use. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. 24 -除了上述的特点的基本词股票,而相比之下,借词,原词有两个其他特点: 中性的风格。他们没有具体的风格。 文体,既不是本地人的话正式或非正式的话借来的,而从法国或拉丁美洲的文学和教训,因此,适当的正式风 格。 频繁的使用。原话是最常用的日常用语和写作。 25 - Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modem English vocabulary. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings 25 -词接管外国语言被称为借词或外来语或借款以简单的语言。据估计,英国借款构成百分之八十的现代 英语词汇。英语是指出了出色的复杂性和异质性的词汇,因为其广泛的借款 26 - Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin 26 -外国人借词有保留他们原来的发音和拼写。这些话立即识别外国在原产地. 27 - Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language. 27 -语义贷款。这一类的话是不是借来的参考形式。但它们的意思是借来的。换言之,英语借用了新的意义现 有文字的语言。 Chapter 2 1 - It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. 1 -这是假设,世界上约3 , 000人,有些把它5 , 000 ,语言,可分为家庭大约300语言的基础上,他 们的基本相似的单词和语法股票。 2 - The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. 2 -印欧语就是其中之一。它是由大多数语文欧洲,近东和印度。 3 - They accordingly fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian , Armenian and Albanian ; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic. 3 -他们因此分为八个主要群体,其中可分为东部设置: Balto斯拉夫,印度,伊朗,亚美尼亚和阿尔巴尼亚; 西方设置:凯尔特人,斜体,希腊,日耳曼。 4 - In the Eastern set, Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian. 4 -在东集,亚美尼亚和阿尔巴尼亚族都只有现代语言分别。该Balto斯拉夫包括现代语言等作为普鲁士,立 陶宛,波兰,捷克,保加利亚,斯洛文尼亚和俄罗斯。5 - In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian. Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit. 5 -在印度和伊朗,我们波斯语。孟加拉国语,印地语,罗姆人,过去三年,其中来自死语言梵语。 6 - In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. 6 -在西方设置,希腊是现代语言来自希腊。 7 - The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English. languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English. 7 -日耳曼系列包括四个北欧语言:挪威,冰岛,丹麦和瑞典,这一般被称为斯堪的纳维亚 语文。其次是德语,荷兰语,佛兰芒语和英语。 语文。其次是德语,荷兰语,佛兰芒语和英语。 8 - Old English (450-1150) Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German. Anglo-Saxon as Old English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like moderm German 8 -古英语, 450-1150 , 盎格鲁撒克逊人一样古老英语。古英语的词汇量的大约50 , 000 60 , 000字。这是一个高度屈折的语言 一样,现代德语。 盎格鲁撒克逊人一样古老英语。古英语的词汇量的大约50 , 000 60 , 000字。这是一个高度屈折的语言 一样,现代德语. 9 - Middle English (1150-1500) Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings. 9 -中古英语, 1150年至一五〇 〇年, 虽然有借贷来自拉丁美洲,对英语的影响,主要是日耳曼。 12时50分至1500年约9000字的法国原产地涌入英国。 72百分之五,其中目前仍在使用的。 如果说,古英语是一种语言的完整的结局。中古英语是一个层次的结局。 10 - Modern English (1500-up to now) Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England. Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the present) Modern English In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge of learning ancient Greek and Roman classics. This is known in history as the Renaissance. Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’ ’s great literary heritage and of great scholarship In fact, more than twenty-five per cent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language. 10 -现代英语, 1500到现在, 现代英语开始设立印刷在英格兰。 早期, 1500至1700年,和晚期, 1700 -至今,现代英语 现代英语开始设立印刷在英格兰。 早期, 1500至1700年,和晚期, 1700 -至今,现代英语 在初期,现代英语,欧洲看到了新高潮的学习古希腊和古罗马的经典。这就是所谓的历史,文艺复兴。 拉丁文和希腊被认为是语言的西洋' 的伟大的文学遗产和伟大奖学金 事实上,超过2005年百分之现代 英语单词 七年级上册英语单词表高考英语单词3500记忆高中3500个英语单词表七年级下册英语单词表小学六年级英语单词表 几乎直接从古典语言。 可以得出结论认为,英国已经从合成语言,古英语,本解析语言。 11 - Three main sources of new words: the rapid development of modern science and technology(45%); social, economic and political changes(24%); the influence of other cultures and languages(11%). the influence of other cultures and languages(11%). 11 -三个主要来源的新词:迅速发展的现代科学和技术, 45 , , ;社会,经济和政治的变化, 24 , , ; 其它文化和语言的影响,, 11 , , 。 其它文化和语言的影响,, 11 , , 。 12 - Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing. 现代英语词汇的发展,通过三个渠道:建立,语义变化,借款。 Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In modern times, this is the most important way of vocabulary expansion. 创造是指形成新词的使用现有的材料,即根,词缀和其它要素。在现代社会,这是最重要的方式扩大词汇量。 Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. This does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new usages of the words, thus enriching the vocabulary. 语义变化意味着旧的形式,考虑一个新的意义,以满足新的需要。这并不增加词形式,但是创造更多的新用法 的词语,从而丰富的词汇。 Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. Borrowed words constitute merely six to seven percent of all new worlds. In earlier stages of English, frnch, greek and Scandinavian were the major contributiors. 借款发挥了至关重要的作用,发展的词汇,尤其是在早期。借词构成仅仅6至百分之七的所有新的世界。在较 早阶段的英语, frnch ,希腊和斯堪的纳维亚的主要contributiors 。 Reviving archaic or obsolete words(复活古词和废弃词) also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. 恢复过时或陈旧的话,复活古词和废弃词, ,也有助于增长的英语词汇虽然很微不足道。 Chapter 3 1 - These different forms occur owing to different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is "the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words" 1 -这些不同形式出现,因为不同的声音环境。这些有意义的最小单位称为词素。 换言之,语素是“最小功能单位组成的词” 2 - Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 2 -语素是抽象的单位，这是实现在讲话离散单位称为morphs 。他们是讲实际，最少量的运营商的意义。在语 素的形态是什么音素是一个电话。 3 - These morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words. 3 -这些词素配合的话,他们可以站在自己和自由运作的一个句子。词这种被称为monomorphemic话。 4 - Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. 4 -有些词素,但是,实现由一个以上的形态根据它们的立场,一个字。这种替代morphs被称为allomorphs 。 5 - There are cases where the allomorphs of the plural morpheme are realized by the change of an internal vowel or by zero morph. 5 -在一些情况下, allomorphs的复数语素是实现改变内部元音或零变形。 6 - Free Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root, we might as well say that free morphemes are free roots. 6 -自由语素是独立于其他词素被认为是免费的。这些词素已完成其本身的含义,可作为免费语法单位的判决。 他们是相同的根的话,因为每个人是一个单独的无根,我们还不如说是免费的自由词素根源。 7 - Bound Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words. 7 -束缚语素不能作为单独的词出现的约束。他们是如此命名是因为它们必然会形成其他语素字。约束语素主 要是在衍生词。 8 - Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix. 约束词素包括两类:约束根和词缀。 Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a tree root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing. 约束根源是,这个词的一部分,带有根本性的意义,就像一个自由根源。与一棵大树根,这是一个约束的形式, 并结合其他词素作出话。 在英语中,约束根源都是拉丁美洲或希腊。虽然它们数量有限,其生产电源是难能可贵的。 Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 词缀的形式,重视字词或修改的内容含义或功能。 According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups; inflectional and derivational affixes. 根据职能的词缀,我们可以把他们分成两组;屈折和派生词缀。 Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable. 词缀重视年底的话表明屈折语法关系,因此称为屈折词素。人数屈折词缀是小型和稳定。 Derivational affixes. As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes come before the ward and the suffixes after the word. 派生词缀。由于长期表明,派生词缀的词缀添加到其他词素创造新词。派生词缀可以进一步分为前缀和后缀。 词头来到病房和后缀一词之后。 9 - A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. Root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. 9 -甲根是基本形式的一个词,不能作进一步分析没有完全丧失的身份。根,不论是免费或约束,普遍开展的 主要组成部分,在一个词的含义。根本的是,一部分wordform仍然在所有屈折和派生词缀已被删除。 10 - A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful. A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added 10 -干可能是一个根语素中铁或两个根词素在复合像手铐。它可以是一个根语素加一个或多个affixational词 素在一口。干可以被界定为一种形式的任何种类的词缀可以添加 Chapter 4 Word Formation 2 1 - Word-formation: affixation(30%-40%), companding(28%-30%), conversion(26%), shortening(8%-10%), blending(1%) 构词:附加, 30 , -40 , , ,压缩, 28 , -30 , , ,转换, 26 , , ,缩短, 8 , -10 , , , 融合, 1 , , 2 - Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives. 词缀的一般定义为成立的话,增加的文字或派生词缀形成以茎。这个过程也称为推导,为创造新词以这种方式 来自旧形式。一语中形成这样被称为衍生工具。 Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. Nine groups: Negative prefixes, Reversative prefixes, Pejorative prefixes, Prefixes of degree or size, Prefixes of orientation and attitude, Locative prefixes, Prefixes of time and order, Number prefixes, Miscellaneous prefixes. Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. When the suffix under discussion is added to the stem, whatever class it belongs to, the result will be a noun or an adjective. Prefixation是形成新的词加上前缀,以茎。前缀一般不改变字级干但只有修改其含义。 9个组:否定前缀, Reversative的称谓,贬义前缀,前缀的学位或大小,词头的方向和态度,方位前缀,前缀的时间和秩序,数 前缀,杂项前缀。 后缀是形成新的词加上后缀为茎。后缀的只有一小语义角色,其主要功能是改变语法功能茎。换句话说,他们 主要是改变词类。当所讨论的后缀添加到干,不管它属于一流,其结果将是一个名词或形容词。 Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns: a. Concrete, b. Abstract. 2) Deverbal nouns: a. The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people, b. Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc 3) De-adjective nouns 4) Noun and adjective suffixes 名词后缀 1 , Denominal名词:答:混凝土湾摘要。 2 , Deverbal名词:答:下列动词后缀结合创建很大程度上源于名词,意指人湾后缀添加到这个组动词生 产很大程度上源于抽象名词,指的行动,结果,过程,状态等 3 ,德形容词名词 4 ,名词和形容词后缀 Adjective suffixes 1) Denominal suffixes 2) Deverbal suffixes Adverb suffixes Verb suffixes 形容词后缀 1 , Denominal后缀 2 , Deverbal后缀 副词后缀 动词后缀 3 - Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. 复杂的,也称为组成,是形成新的话,加入两个或两个以上的原因。关键词形成以这种方式被称为化合物。因 此,一个大院是一个词汇组成的一个以上的干和运作都语法和语义上的一个字。 4 - Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects: 1). Phonetic features In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary stress, if any, on the second whereas the opposite is true of free phrases 2). Semantic features Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. 3). Grammatical features A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes. 化合物不同于自由词组在以下三个方面: 1 , 。语音功能的化合物的重音通常发生在第一个元素,而在名词短语的第二个因素是普遍强调,如果只有 一个压力。案件中的两个强调,这种化合物的主要强调的第一要素和二次应力,如果有的话,在第二,而恰恰 相反自由词组 2 , 。语义特征化合物不同于自由词组的语义团结。每个大院应表示一个单一的思想就像一个词。 3 , 。语法功能复合往往发挥一个单一的语法作用,一个句子,例如,一个动词,名词或形容词。在形容词, 名词的化合物,形容词要素不能屈折后缀。 5 - Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class, without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation. 转换是形成新词的转换一类的话到另一个阶级。自话不改变在形态结构,但在功能,这个过程也称为功能性转 变。转换被普遍认为是一个派生过程,一个项目是调整或转换到一个新的世界一流,但除了一个词缀。因而得 名零派生。 6 - Many simple nouns convened from verbs can be used with have, take, make, give etc. to form phrases to replace the verb or denote a brief action. Words like hand-out, stand-by, lay-by, teach-in, shut-down are all converted from phrasal verbs. 许多简单的名词召开动词可用于已采取,制造,给予等形式的短语来代替动词或指简短行动。等词语手了,备 用,避车处,教中,关闭都转为短语动词。 7 - Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. Words fully converted. A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an indefinite article or - (e)s to indicate singular or plural number. Words partially converted. Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. 与动词,形容词而不是所有的转换才能实现全面名词地位。有些是完全转换,从而被称为完全的转换,其他人 只是部分转换,从而部分转换。 话完全转换。名词完全转换了一个形容词的所有特点名词。它可以采取一个不定冠词或- ,五, s到表明奇异 或复数。 关键词部分转换。名词部分转为形容词不具备的所有素质名词没有。他们必须一起使用明确的条款。 8 - Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns; very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines. 配煤是形成新词的结合部分或两个词一个词的一部分,加上另一个词。关键词形成以这种方式被称为混纺或 pormanteau话。 绝大多数的共混物的名词;极少数是动词,形容词,甚至更少。共混物的大部分用于以书面形式与科学技术有关, 以及报纸和杂志。 9 - Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping. 9 -另一个常见的方式,使一个词是缩短较长的Word中的一部分切割了原始和使用仍然不是。这就是所谓的 剪报。 10 - Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. Letters represent full words: VOA - Voice of America Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word: TV - television Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. Some acronyms are formed with the initial letter of the first word plus the whole of the second, N-bomb nuclear bomb Acronymy正在形成的过程中加入新词的首字母的名字,社会和政治组织或特殊的名词短语和技术术语。关键 词形成以这种方式被称为initialisms或缩写,根据发音的单词。 Initialisms的言论一封信函。 字母代表充分关键词:美国之音-美国之音 字母代表三方在一个大院或只是部分的一个词:电视-电视 缩略语的词首字母组成,但作为一个正常的发音字。一些缩写组成的初步信的第一个字,加上整个第二,核弹 核弹 11 - Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs. 回到形成被认为是相反的过程中后缀。词创造回到形成大多是动词。 12 - Modern English has a large number of words which come from proper nouns. They include names of people, names of places, names of books and trade names. 现代英语有大量的话来自专有名词。它们包括人名,地名,书籍名称和商品名称。 Chapter 5 1 - Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 参考之间的关系是语言和世界各地。 2 - Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on whereas meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. Therefore, a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words. 含义和概念密切相关但不完全相同。他们都是直接相关的指称,而且概念的词语,但属于不同的类别。 概念,这是超越语言,是由于人类认知,反映了客观世界在人的头脑。这是普遍的所有男女不分文化,种族, 语言,等等,而属于语言的意义,因此仅限于语言的使用。 因此,一个概念可以有许多指表现形式有语言在世界上。即使在相同的语言,相同的概念可以表现为不同的字 词。 3 - Generally speaking, the meaning of ‘meaning’ is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’. Unlike reference, ‘sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language. Every word that-has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) 一般而言,所指的'意思'也许是所谓的'意义' 。不同范围,意识'是指内部的关系的语言。每一个词,意义已意 义,而不是每个字有参考, 4 - Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. Onomatopoeic Motivation:I n modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. Morphological Motivation: Compounds and derived Words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, namely affix or stem, one can figure out the meaning of the word. Semantic Motivation: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. Etymological Motivation: The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins. In other words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. 动机帐户之间的联系语言符号及其含义。 象声动机:我ñ现代英语可能会有一些的话,其声音显示他们的含义,因为这些话是由模仿自然的声音,或 noises.Knowing的声音的话意味着理解的含义。 形态理据:化合物和派生词是多词素词的含义和许多人的总和的词素的总和。通常,如果一个人知道的含义, 每一个语素,即词缀或干,人们可以计算出一词的含义。 语义动机:动机是指语义的心理协会所建议的概念词义。它解释之间的联系字面意义和象征意义的。 词源激励:在许多词的意义往往直接关系到它们的起源。换句话说,历史上的字词解释一词的含义。 5 - Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. 词的含义是不monogeneous但复合组成的不同部分。这是已知的在熟悉的条件,不同类型的含义。 6 - Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. On the other hand, the same word may have different grammatical meanings. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning. 语法意义提到的那部分一词的含义,表明语法概念或关系,如词类的词,名词,动词,形容词,副词, ,单数 和复数含义名词,动词时态的含义及其屈折形式。另一方面,同一个词可能有不同的语法意义。词义本身有两 个组成部分:概念意义和联想意义。 7 - Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 概念的含义,也称为外延意义,的含义是在字典和各种形式的核心词的含义。 Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate. It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc. Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative. Connotative meaning. In contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of the word-meaning, but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular user of the language. 联想意义是次要的意义补充的概念的含义。它不同于概念的含义,因为它是开放性和不确定性。这是承担责任 的影响等因素,文化,经验,宗教,地理区域,阶级背景,教育等联想意义包括四种类型:内涵,风格,情感, 和搭配。 内涵。与此相反,以外延意义,内涵指的是色彩或协会所建议的概念的含义,传统的内涵。这不是一个重要组 成部分的文字的含义,但协会认为,可能会发生在头脑中一个特定的用户的语言。 Stylistic meaning. Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. ‘ 文体意义。除了其概念的含义,有许多词的文体特征,这使它们适合于不同的背景。 ' frozen’, ‘formal’, ‘consultative’, ‘casual’ and ‘intimate’. People generally do not go that far. They normally classify styles into ‘formal’, ‘neutral’ and ‘informal’. 冻结' , '正规' , '商' , '临时工'和'亲密' 。人们通常不会远。他们通常分类样式到'正规' , '中立'和'正规' 。 Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative. 情感的含义表明了说话人的态度的人或东西的问题。词的感情色彩值可能分为两类:赞赏或贬义。 Collocative meaning. This meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. 搭配意义。这意味着由协会获得一个词在其配置。换句话说,它是这一部分的文字含义的话建议之前或之后的 词的讨论。 Chapter 6 1 - A word which is related to other words is related to them in sense, hence sense relations. 文字是有关换言之与他们在某种意义上说,因此意义上的关系。 2 - When a word is first coined, it is always monosemic. 如果某个词第一次创造,它总是monosemic 。 3 - The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach. 问题的相互关系的各种意义,同一个词来处理来自两个不同的角度:历时方式和同步方式。 Diachronic approach. From the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. At the time when the word was created, it was endowed with only one meaning. This first meaning is the primary meaning. With the advance of time and the development of language, it took on more and more meanings. These later meanings are called derived meanings as they are all derived from the primary meaning. 历时办法。从历时的角度看,多义假定的结果,增长和发展的语义结构,并同一个词。在这个词的时候成立, 这是赋予只有一个含义。这是第一个意义是首要的意义。随着时间的推进和发展语言,它采取了越来越多的含 义。这些后来的意思是所谓的衍生含义,因为它们都来自主要的含义。 Synchronic approach. Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time, say. Modern English. In this way, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning. 同步的 方法 快递客服问题件处理详细方法山木方法pdf计算方法pdf华与华方法下载八字理论方法下载 。同步,多义词被看作是共存的不同含义的同一个词在一定历史时期的时间,说。现代英语。通过 这种方式,基本词义是核心词的含义所谓的中心意思。 4 - The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as radiation and concatenation. 发展一词的含义monosemy向多义如下两项课程,传统的辐射和串连。 Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. Concatenation, meaning ‘ 辐射是一种语义进程中的主要含义停留在该中心和中学的含义进行了它在每一个方向想rayes 。级联,意思是 ' linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until. 联系在一起' ,是语义的过程中,一个词的含义动作逐渐远离其第一感历届转移到。 Unlike radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to the primary meaning, concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other. 每个不同的辐射的衍生含义是直接连接到主要的意义,介绍了串联的过程,每一个后来的意思是只涉及前一个 像链。一般来说,辐射之前串连。在许多情况下,这两个进程一起工作,配合对方。 5 - Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 同音字的一般定义为不同的词的含义相同,但无论在健全和拼写相同或仅在声音或拼写。 6 - Based on the degree of similarity, homonyms fall into three classes: perfect homonyms, homographs and homophones. Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common. 基于一定程度的相似性,同音异义词分为三个档次:完美的同音,同形异义词和同音。 完美的同音字是相同的在健全和拼写,但不同的含义。同形异义词的词拼写相同,但只有在不同的声音和意义。 同音字是相同的声音,但只有在不同的拼写和意义。三类,同音构成人数最多和最常见的。 7 - There are various sources of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing, etc. Change in sound and spelling. Some homonyms are native by origin, derived from different earlier forms in Old English. The change in sound and spelling gradually made them identical in modern English. 有各种来源的谐音:变化中的声音和拼写,借款等 改变声音和拼写。有些谐音是本地的原产地,来自不同的早期形式的古英语。的变化,逐步健全和拼写他们相 同的现代英语。 Borrowing. As a result of heavy borrowing from other languages, many words of foreign origin coincide in sound and/or spelling with those of native origin or with those of other foreign origin. Shortening. Many shortened forms of words happen to be identical with other words in spelling or sound. 借款。由于大量借款从其他语言,许多外国血统的话正好在健全和/或拼写与本地出身或与其他外国血统。 缩短。许多缩短形式的话正好是相同换句话说在拼写或声音。 8 - The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. 的根本区别同音和polysemants在于,前者是指不同的话发生共享相同的形式,而后者是一个和同一个词有几 个区别意义。 One important criterion is to see their etymology. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. 一个重要的标准是看其词源。谐音是从不同来源而多义词是来自同一来源已经获得不同的含义在发展过程中。 The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries. 第二个主要的考虑是语义关联。各种意义的相关性和多义词是连接到一个中央的意义或多或少,另一方面,不 同的同音异义词的含义已不彼此。 在字典,一个多义词的含义有其所有上市,而下一个同音词被列为单独的条目。 9 - Synonymy is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages. Synonyms can be defined as word different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. Synonyms might be defined as ‘ ‘one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning. In other words, synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as in part of speech. 同义词是特征的词汇自然语言。别名可以定义为不同的声音字和拼写但大部分或几乎都完全一样的意义。别名 可能被定义为' '一两个或两个以上的字的英语将有相同或非常接近相同的基本含义。换言之,别名有着相似的外延以及部分 讲话。 10 - Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. It is observed that absolute synonyms are rare in natural languages and some people even hold that such synonyms are non-existent. Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary. 别名可分为两大类:绝对同义词和相对同义词。 绝对同义词也称为完全同义词是相同的字的含义的所有方面。在语法意义和词汇的含义,包括概念和联想意义。 它指出,绝对的同义词是罕见的自然语言,有些人甚至认为,这样的同义词是不存在的。绝对同义词限制高度 专业化的词汇。 Relative synonyms also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 相对同义词还呼吁近同义词是相近或相同的外延,但拥抱深浅不同的含义或不同程度的某一质量。 11 - Sources of Synonyms: Borrowing. Modern English is extremely rich in synonyms, which come from different sources. Dialects and regional English, Figurative and euphemistic use of words, Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 11 -源别名: 借款。现代英语是极其丰富的同义词,而来自不同的来源。方言和区域英文,图形和委婉使用的话,吻合惯用 表达 12 - The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation, connotation, and application. Difference in denotation. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning. Some words have a wider range of meaning than others. Difference in connotation. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. Difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns. 同义词之间的差别归结为三个方面:外延,内涵,以及应用程序。 不同的外延。别名可能不同的范围和强度的意义。有些词有更广泛的意义比其他国家。 不同的内涵。我们指的内涵和情感的文体色彩的话。有些字共用相同的外延,但不同的文体适宜。 不同的应用程序。许多词是同义词的含义,但在不同的使用简单。这些形式不同的搭配,并配合不同的句型。 13 - Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. Contradictory terms. These Antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. In other words, if one of the pair is true, then the other cannot be. Contrary terms. Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other. Relative terms. This third type consists of relational opposites. The pairs of words indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other. This type also includes reverse terms, which comprise adjectives and adverbs signifying a quality, or verbs and nouns signifying an act or state that reverse the quality, action or state of the other 反义涉及语义反对。反义词可以被界定为是相反的话中的含义。 矛盾的条款。这些反义词真正代表oppositeness的意义。他们如此反对对方,他们是相互排斥的,并承认他 们之间没有任何可能性。主张是否定的。换句话说,如果一个对是真实的,那么其他不能。 相反的条款。这种类型的反义词是最佳的角度来看的规模两极之间运行或走极端。这两个对立的升级和一个中 存在的比较与其他。 相对而言。这第三种类型包括关系对立。在对词表明这种互惠的社会关系,其中一人无法使用的其他建议。这 种类型还包括逆向条款,其中包括形容词和副词意味着质量,或动词和名词象征的行为或声明,扭转质量,采 取行动或国家的其他 14 - Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition. A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite. Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite. 一些特征反义词 反义词分类的基础上,语义反对。文字的内容具有多个含义可以有一个以上的反义词。反义词列入不同的语义。 相反条款分级反义词,不同程度的强度,所以每个都有自己的相应的对面。有些话可以有两种不同类型的反义 词在同一时间,一个是消极和其他相反。 15 - The Use of Antonyms Antonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of words. Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought, often for the sake of contrast. Many idioms are formed with antonyms. They look neat and pleasant, and sound rhythmic. Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together. 使用反义词 反义词有各种实际用途和长期证明有益和有价值的定义的含义的话。反义词是有益的,使我们能够反映经济的 相反特定思想,往往为了对比。许多成语的形成与反义词。他们期待着整洁舒适,和健全的节奏。反义词常常 被用来形成对立面,以实现把重点放在一起对比的想法。 16 - Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms. superordinate, subordinate 上下义关系处理的语义包容。也就是说,这意味着一个更具体的词是包含在另一个更普遍的词。这些特定的词 被称为下义词。上级,下级 17 - Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordiates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness. 上下义可以说是在树形图,与高阶superordiates以上较低的下属。但其地位,作为上级或下级是相对于其他 条款。 了解语义特征的下义词和他们的superordinates可以帮助我们实现逼真,精确,并具体化。 18 - The massive word store of a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, such as ‘philosophy’ or ‘ emotions’, others smaller, such as ‘kinship’ or ‘colour’. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory. 大规模的词存储的一种语言像英语可以设想为是由围绕着一些意义的领域,一些大的,如'哲学'或'感情' ,其他 规模较小的,如'血缘'或'颜色' 。看总的含义,这样的基础是场理论。 Chapter 7 1 - Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer. Of these, extension and narrowing are by far the most common. 词的意义变化的模式扩展,缩小,退化,海拔和转让。这些,扩大和缩小是目前最常见的。 2 - Extension of meaning, also known as generalization, is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized. 延长的含义,也被称为泛化,是名字被给扩大的意义进行了一些话。这是一个过程,一个字原来有一个专门的 意义现在已经成为普遍的。 A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometime in the course of development. Extension of meaning is also found in many technical terms, which as the term suggests are confined to specialized use. Words commonized from proper nouns have experienced the same semantic change. 很大比例的多义词的现代英语,其意义将在延长的发展历程。延长意义还体现在许多技术术语,这顾名思义限 于专门使用。关键词commonized从专有名词经历过相同的语义变化。 3 - Narrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. The same is true of material nouns, which are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense. 缩小含义,也称为专业化,是相反的扩大意义。这是一个过程,一个字的广泛的含义获得较窄或专门意义。 当一个共同的词变成一个专有名词,意思是相应地收窄。经济,缩短一些词组只有一个元素的原始,通常一个 形容词,是左保留的意义的整体。也是如此材料名词,这是用来指物体对他们提出,从而有一个更具体的意义。 4 - Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 海拔或改善指的是进程的话上升细说从前的职位的重要性。 5 - Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. 退化或pejoration的意思是相反的语义海拔。这是一个过程,良好的原产地的话落入不良声誉或非情感话来用 于贬义。 6 - Transfer. Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced, the process of semantic transfer. There is associated transfer, for example, the lip of a wound; the tongue of a bell; the nose of a plane, in which the meaning is transferred through association. 转让。话被用来指定一个事情,但后来改变意味着别的经历,这一进程的语义转移。有相关的转让,例如,嘴 唇的伤口;的舌头钟;鼻子的飞机,其中的含义是通过转移协会。 7 - There are generally two major factors that cause changes in meaning. 有一般两个主要因素造成的变化的意义。 Extra-linguistic factors: Historical reason. Class reason. Language is just like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists in human society. Naturally, it records the speech and attitude of different social classes. Psychological reason. The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psychological factors. Linguistic Factors: The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system. The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. the change of meaning is brought about by analogy. 非语言因素:历史原因。类的理由。语言就像一面镜子,反映了一切,在人类社会中存在。当然,它记录的言 论和态度,不同的社会阶层。心理原因。相关转让的意义和委婉使用文字等往往是由于心理因素。 语言因素:变化的含义可能是内部因素所造成的语言系统。借款的涌入造成了一些字的变化意义。变化的意义 是带来的比喻。 Chapter 8 1 - In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. . In a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. 从狭义上讲,它指的话,条款,判决中,一个单词出现。这就是所谓的语境这可能包括一个段落,整整一章, 甚至整本书。 从广义上来讲,它包括身体情况良好。这就是所谓的超语言或非语言方面,其中包括人,时间,地点,甚至整 个文化背景。 2 - Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. Lexical context This context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words. Grammatical context In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. 语境可分为词汇和语法方面的背景。 词汇方面这方面的话是指发生一起字的问题。一词的含义往往是影响和界定的邻国话。 语法方面在某些情况下,一个词的含义可能会影响到它的结构发生。这就是我们所称的语法范畴。 3 - The Role of Context: Elimination of Ambiguity, Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy.Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity. 语境中的作用: 消除含糊不清,往往产生歧义,由于多义词和homonymy.Grammatical结构也可能导致模棱两可。 Indication of Referents. Provision of Clues for Inferring Word meaning: In many cases, when a new word (thought to be) appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints which might help the readers to grasp the concept or understand the idea. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows: 说明所指。 提供线索推断词义:在许多情况下,当一个新词,被认为,似乎是第一次,作者一般管理给予提示可能有助于 读者掌握的概念或理解的想法。上下文线索大量不同,但可以归纳如下: 1) Definition. Often we find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term, e.g. 1 ,定义。我们常常发现,给出了正式的定义后,新一届,例如 2) Explanation. If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words. That is, he might make a restatement in known words e.g. 2 ,解释。如果概念很复杂,而且必须涉及的技术术语的定义,作者或许可以解释的想法简单的话。也就是说, 他可能会做出重述如在熟悉的单词 3) Example. In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or explanation, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term, e.g. 3 ,的例子。在某些情况下,而不是给一个正式的定义或解释,作者可以举一个例子足以揭示一词的含义,例 如: 4) Synonymy. Synonyms or synonymous expressions are frequently employed by authors to explain new words, e.g. 4 ,同义词。同义词或同义表达经常采用的作者解释新词,如: 5) Antonymy. Contrasting words or statements are also commonly used to explain unknown words, e.g. 5 ,反义。对比的词或报表也常用来解释未知字词,例如: 6) Hyponymy. Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue, e.g. 6 ,上下义。 Superordinates和下属往往界定和解释对方,从而形成的一个重要方面的线索,例如: 7) Relevant details. In some contexts, the author provides details relating to the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of the referent, e.g. 7 ,有关细节。在某些情况下,作者详细介绍有关未登录词,如功能,特点,性质等的参照,例如 8) Word structure. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words, e.g. 8 ,文字结构。语素结构的话,特别是化合物和派生词提供线索推断含义不明的词,如