Comparison of Chinese and English taboos

Comparison of Chinese and English taboos Abstract: Language is human specific with the development of human beings, language has played an important role in communication. Language as carrier or container of cultural information, for some reasons, there exist words or topics that people tend to avoid, and that is what we call the taboos. Taboos in a language reflect at least certain culture backgrounds and beliefs of the society. It is a phenomenon of linguistic. This paper illustrates how taboo come about and analyzes the similarities and differences of Chinese and English taboos, which based on the forms, features, reasons for its birth, and common using fields. Meanwhile, it gives us many good examples of Chinese and English taboos from all sides of our lives. And this paper aims to emphasize the relationship of Chinese and English. Taboos so as to pay more attention to. If we deal with them appropriately enable us to communicate well with foreigners ands avoid unpleasantness and enbarrassment. Key words:Taboos,Comparison, communication. 摘要:语言是人类所特有的。随着人类的发展，语言在交际中发挥着重要的作用。语言作为文化信息的传递者和承载者，由于某些原因，存在着许多人们尽量去避免的话 题 快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题 ，即我们所说的禁忌语。言语禁忌至少折射出一定的文化背景及社会信仰。它是一种语言现象。本文阐述了禁忌语的产生，并从其形式，特点，产生因素及使用领域分析了中英禁忌语的异同。同时也从我们生活的个方面举出许多中英禁忌语的例子。本文主要强调中英禁忌语的对比关系以便人们能注意并能恰当地运用好这些禁忌语，使人们能避免一些尴尬并能很好地进行交流。 关键词:禁忌语，对比，交流。 Contents Abstract Introduction 1.Taboos 1.1 Definition of taboos 1.2 Origin of taboos 2.Similarities between chinese and english taboos 2.1 Common forms 2.2 Common properties 2.3 Common reasons for its birth 2.4 Common using fields of taboos 3.Differences between Chinese and English taboos 3.1 Different religious and social class 3.2 Different using fields of taboos Conclusion Bibliography Acknowledgement Introduction With the increasing international communication and cooperations in politics,economics and education,etc.Cina is playing an important role in the world.At the same time ,we all know that the 29th olympic ganes will be held in Beijing.And many contests will be held in various cities of china.So chinese people will have more opportunities to meet and cooperate with foreigners.Nowadays,many chinese people have paid more attention to the english by many methods.Also,we can speak english very fluently.However, when we speak with foreigners,we often make jokes because of misuse of taboos.In fact,the main reason is that chinese people are ignorant of the western countries'taboos and confuse the chinese and english taboos.This thesis is not only analyzes the original of taboos ,but also discuss the similarities and differnces between chineses and english taboos from various aspects.Therefore, we can understand more about the phenonmenon of taboos and get along easily with forigners ,and avoid unpleasantness and embarrassment. 1.Taboos 1.1 Definition of taboos Simply speaking,a taboo is somethiong forbidden by religous,laws ,morals or society and it is a common social phenomenon of every nation.Taboos terms include coarse,obscene woads and words of unpleasant suggestion as well as basically normal,innocent words of that are associated with a taboo topic. Let's see the definition from OALD;taboo,in certain cultures,ban or something that is regarded for religious or other reasons as not to be done,touched,used.Taboo words,which likely to be considered offensive,shocking or indecent by certaijn pepole.[1] 1.2 Origin of taboos In 1777,the Britain sailor Janes Cook came to Tonga archipelagoes during the adventure,and he found many shocking social phenomenon there,for example,some words weren't allowed to use by local residents.They called it "taboo",which means "untouchable".From then on,the word"taboo"entered into the western sociology,anthropology and so on.In china,there are many taboo words along with the development of human beings.But taboos just as a kind of a social phenomenon appeared before the Han Dynasty.Later on,the taboo words enterd royal court widely. 2.Similarities between chinese and english taboos 2.1 Common forms There are two common forms of taboos between chinese and english.One is behavioural taboos and another one is verbal taboos. 2.1.1 Behavioural taboos Behavioural taboos mean what one cannot do without offending others.Taking the distance in social conversation,for example,unless they know each other while talking.This case is same to the chinese people.Unless the chinese people (especially the people of the different sex)know each other well,they dislike to embrace each other even though they are very happy. 2.1.2 Verbal taboos Verbal taboos mean what one cannot say without offending others.when we consider how to start our conversations,we should bear in mind that a very large number of the themes and topics found in the world today are not uttered freely among our human beings.We may think what we should speak ,what we should not speak,how to speak in a proper way when we want to express our likes and dislikes.On this point,the chinese is similar to the english. 2.2 Common properties 2.2.1 Universality Taboos exist in every nations of world.No matter the primitive tribe or modern civilized society and wherever in china or western countries.We can also say that the humanbeings were born while the various taboos are related to the behavior of language.At the sane time,with the development of the human beings and nature,the human beings and society. 2.2.2 Nationality Language is symbolic.The language of a nation can reflect a kind of culture, so do taboos.Of course,difference nations have their own features.The differences of histor,political systems,values,social customes and life styles between in china and western countries so as to cause the different patterns of taboos.In english,there are many tabooa about religious,criminal acts,drink and title and sex.In other areas,taboos occured very frequently. 2.2.3 Changeability Language is alive and changing all the time.Along with the human beings'activities.A word may be a taboo in one tine and then may be a common word.Once an American humorist listed a series of callings about the word "pregnant" in different times:she has cancelled all her social engagenents.(1856)she is an interesting condition.(1880)she is in a delicate condition.(1895)she is knitting little bootees.(1910)she is in a family way.(1920)she is expecting.(1935)she is pregnant.(1956)[2]We can see that people dare not to say something about"pregnacy".However,with the development of age,the meaning of pregnancy become more obvious.In the 1980s of china,we will hear"***小姐(Miss***)"in many public places and it shows respect of women.But by 1990s,if we entered hotels or restaurants,we dislike being called"Miss***".Because there is another meaning of "Miss***"."Miss"become the callings of prostitute.So we can know a common word become a taboo. 2.3 Common reasons for its birth 2.3.1 Element of words fetishism Languages is used for communication and it is created by people in a society together.It has no magical power.But many people think the language have the magical power which can bring lucks and disasters.In primitive society,people are not able to get known well about nature,the are frightened about natural phenomenon,especiallywhen faced catastrophe they believed there existed saints and devils in the world,and these saints and devils controlled their world.They wanted to get free fromm their horror, they will never call their names,because they believe "speak of the devil,it is sure to appear."Such case just a supersition.And taboos occured in our daily life because of these supersition.In western countries,they also believe God,Devil,Christ,etc.So they seldom or avoid to speak these words. 2.3.2 Element of psychological imagination Many taboos words no matter in chinese or english are based from the psychological imagination.Imagination is the feature of human brain.Under certain stimulus of conditions ,human experiences enter the human brain,and the experience are processed by human brain,then the imagination resulted.It is a behaviour of memory.In fact,sone words what we called profane words or obscene oaths have no appearance of bad .Just because of the effects of psychological imagination and reflection of condition.From the point of vocabulary,one word includes at least two meaning,that are appearance meaning and connotative meaning.The latter one we can say it as additional mwaning or emotional meaning.We can say that a word with emotional meaning is created by psychological imagination.[3]For example,many taboos about "sex"are related to the psychological imagination both in chinese and english. 2.3.3 Element of politeness In the process of communication,people will aviod to say something,such as some taboos about somebody's phychological defect or other defect.Because people want to show their friendliness and compassion to other pepole.Talking something which people like and avioding some words which people dislike.So that we can show the respect and politeness for others.Meanwhile,these unpolite words become taboos both in chinese and english. 2.3.4 Element of homophony When we discuss the reasons of taboos'birth,we will find an obvious fact,there are some words are not related to the taboos in meaning.However,these words are similar to the taboos in sound.And from time to time.these words gradully become the taboos.For example,in china,a clock should not be used as a gift because in chinese,"送钟(to give somebody a clock as gift)has the same pronunciation as "送终(to attend upon a dying person)",In English speaking countries,the people of thailand dare not say the two words:"frag and phrig".Because the pronunciation of the two words is similar to the pronunciation of "fuck and prick".But the two words:"fuck and prick",both of two are taboos in english.Therefore,we know that the element of homophony play an important role taboos in Chinese and English. To sum up,no matter traboos in Chinese or E,the reasons of its birth above-mentioned are common.We should pay more attention to the use of taboos. 2.4 Common using fields of taboos 2.4.1 About rude words As we know that rude words mean that swear words,profane or obscene oaths.Rude words often occured in people'daily life and they are taboos in either chinese or english.Rude words are oral and cater to the loving of the low-class .In English,some rude words may not pose a seriousa problem for a chinese learners of english as a foreign language who do not have many opportunities to hear them spoken in china.We should note that rude words are that some of them are more offensive than others.For example,when the english people want to swear others,they will say "Jesus chirst,Holy mary,Son of a bitch".Less offensive words"Damn,Damn it,Damn you,For christ's sake!God damn you,Hell.etc".This is also true for rude words in chinese.Some of them are strongly offensive.Others are less so and therefore may be heard from time to time.For example,"他妈的,该死的,砍头的,你这老东西"and so on.Although there are many rude words in chinese and english.We first should know these words and then need to aviod to using. 2.4.2 About physiological words People often avoid to talking about "physiological".Because the taboos of physiological words are caused by psychological imagination.So people often use theindirect speech,avoid or obscure words.Such phenomenon occured in chinese and english.For example,people dislike talking about diseasea.In ancient time of china,their names often called "霍去病,辛弃疾(get rid of diseases)."And in modern society,we 'll hear the names of "张壮,李康(keep heathy)".The chinese people use another expression to avoid taboos.Even people get illness,they would like to talk indirect speech about their diseases.In english, The Chinese people use another expression to avoid taboo. Even people get illness, they would like to talk indirect speech about their diseases. In English, the word of “ cancer” often called “ the big C” or “ long illness” or “ terminal illness”, “blind student” often called “ visually resarded student”; “ somebody is mad” instead of “ somebody has mental problem”. Talking about “pregnancy”, there exits taboos in Chinese and English, there are many substituted expressions for taboos in English, such as a hole out in one, an accident, eating for two, full of heir, to have a hump in the front, to have one watermelon on the vine and so on. In Chinese, people will say “她有喜了”, “她快要做妈妈了”, “身怀六甲”, etc,4,. Certain parts of the body and the terms of sexual are taboos in both Chinese and English. With the development of society, people’s attitude toward talking about sex and certain parts of the body is a little freer. Although the expression of “to make love and to have sex”, occurred in oral English speaking, it seldom occurred in the writing. The so-called “four letter words” (e.g. tits, dick, cunt, fuck) are still considered vulgar or obscene, improper in most speeches. In Chinese, we know that the sex morality of the Chinese people, especially the younger generation is a little open. However, when we talking about certain parts of body or sex is still considered improper. The Chinese people often shy and don not speak any words about that. About the expression of lavatory, there also exist taboos in both Chinese and English. The English speaking people often say “ men’ room, women’ room, ladies, gentlemen, comfort station, bathroom, washroom, rest room, W.C, toilet, etc.” And the expression of go to W.C: go and see my aunt, have a bm, where can I wash my hands? Visit John to do No. 1. job, visit John to do No.2. job. The Chinese people often say : “方便一下, 上大号,上小号,如厕, etc”. Death is also a large taboo in Chinese and English. The English speaking people often say “ to be asleep in the Arms of God, to be at peace, to be called to God, to be home and free, the final departure, final sleep, to go to one’s long home, to have found rest, in heavens, with God, etc.” Chinese people also avoid death, and they often say: “去世了，仙 逝了，到极乐世界，etc.” 2.4.3. About sexist words Sexual discrimination is a common social phenomenon in recent times and there has been a growing tendency to regard as taboo language that reflects a demeaning attitude towards certain groups in society. Sexist language in its present day connotation means primarily language demeaning to the female sex,5,. There are many sexist words in English, such as “bat”, “dog”, “mutton”, “trot”, “hag”, “and cat”, “cow” and so on. And there are some pejorative words occurred in English. Such as “crone”, “hen”, “beldom”. There are also some Chinese callings like “臭 三八”, “贱人”, “贱货”, “婆娘”, “老妈子”. These derogatory words have become full or half taboos. We will find a fact that some Chinese derogatory words usually contain “女”, e.g. 奸(evil, wicked), 婪(greedy), 阴森(gloomy, ghastly), 阴谋(plot, conspiracy). With the changes of woman’s status in China, certain changes have taken place in the language with fewer expressions of contempt. 2.4.4. About occupation words With the development of education, people focus on the title of their occupation. After all, everyone wants to improve their positions. So there exist some taboos about occupation in Chinese and English. People would not like to hear these words, like “bus boy, cobbler, fore man, floor waller, hair dresser, hire girl, janitor, milkman, pawn broker, telephone answerer, undertaker and so on”. Also, Chinese people dislike to hear these words, like “扫地的，挖煤的，管道工，佣人，补鞋匠，殡仪工， etc.” We must pay attention to this taboos, so as to show the respect for others. 2.4.5. About color number and flower About the color, number and flower taboos, which exist in either Chinese countries or English countries. The red color is usually associated with celebrations and joyful occasions. This is true in both English and Chinese. In English we will find such expressions as a red letter day and the red carpet. “A re letter day” refers to “a day special looked forward to, or remembered, when something remarkable and usually pleasurable will happen, or happened.” “the red carpet” is a symbel of respectful reception or attention. In Chinese, “双喜” double happy symbolize an event of special joy, such as a wedding or opening a business. “红双喜” specifically refers to a wedding。 “披红挂彩” is a traditional way to celebrate an event of happiness. “开门红” is the symbolic of good fortune,6,. So the Chinese and English people use red to avoid bad things. These numbers between one and thirteen have a powerful influence over the matters of people both in Chinese and English. In Chinese, Four is usually though of a unlucky number because its pronunciation is similar to the Chinese word “”. So, people choose telephone numbers avoiding the number four. Thirteen, in English, which is regarded with great awe and fear. The English people believe that a fact that there were 13 people at Christ’s last supper. This being the eve of his betrayal, it is not difficult to understand the significance given to the number by he early Christmas. Nowadays, 13 is an especially unlucky number of a thdinner party. Hotels will avoid numbering a floor the 13, the progression is from 12 to 14, and no room is given the number 13. many home owners will use 12 1/2 instead of 13 as their house number. Even to be thborn on the 13 of the month is regarded with fear or bad. Flowers are the favorite thing for people, especially when people meet the guest people should present flowers, such as in airport, in our daily life. People will present flowers and express our congratulations, lovings or greetings. In western countries, they believe that the chrysanthemums is used to mourn the dead person and so that they can not expose it freely. In contrast, the Chinese people have no special taboos about flowers. The Chinese people just pay attention to the occasion of presenting flowers. 3. Different between Chinese and English taboos 3.1. Different religious and social class Most English taboos are caused by religious and beliefs of religious. Because western countries’ people believe in Christ. And native speakers of English are afraid of God or devils. So they dislike using “God, Christ, Jesus, Holy, Mary” in public place. American linguistic Bloomfield said: “ All religious words in English, like God devil, heaven, hell, Christ, Jesus damn, these words often take place in formal speech”,7,. According to the records of Bible, the God gives warnings to Israeli which one is that Thoo Shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain:for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taken his name in rain. Compare to the western countries, the ancient society is different. Because it has Buddhism, Islamism and Taoism. These three religious have little influence to China. We all know ancient China is a feudal country, which is called as a vertical society. It emphasizes on the classification social class. So Chinese taboos are caused by social class. For example, in tang dynasty, Taizong named Li Shimin, because of the grade system, people in the state applied the word “代”to substitute for the word “世”, “人” to the word “民”. Even in Buddhism, Guen Shiyin also abstracted to Guanyin, which change the writing of the word. Meanwhile, in modern China we give names to the body, we often avoid to going one similar word of their grandfather or father’s name. And the young generation wil show respect for the elder people, they often avoid to calling their full names. 3.2. Different using fields of taboos 3.2.1. About privacy In English and Chinese, there are great different about privacy. In western countries, anything related to privacy or considered personal are taboos. For example, people’s age, income, political and religious beliefs, etc. are noemally considered too personal to talk about. It is improper to ask a strange or a person for his personal information if we don not understand each other. Some people may not mind and will readily talk about such things. But it is impolite to ask unless the other person shows that he or she will not be offended. If you ask an Englishman “Where are you going?” o these are eaten?” he might think you are very rude. The Englishmen think that is the private matter. “Where I am going, whether I have eaten.” These are their own things. You should mind your own business. Any direct question about the age of a stranger or a person one does not know well is improper. Native speaker of English, especially females, are very sensitive to their age. There is a birthday card: You may not like to be reminded that you are a year older today, but that would not keep me from saying “Happy birthday!” This sentence shows that English people do not like to be asked about their age. Therefore, “How old are you” or “What is your age?” is an impolite question. Even “May I know your age” is inappropriate in most situations. Of course, if for some reason one has to know the age of a person, one might give the reason before asking the question, e.g. At a hotel, the receptionist may need some personal information about a guest for registration purpose ,8,.Then the English people will say their age. Meanwhile, calling a woman in her fifties or older may embarrass her, if you ask her age. Personal income is also taboo. It is improper to ask a person how much he makes or what his income is. It is also inappropriate to ask a person how much he paid for a bottle of wine, a piece of furniture or a car. We should know it is not so bad to ask a man his age or income, but it is also not very good. But you should never ask a woman her age and personal questions, or remark, such as “Why do not you get married?” or “I should think you would want to have some children.” How come you are still single,” so you are divorced. Some of these expressions are permissible in China, but they are subjects to be avoided in Britain. There are other private affairs are impolite. It is exceedingly improper to read their letters or papers. And on no account should a letter addressed to one person be opened by another unless he has been definitely asked to do so. It is very rude to look at what some person is writing. If you are waiting for someone in a room, did not go around examining things. It is all right to pick up and read a magazine or newspaper from the table. But do not touch anything else. Never try to hear a conversation when it is not intended for you. In China, there is no concept of privacy. Even though there is much discussion on the concept of privacy in mass media and many Chinese, especially the educated young people, openly accept the concept of privacy, their behavior, may still be strongly influenced by environmentalist or collective Chinese culture. Some questions about people’s personal lives are still being asked to show intimacy and concern. In some cases, people ask questions about each other’s age, income, material status and family but in fact they are not really interested in them. Just ask it. It is very important to Chinese people and English people to know each other’s different taboos and communicate very well. 3.2.2. About names and appellatives Appellatives reflect the relationship of people in society. It is the product of special culture. Generally speaking, the taboos of names seldom occurred in English. The English people in order to show respect for the ancestors, and they address these family members or relatives by using their names. In western countries, especially the United States, the slogan of “all men are created equal” is very popular. And this concept is deep in the mind of people’s. The children call their parent’s names. The English people are very friendly. And in short, family members and relatives can call each other’s name freely. However, in Chinese the names of the family members or relatives who are one generation or two can not be called freely. The children are never allowed to address their grandparents, parents, uncles or aunts by using their names. And even the names of their elder brother and sisters are not used. This is the reason of concept of grade. About this point, foreigners can not understand well about the Chinese habits. Conclusion As we know, the highest level of mastering a language is not the language itself but to use it to complete communication successfully. And the special phenomenon of taboos, in a certain historical period, is the result of the different nations recognize the world. And it also can show the nation’s different ways of thinking. About the comparision of Chinese and English taboos, which enlarge the area of linguistic researches and improve the development of the study of linguistic. It also have a profound and realistic effect on eliminating misunderstanding and embarrassment caused by the taboos. It is necessary for us to pay attention to the different taboos so that we can get along easily with foreigners. Bibliography [1]. As Hornby. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary: Fourth Edition [M]. 北京:三联 书 关于书的成语关于读书的排比句社区图书漂流公约怎么写关于读书的小报汉书pdf 店,1980:82. [2]. 陈原.语言与社会生活 [M].北京三联书店, 1982: 82 [3]. Leech, G. N. Semantics [M]. Hamondsworth: Penguin Books, 1983a. [4]. 严莉芬, 中西禁忌语.委婉语差异的对比研究 [J].中南民族大学 学报 (人文科技学版), 2005(5). [5]. 杜学增.中英 (英语国家) 文化习俗比较 [M].北京, 外语教学与 研究出版社, 1999. [6]. 王振亚.语言与文化 [M]. 北京, 高等教育出版社, 1999:241. [7]. 张莹.汉语禁忌语的文化对比分析 [J], 继续教育研究, 2004(5). [8]. 王振亚. 语言与文化[M]. 北京, 高等教育出版社, 1999:283. Acknowledgement This paper would not have been written without the support and assistance of my supervisor, Professor . His suggestions help me understand the richness of taboos in general. Under his encouragement and help, I choose the comparison of Chinese and English taboos as my specific topic of research. Professor is very instrumental in enlightening ideas which greatly improve the level of my thesis. Thanks to him, the thesis could reach present form. I am also very grateful to other elevating to the job of helping me in my thesis, Professor . She takes a lot of time to give me the greatest support and guidance. My final acknowledgement should go to the support from the English department. The English library provided me many useful materials and books, the contributions to create the ideas in this thesis.