犹大的秘密

犹大的秘密 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 犹大的秘密 —被误解的耶稣门徒的故事和丢失的犹大福音 犹大在耶稣最有影响的门徒中，即使不是最著名的，那也一定是最臭名昭著的。 他是跟随耶稣的十二位传道者之一，这十二位门徒自始至终坚定不移追随耶稣，直到耶稣告诉彼得鸡叫两遍以前要三次不认他，抑或是夹着尾巴逃回加利利， 又或者是，犹大必须要背叛。犹大是否只是按照耶稣的指示，履行圣经的预言，实施上帝的 计划 项目进度计划表范例计划下载计划下载计划下载课程教学计划下载 让耶稣为我们的罪孽而死去, 为什么他会用一个吻让犹太人的当权者认出耶稣，难道只是为得到三十个银币, 关于这些，新约的福音 书 关于书的成语关于读书的排比句社区图书漂流公约怎么写关于读书的小报汉书pdf 和新约以外的犹大福音都是怎么讲的呢, 犹太人和非犹太人的基督教派别 为了能够清楚的了解新约福音中的犹大，首先我们必须要了解福音本身所谈到的内 他们的主要目的容，因为福音书作为时代的产物，是为公元一世纪下叶的教会服务的。 不是用来纪录历史，而是基督教徒对耶稣事迹的记载。 “福音书”， “好消息”，这些都是用来传播福音而不是简单的用来告知的。 这些传道者们竭力阐述他们在福音中所纪录的传统，以此达到传播福音的目的。 因为我们所知道的犹大都是从这些福音书里面找到的，所以，我们在搞清楚这些传教者的传教程序之后，才能够回到福音书出现的半个世纪之前，讨论历史上的犹大。 耶稣亲自进行的 “公开传道”很大程度上只限于犹太人， 而且他的门徒也都是犹太人。那些经历过耶稣复活之后迎接圣灵降临的人，都是来自于耶稣出现之前的世界各地的犹太人。他们聚集在耶路撒冷，庆祝犹太人的节日。基督教诞生于这种带有犹太人性质的历史背景下，而犹大也是其中的一份子。 无论过去或现在犹太教都是非常有影响力的坚持道德和一神论的宗教，在犹太人和非犹太人中都具有相当的号召力。人们敬佩犹太人高尚的道德标准，并且赞赏他们在罗马帝国所实行的礼拜形式:这种宗教仪式没有过时的教堂布置和动物祭祀 1 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 (限于耶路撒冷的教堂)，只是通过阅读他们用希伯来语撰写的圣经手稿， 并用听者的常用语言进行阐释，以达到教化和激励的目的。非犹太人喜欢参加这些在犹太人的synagogues(希腊语，表示集会)中举办的宗教仪式。但其中少数人实际上是愿意加入犹太教，通过进行割礼和严格遵守犹太人的生活方式从而成为犹太教徒。这种人叫做皈依者。 犹太教的宗旨是要摆脱他们所在的社会中的种种欲望。 他们更愿意在安息日的时候参加这种犹太人集会，其余的时间就过这平常的生活。这些参加犹太人集会的非犹太人被称做“敬神者”， 而不是“犹太人”。 在保罗曾经讲道的犹太人集会中，这些敬神者恰恰是最赞同保罗传道思想的，因为保罗给予他们的正是他们想从犹太教得到的，即一种高尚的道德理想， 没有动物祭祀，也没有对他们社会关系的种种陈旧的制约。洗礼比割礼要好得多～ 因此非犹太人的基督教会慢慢的发展起来，远远超过了耶稣在加利利所剩下的门徒的数量，与此同时真正的犹太人基督教会趋于衰落。 耶稣复活之后，巴拿巴受命在安提阿招募了最杰出犹太教皈依者:法利赛教派的保罗，他来自于现代土耳其南海岸的塔尔色斯，一个在非犹太人的世界中长大的犹太人。《使徒行传11:25-26》 保罗和巴拿巴带着非犹太人的基督教皈依者提多，到耶路撒冷犹太基督教会的核心人物中传道。非犹太人提多，尽管未受过割礼，应该被认为是一个合格的基督教徒(加拉太书 2:3)。耶路撒冷教会勉强承认了这一点(使徒行传15:19-21)， 并且与保罗和巴拿巴达成一致安排:原来的门徒继续履行他们犹太教徒的使命，同时也帮助保罗和巴拿巴去未受割礼的非犹太人中传教(加拉太书2:7-9)。为了耶路撒冷教会中的穷人，保罗同意，在非犹太人教会中进行传教并招募信徒。 耶路撒冷委员会批准了这项促进基督教团结的 方案 气瓶 现场处置方案 .pdf气瓶 现场处置方案 .doc见习基地管理方案.doc关于群访事件的化解方案建筑工地扬尘治理专项方案下载 ，但是这在不同教会的聚集地安提阿是很难实施的，因为保罗和巴拿巴实际上已经没有遵循只和犹太人一起进食的习惯，也就没能维持其仪式的纯洁性。相反，他们和不同教会的所有人一起进食。上帝的晚餐是不能被分离开的～就算是在耶路撒冷传教的彼得，也加入到这一显示基督教宽容的行动中。然而，耶稣的兄弟雅各，派使者到安提阿去要求犹太基督教徒必须只和犹太人同桌进食来保持宗教仪式的纯洁性， 就算是有非犹太人的教会也不应该例外(加拉太书2:12)，雅各在当时已经掌管了耶路撒冷的教会(使徒 2 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 行传15:13)。所以彼得自己回到了只有犹太人的饭桌上，甚至巴拿巴也尾随其后(加拉太书2:11-13)。但是保罗坚持自己的立场，谴责折中依靠犹太人的纯洁性来实施救赎的行为(加拉太书2:14-21)， 从那时侯起，他的传教士传教时就拒绝安提阿教会或者犹太基督教的支持。 从保罗那时起， 这种犹太基督教和非犹太基督教派别之间的疏远愈演愈烈。耶路撒冷委员会的普世教会运动为人数更多且更繁荣的非犹太基督教会让路，而作为回报，非犹太基督教会把小型的犹太基督教会看做异教进行抵制。 到公元4世纪，位于塞浦路斯的萨拉米斯城的主教--埃皮法尼乌斯， 写了反对犹太基督教的著作，把犹太基督教称做“以便尼派”和“拿撒勒派”的异教流派。前一个表示“贫穷”， 第二个表示“来自拿撒勒” ，这两个名字原本都是代表耶稣和他的门徒的～犹太基督教徒所做的一切，就是要像耶稣那样，在做基督徒的同时，继续他们的犹太人生活方式。当然，我们今天不会称他们为异教。 犹太人和非犹太人的福音 在保罗的后代中，犹太人和非犹太人都把他们关于耶稣的珍贵回忆搜集起来，写进福音里。犹太基督教徒编进口头传诵的福音Q当中，而非犹太基督教徒则编进叙事性的马可福音中。福音Q没能在圣经新约中以书面形式纪录下来，主要是因为圣经新约是非犹太教徒的书，而不是犹太教徒的书。我们知道福音Q仅仅只是因为它作为泛基督教主义的最后体现，两个派别都决定将口头传诵的福音Q和叙事性的马可福音结合，成为一本独一无二的福音书，当然，这两个派别都有自己的想法。马太是从犹太基督教徒的观点出发，而路加是从非犹太基督教会出发。所以尽管非犹太教会迅速的停止了福音Q的传播，所有手稿已经不复存在，但还是有可能很准确的重新编写福音Q，正如我为这个目的而组织的学者团队所做的一样。 福音Q根本没有提到犹大这个人，但是马可福音以及随后的新约中的福音都描述了这个熟悉的场景—犹大带着犹太当权者们来到客西马尼花园去逮捕耶稣。但在犹大福音出现的历史背景下， 我们更应该对这个众人皆知的故事重新审视。事实上， 3 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 在犹大福音被再次发现以前，一位著名的孟诺派学者已经进行过这样的研究工作，即William Klassen在1996年的著作“犹大:耶稣的叛徒还是朋友,”。这些都需要我们重新来做研究调查，是否犹大福音应该被正确的理解。但首先我们要熟悉新约中的福音，因为不管是对犹大的敌对态度，还是逐渐形成的对犹大的更加宽容的观念，都可以在这些福音中得到体现。我们从第一本非犹太基督教徒的福音-马可福音开始说起。 非犹太人的马可福音 马可福音描述了耶稣的门徒中对耶稣一无所知的人，关于耶稣是谁和耶稣想要做什么。你应该很想知道为什么会有人死心塌地的跟随耶稣，或者你想知道为什么马可这样描述～所以我们来看看马可是怎样描述他们的，然后找出原因。 在耶稣说完播种的故事之后，带着惊讶的语气问他的门徒(马可福音4:13): 你们能够理解这个故事吗,如果可以，那你们是怎样理解的呢, 后面的整个章节的故事，都是耶稣很认真的给他的门徒门做讲解(马可福音4:33-34): 为了让人们听懂布道，耶稣使用了这样的比喻。若不用比喻，就不对他们讲。没有人的时候，就把一切的道讲给门徒听 而这些门徒似乎仍然不解其意(马可福音4:40-41): 耶稣对他们说，为什么胆怯。你们还没有信心吗, 他们就十分惧怕，彼此说，这到底是谁，连风和海也听从他了 他们看起来仍然没有理解耶稣是谁。 当船中的门徒看到耶稣在水上行走，并向小船走过来(马可福音6:50-52) 。。。因为他们都看见了他，且甚惊慌。耶稣连忙对他们说，你们放心。是我，不要怕。 于是到他们那里上了船，风就住了。他们心里十分惊奇。 这是因为他们不明白那分饼的事，心里还是愚顽 回头看到众人的食物，耶稣问(马可福音8:17-21): 耶稣看出来，就说，你们为什么因为没有饼就议论呢,你们还不省悟，还不明 4 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 白吗,你们的心还是愚顽吗,你们有眼睛看不见吗,有耳朵，听不见吗,也不记得吗, 我掰开那五个饼分给五千人，你们收拾的零碎，装满了多少篮子呢,他们说，十二个。 又掰开那七个饼分给四千人，你们收拾的零碎，装满了多少筐子呢,他们说，七个。 耶稣说，你们还是不明白吗, 耶稣知道他的门徒有多么不值得信任，这一点并不奇怪(马可福音14:27-28) 耶稣对他们说，你们都要跌倒了。因为经上记着说，我要击打牧人，羊就分散了。 马可福音中耶稣的12个门徒中有多少个陪着耶稣一直到最后，到十字架的脚下,一个也没有～耶稣清楚的知道没有一个人会跟他一起死，然而他们会迅速的逃回加利利，正如耶稣在坟前对虔诚的女人所说的一样(马可福音16:7) 你们可以去告诉他的门徒和彼得说，他在你们之前已先往加利利去。在那里你们会看见他，正如他从前所告诉你们的。 在客西马尼花园中，耶稣的门徒已经完全撤离(马可福音14:37-41): 耶稣回来，见他们睡着了，就对彼得说，西门，你睡觉吗,不能儆醒片时吗, 总要儆醒祷告，免得入了迷惑。你们心灵固然愿意，肉体却软弱了。 耶稣又去祷告，说的话还是与先前一样。 又来见他们睡着了，因为他们的眼睛甚是困倦。他们也不知道怎么回答。 第三次来，对他们说，现在你们仍然睡觉安歇吧。够了，时候到了。看哪，人子被卖在罪人手里。 就这样，反派角色犹大登场了。但是，根据我们对马可福音中耶稣门徒的描述所做的调查，十二个门徒中没有一个能比犹大出色。一些人认为像犹大这样的无赖不可能被选做耶稣的十二个门徒之一，并成为最核心的人物。但是，从马可福音的描述，犹大恰恰是最适合的～ 对于彼得的描述至少应是正面的，因为他毕竟是教会建立的奠基人，但不是在马可福音中，而是马太福音对彼得的行为进行了澄清(马太福音16:18)。在马可福音中，彼得在Caesara Philippi城向耶稣祷告，“你是救世主”(马可福音8:29)，这让事情又发生了转变(马可福音8:31-33): 说罢，他(耶稣)训他们说，人子必须受许多的苦，被长老祭司长和文士弃绝，并且被杀，过三天复活。 耶稣明明白白的说了这番话， 彼得就拉着他，劝他。 耶 5 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 稣转过来，看着门徒，就责备彼得说，撒旦，退我后边去吧。因为你不体贴神的意思，只体贴人的意思。 彼得，不是信徒，而是撒旦,发生了什么事情,“撒旦，退我后边去吧” 这话应该是对犹大说的，为什么要对彼得这么说呢, 在橄榄山上，耶稣曾预言过这十二个门徒会背弃他(马可福音14:27-31): 耶稣对他们说，你们都将是弃我而逃者。因为经上记着说，我要击打牧人，羊就分散了。 但我复活以后，要在你们之前先往加利利去。 彼得说，众人虽然弃主而逃，我总不能。 耶稣对他说，我实在告诉你，就在今天夜里，鸡叫两遍之前，你要三次不认我。 彼得却极力地说，我就是必须和你同死，也总不能不认你。众门徒都是这样说。 那么彼得有没有跟随耶稣直到最后呢,根据马可福音记载，没有～相反，马可福音说(马可福音14:50): 门徒都离开他逃走了。 当耶稣在被大祭司审问的时候，彼得“保持一段距离”跟着他(马可福音14:54)。然后彼得就完全认罪了(马可福音14:66-72): 彼得在下边的院子里，大祭司的一个使女见彼得烤火，就看着他说，你素来也是同拿撒勒人耶稣一伙的。 彼得却不承认，说，我不知道，也不明白你说的是什么。于是出来，到了前院。鸡就叫了。 那使女看见他，又对旁边站着的人说，这也是他们一伙的。 彼得又不承认。过了不多的时候，旁边站着的人又对彼得说，你真是他们一伙的，因为你是加利利人。 彼得就发咒起誓地说，我不认得你们说的这个人。 立时鸡叫了第二遍。彼得想起耶稣对他所说的话，鸡叫两遍以先，你要三次不认我。想到这些，他就痛苦地哭了。 从马可福音对彼得的描述来判断，如果彼得像犹大一样跑出去自杀了断也不足为奇，因为他们都当众背叛了耶稣。但是，彼得却活的好好的，犹大就是相反的命运～ 他们在被认为是彼得坟墓的地方建造了世界上最大的总教堂。但是马可对于这项巨大的集资建造工作没出一分钱。幸运的是，这是发生在马可死后的很久很久以后的事情了。 6 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 马可福音中关于耶稣家庭成员的描述比那些使徒也好不了多少。马可福音中没有对耶稣童年的描述，所以整个耶稣诞生的故事是没有的。相反，耶稣的家庭是以耶稣为耻的，因为他们相信耶稣精神不正常，所以他们要让耶稣从公众前消失。马可福音中列出12个门徒名单之后，出现了“犹大，就是出卖耶稣的人”这句话，整个故事便结束了(马可福音3:19-21，31-35): 耶稣进了一个屋子，众人又聚集，甚至他连饭也顾不得吃。 耶稣的亲属听见，就出来要拉住他，因为他们说他癫狂了。„当下耶稣的母亲，和弟兄，来站在外边，打发人去叫他。 有许多人在耶稣周围坐着。他们就告诉他说，看哪，你母亲，和你弟兄，在外边找你。 耶稣回答说，谁是我的母亲，谁是我的弟兄。于是就四面观看那周围坐着的人，说，看哪，我的母亲，我的弟兄。 凡遵行神旨意的人，就是我的弟兄姐妹和母亲了。 “神圣的家庭”?在马可福音中基本没有出现!马可福音中犹大是被描述成比神圣的家庭更差的吗?同样的贬低行为也使用于耶稣的家乡-拿撒勒(马可福音6:1-6): 马可福音中对十二信徒，特别是对彼得的描写，以及对神圣家庭和耶稣故乡的描写中，都与犹大有莫大的关联，这到底是怎么回事? 耶稣原来的门徒建立的犹太基督教会和非犹太基督教会逐渐疏远,当时非犹太基督教会不断兴盛,马可成为他们第一个传道者.在那样的背景下,马可福音这么果断的贬低12个门徒和神圣家庭就不那么让人惊讶了.人们只能回想起由保罗反映出来的那种紧张的关系(加拉太书1:15-19;2:1-14) 人们是否应该期望非犹太人教会的福音变的更受欢迎呢? 而不像保罗对彼得(矶法, 亚兰语“石头”)那样?保罗“当面反对彼得,因为他受到良心的责备”,而且反对割礼派,伪善者,和行动与福音不符的人,更别说在耶路撒冷反对彼得的假信神者了?毕竟保罗已经清楚的警告过除马可福音以外的其他福音(加拉太书1:6-9) 实际上人们应该决不会期望非犹太基督教会的福音只热衷于保罗毅然贬低的人!保罗给12门徒(矶法和约翰)的信中的描述,尤其是对彼得(矶法)和神圣家庭成员(雅各)的描述,跟马可福音里对彼得十二门徒和神圣家庭的负面描述都极度吻合.我们不应该期望相反的情况出现.但是我们不得不问,马可福音中对这些人的描述都是完 7 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 全公正的吗?或者他们只是保罗和马可神学的受害者? 马可对于十二门徒的犹大的描述又暗示了什么呢? 马可福音的特点是对耶稣受难和死亡过程的叙述和很长的说明文字.早在耶稣被钉死于十字架的故事发生之前，马可福音好像已经把重点放在对十字架的描写上了。在很早的时候,耶稣将被杀害的阴谋就被写进这个故事里(马可福音3:6) 法利赛人出去，同希律一党的人密谋，怎样可以除灭耶稣。 然后,马可福音的后半部分就是一次又一次的重复耶稣对自己会被钉死在十字架上的预言,而且是非常详细的描述,甚至对彼得也是一样(马可福音8:31-32): 从此他教训他们说，人子必须受许多的苦，被长老祭司长和文士弃绝，并且被杀，过三天复活。耶稣明明白白的说了这些话。 在从耶稣变容的山上下来的时候,耶稣随意的向他的三个门徒彼得,雅各和约翰提到他刚才的复活(马可福音9:9): 下山的时候，耶稣嘱咐他们说，人子还没有从死里复活，你们不要将所看见的告诉人。门徒将这话存记在心，彼此议论从死里复活是什么意思。 如果耶稣没有告诉他们三天之后他又可以活过来的话, 事情又会是什么样的局面呢? 那之后不久,马可福音中又第二次详细描述了耶稣受难日和耶稣复活的预言(马可福音9:30-32): 于是教训门徒，说，人子将要被交在人手里，他们要杀害他。被杀以后，过三天他要复活。门徒却不明白这话，又不敢问他。 然后,耶稣第三次更加详细的描述了将要发生的事情(马可福音10:32-34): 耶稣又叫过十二个门徒来，把自己将要遭遇的事，告诉他们说，看哪，我们上耶路撒冷去，人子将要被交给祭司长和文士，他们要定他死罪，交给外邦人。他们要戏弄他，吐唾沫在他脸上，鞭打他，杀害他。过了三天，他要复活。 实际上,这是马可福音中关于耶稣受难和复活的故事非常详细的叙述(马可福音 15-16).事实上,人们普遍认为这样详细的描述并不是由耶稣自己描述的,而是由传道者们以耶稣的口吻进行阐述。 甚至只就耶稣被钉死于十字架进行传道的保罗福音(歌林多前书1:23;2:2),也 8 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 以耶稣的口吻在马可福音中偶然出现过一次(马可福音10:45): 因为人子来，并不是要受人的服事，乃是要服事人，并且要舍命，作多人的赎价。 通过对耶稣受难的这些提示，更不用说那些非常详细的描述了，马可福音中耶稣完全有理由在最后的晚餐中提到(马可福音14:21):“人子必要去世，正如经上指着他所写的。”犹大只是比彼得和其他的门徒更加清楚的理解到，其实为世人的罪而受苦难是耶稣自己的意愿，是和圣经中所描述的完全一致的(歌林多前书15:3)。 马可福音中， 耶稣的死被描绘成是预言的兑现，也是上帝的指示，而耶稣和他的十二个门徒也完全意识到了这一点。耶稣默默的接受了上帝的指示而死去，虽然犹大遵从上帝的指示将耶稣出卖，导致耶稣被杀，但让人惊讶的是，马可福音竟然是以一种责备的口吻来描述这些事情的(马可福音14:18-21): 他们坐席正吃的时候，耶稣说，我实在告诉你们，你们中间有一个与我同吃的人要出卖我了。他们就忧愁起来，一个一个地问他说，是我吗, 耶稣对他们说，是十二个门徒中同我蘸手在盘子里的那个人。人子必要去世，正如经上指着他所写的。但出卖人子的人有祸了，那人不生在世上倒好。 不过，根据马可福音所说，如果犹大没有出现在这个世界上，圣经又如何可以完成呢,上帝的指示又如何可以实现呢,耶稣又如何按照圣经的所写为世人的罪孽而受难呢(歌林多前书15:3),为什么犹大只是在完成他的使命，却要遭受磨难,上帝还有耶稣，都希望犹大做什么呢, 马可福音解释说犹太人当权者想要杀死耶稣，但是必须私下逮捕他(马可福音14:1-2): 祭司长和文士，想法子怎么用诡计捉拿耶稣杀他。只是说，过节的日子不可，恐怕百姓生乱。 耶稣用这些话来嘲笑逮捕他的人，并且强调说他们所做的即是按照圣经所记载的(马可福音14:48-50): 耶稣对他们说，你们带着刀棒，出来拿我，如同拿强盗吗, 我天天同你们在殿里讲经布道，你们并没有拿我。但这事成就，为要应验经上的话。 门徒都离开他逃 9 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 走了。 因此犹大就帮助犹太人的当权者抓住了耶稣并将他处死。从马可福音的观点来说，犹大绝对不只是一个被选中出卖耶稣的无辜的人，这也是犹太教会的人通常所持有的观点。他们的目的不是为了知道耶稣是什么人，要做什么事，审问完之后就回放了他。他们只是想用诡计捉拿耶稣并最终杀掉他(马可福音14:2)。这是他们初衷，因为法利赛教派和希律王室的人都在密谋要杀掉耶稣(马可福音3:6)。所以，从马可福音的记载来看，犹大最多只是这场罪行的同谋者。马可福音不能只是说犹大是按照上帝和耶稣的指示做事，就完全掩盖事实的真相。 马可福音中极度生动的描述了客西马尼花园所发生的事，而犹大是中心人物(马可福音14:43-45): 说话之间，忽然那十二个门徒里的犹大来了，并有许多人带着刀棒，从祭司长和文士并长老那里与他同来。卖耶稣的人曾给他们一个暗号，说，我亲吻的人便是耶稣。你们把他拿住，牢牢靠靠的带去。犹大来了，随即到耶稣跟前说，拉比，便与他亲吻。 理所当然这一段文字让犹大从此背负上了千古的骂名。 犹太人口头传诵的福音Q 犹太基督教会的第一代人主要都说亚拉姆语， 并且没有任何书面的文字流传下来。毕竟，大多数门徒其实都不识字。但幸运的是，在某段时间里他们确实把耶稣的话翻译成了希腊文，毫无疑问目的是为了在说希腊语的犹太人中传教。他们甚至把耶稣所说的话采编成册。所以我花了20年的时间来重写这本福音Q，并且组织一群学者来实现这个目的。让我解释一下: 我们在2000年出版了福音Q评论， 里面记载的都是耶稣曾经说过的话。这不是一本在圣经新约中有过记载的书籍。相反，它是有潜在意义的，而且需要被重新阐述。这就是为什么马太福音和路加福音会出现福音Q的 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 ，并且同马可福音一起，被用来编写福音，推行基督教普及运动。马太福音是从犹太基督教的观点出发，路 10 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 加福音则是从非犹太基督教的观点出发。所以凡是同时出现在马太福音和路加福音中的话，都不是从马可福音来的(因为在马可福音中是没有的)，那么一定是来自于另外一个福音。一个世纪前的学者叫称这个来源为Q，表示来源的德语Quelle的第一个字母。现在我们用他来代指福音Q，以便于将它和新约中的四本叙事性福音书区别开来:他们是马太福音，马可福音，路加福音和约翰福音。 因为福音Q本身没有任何表示章节的数字，所以我们用路加福音的章节数字来表示。这是因为路加福音非常准确地按照福音Q的顺序编排，而马太福音则不是。福音Q中没有关于耶稣出生时期的记载，所以福音Q就从路加福音第三章施洗约翰开始讲。福音Q的第一章就因此被叫做Q3。福音Q的资料零散的记载于马太福音和路加福音中，但是在路加福音22章讲耶稣受难之前就结束了。所以福音Q最后一章是Q22。 福音Q是为了让门徒们继续传达耶稣的指示而编写的，是一些还没有公开过的话，所以它没有对耶稣“公开传道”这类事情进行过多的描述。重要的并不是谁对谁说了什么，而是这些话对你是有决定作用的—是能影响你的命运的～也许是因为这个原因所以没有对这些传递信息的人的名字的记载。这十二个门徒的名字都没有出现过，即使是彼得和犹大～ 犹太人教会普及基督教的马太福音 马太福音好像是在福音Q中的犹太教会和马可福音中更庞大的非犹太人教会合并的时候所写的。这两个宗教团体的福音的合并是基督教普及运动的一种表现，证实了双方教派希望能够和谐相处的愿望。 马太福音补充了特别多在马可福音中关于犹大的纪录。马可福音把犹大受贿的主谋归咎于大祭司(马可福音14:11)。但是在马太福音中，犹大实际上是要求大祭司对他行贿的(马太福音26:15):“我把他交给你们，你们愿意给我多少钱,”马太福音则在最后的晚餐中确定谁会出卖耶稣的时候对犹大做了更多的描述(马太福音26:25): 出卖耶稣的犹大问他说，拉比，是我吗,耶稣说，你说的是。 11 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 这虽不是直截了当的回答，不管怎么样，读者能够感受到:犹大会来做这件事。 马太福音在纪录这一幕的时候让犹大称耶稣为拉比，而不是在福音中通用的上帝，这点是很有意义的。当然在最后的晚餐中或者别的地方，耶稣都是被称为拉比，亚拉姆语的老师。在那时侯拉比还没有专门的意思表示犹太人的牧师，而只是一个犹太词语表示对宗教领导者的尊重。 但是马太福音和路加福音好像对“拉比”或者“拉波尼”这类词有非常明显的厌恶:马可福音在有一个地方称耶稣为拉波尼(马可福音10:51)，而马太福音和路加福音在同一个地方用的却是Lord(上帝)(马太福音9:28;路加福音18:41)。另外一个例子是马可福音中彼得称耶稣为拉比的地方(马可福音11:21)，马太福音省略了这个称呼(马太福音21:20)，而路加福音省略了这个事件。 只有当马可福音中描述犹大称耶稣为拉比的时候(马可福音14:45)，马太福音保留了这个称呼(马太福音26:49);路加福音在这个地方完全省略了这个称呼(路加福音22:47)。 实际上，路加福音中从来没有出现过拉比这个称呼。拉比是福音中对非犹太人最有力的称谓了～关于犹大称耶稣为拉比，其实在马太福音中有第二个例子(马太福音26:25)，同其他福音都不相同。这明显是因为马太福音是否定犹大的。犹大对耶稣的这种称谓证明他是一个卑劣的门徒。 实际上，马太福音很明显是反对用拉比这个词的，因为福音中说到司法界和法利赛教派的老师被这样叫是出于自傲(马太福音23:5-7): 他们所做的一切事，都是要叫人看见。所以将佩戴的经文做宽了，衣裳的褶子都长了。喜爱筵席上的首座，会堂里的高位。又喜爱人在街市上问他安，称呼他拉比。(拉比就是夫子) 因此就避免用这个称谓了(马太福音23:8): 但你们不要接受拉比的称呼。因为只有一位是你们的夫子。你们都是弟兄 所以马太福音强调只有犹大才称耶稣为拉比～ 当犹大在客西马尼花园用亲吻的方式来告诉犹太当权者谁是耶稣的时候，马太福音中耶稣又说(马太福音26:50):“朋友，做你要在这里做的事吧。”这基本上是对犹大罪恶之吻的一种宽恕～很讽刺的是，耶稣在这种情形称犹大为“朋友”，这个词是很少从耶稣口中说出的～ 12 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 然而马太福音是所有福音中唯一一本描写犹大忏悔的。他把钱还给了大祭司和长老们，并说(马太福音27:4):“我卖了无辜之人的血，是有罪了。”后来当他们露出毫不在乎的表情，犹大就“把那银钱丢在殿里，出去吊死了。”(马太福音27:5) 马太福音作为犹太人的福音书，完全有理由对耶稣的犹太门徒进行比较正面的描绘，甚至比保罗福音和马可福音中的描述都要正面。毕竟是马太拯救了彼得，没有让他变成撒旦，而是变成了岩石(马太福音16:18-19): 我还告诉你，你是彼得，我要把我的教会建造在这磐石上，阴间的权柄，不能胜过他。(权柄 原文 少年中国说原文俱舍论原文大医精诚原文注音大学原文和译文对照归藏易原文 作门)我要把天国的钥匙给你。凡你在地上所捆绑的，在天上也要捆绑。凡你在地上所释放的，在天上也要释放。 很自然，马太福音保留了彼得对耶稣受难的预言的清冽反对，这让彼得仍然被责备是恶魔的化身。但马太福音让这段对话变得有血有肉，显得不是那么的令人诧异，让人更容易理解(马太福音16:22-23): 彼得就拉着他，劝他说，主阿，万不可如此，这事必不临到你身上。耶稣转过来，对彼得说，撒旦退我后边去吧。你是绊我脚的。因为你不体贴神的意思，只体贴人的意思。 这里保留了马可福音的批判主义，但是从某种程度上来说有所减轻。为了宣告彼得反对耶稣受难是无罪的，福音中又加了这么一句话:“主阿，万不可如此，这事必不临到你身上。”而耶稣则说明自己为什么要责备他:“你是我的羁绊。” 马太福音完全有理由去为彼得澄清，因为彼得毕竟是福音的主要人物，当然是排在耶稣之后的。如果说马可福音是第一个塑造彼得人物形象的福音书，那么马太福音就是第一个为罗马圣彼得教堂奠定基础的福音书。 非犹太人教会普及基督教的路加福音 路加福音把耶稣公开传道时期描述成一个非常理想化的时代，一个同耶稣传道之前完全不同的时代，也是一个与路加福音所描述的传道之后截然不同的时代。 13 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 我们都很熟悉路加福音中把耶稣复活之后的教会的开始描写成一个辉煌的时期，但是却没能持续到最后。在路加福音的使徒行传中，教会的开始是理想化的，大家都非常愿意共享各种物品和金钱，几乎达到了一种基督教意义上的共产主义。然而，路加福音出现的那个时代其实不是这样的。那只是教会的萌芽阶段，路加福音以一种欣赏和怀旧的态度来看待，而不是当作一种生活方式来效仿。已经不是模仿的时候了。 路加福音用一种很相似的方法来描述耶稣的传道，把它看作是过去的理想，但对现在却没有实用价值。路加福音中记载，魔鬼用完了各样的试探，就暂时离开耶稣(路加福音4:13)。魔鬼在耶稣受难前找到了适合的机会，并再次出现进入了犹大的心(路加福音22:3)并且去诱惑彼得(路加福音22:31)。在魔鬼没有出现的这段时间，是路加时期的天堂，就像一个不能再现的田园时期，更像是基督教会的理想化的开始。这跟耶稣的传道也是相符合的。 这个没有魔鬼的理想化时期，与路加福音中福音Q的内容非常吻合。福音Q在路加福音3:2的施洗约翰开始，一直到路加福音22:30耶稣受难之前结束。实际上，这个田园时期恰好在福音Q结束后的下一章就消失了。就在路加福音22:30引用福音Q的结论之后，路加福音22:31就描述撒旦再现来诱惑彼得出卖耶稣。路加福音中取消了福音Q中所提到的使命指引的(在路加福音10:1-16中引用)。那些指引是这样表述的(福音Q10:4): 不带钱包，背包，鞋，拐杖，在路上也不和任何人打招呼。 看看路加福音是怎样避开讲使命指引，为叙述耶稣受难做好准备的(路加福音22:35-38): 耶稣又对他们说，我差你们出去的时候，没有钱囊，没有口袋，没有鞋，你们缺少什么没有。他们说，没有。耶稣说，但如今有钱囊的可以带着，有口袋的也可以带着。没有刀的要卖衣服买刀。我告诉你们，经上写着说，他被列在罪犯之中。这话必应验在我身上，因为那关系我的事，必然成就。他们说，主阿，请看，这里有两把刀。耶稣说，够了。 路加福音用这种方式为马可福音中突然描述逮捕犹大的场景埋下了伏笔(马克福音14:46-47): 14 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 他们就下手拿住他。旁边站着的人，有一个拔出刀来，将大祭司的仆人砍了一刀，削掉了他一个耳朵。 所以，通过重新武装这些门徒，路加福音停止了福音Q时期的描写，尽管那看起来是很美妙的， 从而再次进入了这个尔虞我诈的真实的世界。有福音Q做铺垫，路加福音就可以按照马可福音对耶稣受难的故事的描写继续前进，讲述非犹太教会的使命，并在使徒行传中和在对保罗在希腊世界的循环往复中以此为例。 这种把历史划分为理想的过去和真实的现在的方法并不能使路加福音略去福音Q中使命任务的描述，尽管他们在现在看来是过时的，是已经被耶稣正式撤消了的。更正确的说法应该是，路加福音将他们以最古老的形式保存起来了(路加福音10:1-16)。并没有人要求路加福音将其不断更新来符合现实世界的情况，在马太福音中却相反。马太福音比较墨守陈规，因此随着时间的流失，它不得不对内容做一些调整。最明显的是，通过耶稣的说明，马太福音证明了由犹太教徒组成的使团是有存在价值的，这个犹太教徒的使团是用来反对非犹太人和撒马利坦会的，很可能一直持续到马太福音时期(马太福音10:5b-6，23): 外邦人的路，你们不要走。撒玛利亚人的城，你们不要进。宁可往以色列家迷失的羊那里去。有人在这城里逼迫你们，就逃到那城里去。我实在告诉你们，以色列的城邑，你们还没有走遍，人子就到了。 人们肯定能预料到，这个犹太教徒组成的使团现在仍然存在耶路撒冷的教会中。当约翰派遣使者到安提阿去在上帝的晚餐中强制执行分裂政策， 保罗则是竭尽全力的反对。 在路加福音中，耶稣没有跟彼得说，“到我后面去，撒旦～”这一幕本应出现在路加福音9:22之后，和马可福音的8:33对应，但这一幕全部不见了。撒旦本想附彼得的身，但是被耶稣拯救了(路加福音22:31-32): 主又说，西门，西门，撒旦想要得到你们，好筛你们，像筛麦子一样。但我已经为你祈求，叫你不至于失了信心。你回头以后，要让你的弟兄更坚强～ 但是撒旦却抓住了犹大(路加福音22:3): 这时，撒旦如了那称为加略人犹大的心，他本是十二门徒里的一个，他去和祭司长并守殿官商量，怎么可以把耶稣交给他们。他们欢喜，就约定给他银子。他应 15 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 允了，就找机会要趁众人不在跟前的时候，把耶稣交给他们。 人们可能会想，被撒旦附体的犹大，耶稣应该很容易就能看出并为他驱魔，就像耶稣为一个癫痫患者多做的一样(马克福音9:17-29) 即使门徒已经很熟练驱魔的方法了。他们一从七十人的使团回来，就说(路加福音10:17-18): 那七十个人欢欢喜喜地回来说，主阿，因你的名，就是鬼也服了我们。耶稣对他们说，我曾看见撒旦从天上坠落，像闪电一样。 如果说存在一个最著名的门徒，曾经被耶稣驱除过附身的一个魔鬼，或者更精确的说，应该是驱逐出七个魔鬼，那当然就是马利亚抹大拉了。 和他同去的有十二个门徒，还有被恶鬼所附，被疾病所累，已经治好的几个妇女，内中有称为抹大拉的马利亚，曾有七个鬼从她身上赶出来。又有希律的家宰苦撒的妻子约亚拿，并苏撒拿，和好些别的妇女，都是用自己的财物供给耶稣和门徒。 很难想像犹大是否真的是被魔鬼附体了，或者是被撒旦附体，而耶稣和十二个门徒中没有任何一个人最终将魔鬼驱逐出来。从另一种角度看，路加福音中关于犹大被撒旦附体的描述更象是对犹大的诬蔑，而不是讲述的事实真相。犹大并不是真的被附体了。 关于马可福音中耶稣说其中有一个人会背叛他的场景，路加福音修改了很多，尽管只是一些小的细节(路加福音22:21-22): 看哪，那卖我之人的手，与我一同在桌子上。人子固然要照所预定的去世。但卖人子的人有祸了。 谁的手在桌上并没有讲清楚，但是却取代了马可福音所提到的那个和耶稣同吃一盘菜的人。约翰福音中清楚的说明了这个人就是犹大(约翰福音13:26)。路加福音中耶稣说和他一起坐在桌上某个人会出卖，然后又说:(路加福音22:23): 他们就彼此对问，是哪一个要作这事。 马太福音中耶稣直接告诉犹大说的就是他(马太福音26:25)，而路加福音中却在这加入了之前在马克福音中出现过的一幕(马克福音10:41-45):门徒们开始争论他们之间哪一个可算为大(路加福音22:24-30)。这一幕是由雅各和约翰的要求触发，他们一个要求坐在耶稣左边，一个要求坐在右边(马克福音10:38-40)。 16 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 这里的写法看起来很笨拙，所以马太福音就换成了他们的母亲的请求(马太福音20:20-23)，而路加福音完全没有记载，只写了添加了后来在最后的晚餐中引发的讨论--关于谁才是最伟大的人，而没有认定犹大就是会出卖耶稣的那个人。 在客西马尼花园，路加福音加上了犹大带着人群来抓耶稣的事实(路加福音22:47)。当犹大亲吻耶稣的时候，耶稣意识到这是给犹太人的信号(路加福音22:48): 犹大，你用亲吻的暗号出卖人子吗, 犹大马上就从现场消失了，但是在马克福音中却讲到一个祭司长的奴隶右耳被一个门徒切掉了，路加福音中的耶稣责备了这个不知名的门徒(路加福音22:51): 耶稣说，不要再这样做了。就摸那人的耳朵，把他治好了。 对待来抓他的人，耶稣仍然有这么广阔的胸襟，这就好象教皇约翰保罗二世一样，原谅了那个试图暗杀他的人。实际上，在耶稣被钉死于十字架上的时候，只有路加福音中耶稣这样说到(路加福音23:34): 父阿，赦免他们。因为他们所作的，他们不晓得。 犹大去了哪里最后并没有说明。路加福音中，犹大为他所做的付出了代价(使徒行传1:18): 这人用他作恶的报酬，买了一块田，以后身子仆倒，肚腹崩裂，肠子都流出来。 约翰福音 毫无疑问，约翰福音是最败坏犹大名声的。约翰福音中是这么说的(约翰福音6:64-71): 只是你们中间有不信的人。耶稣从一开始就知道，谁不信他，谁要卖他。耶稣又说，所以我对你们说过，若不是蒙我父的恩赐，没有人能到我这里来。从此他门徒中多有退去的，不再和他同行。耶稣就对那十二个门徒说，你们也要去吗,西门彼得回答说，主阿，你有永生之道，我们还归从谁呢,我们已经信了，又知道你是神的圣者。耶稣说，我不是拣选了你们十二个门徒吗,但你们中间有一个是魔鬼。耶稣这话是指着加略人西门的儿子犹大说的。他本是十 17 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 二个门徒里的一个，后来要卖耶稣的。 我们一直的疑问是，犹大为什么会被耶稣接纳并且成为他十二个门徒之一，约翰福音做了很重要的解释。如果耶稣是一开始就知道犹大会出卖他的话，那耶稣应该正式为了这个目的而接纳犹大的。 路加福音中把彼得被撒旦附身(马克福音8:33)，改写成了犹大被撒旦附身(路加福音22:3)。约翰福音也记载的是犹大被撒旦附身。他把这一细节在最后的晚餐之前就早早的描述出来了。 在人们都很熟悉的一幕，耶稣到了伯大尼的麻风者西蒙家里，或者象路加福音描写的，还在加利利的时候，耶稣来到一个法利赛人家里(路加福音7:36)。一个女人(路加福音7:37，一个妓女)，拿着盛香膏的非常昂贵的玉瓶，把香膏浇在了耶稣的头上(路加福音7:38:他的腿上)，因此人们(路加福音7:39:法利赛人)对这样的浪费都很愤怒。路加福音是将在麻风者家里发生的故事，改编成了一个能更好的为其反对法利赛人的观点服务的故事，如果从这能看出这一点，那当我们发现约翰福音也改编了一个相似的故事，目的是为了更强烈的谴责犹大的行为，也就不觉得有什么奇怪的地方了。 约翰福音也讲述了一个人们很熟悉的故事，就是耶稣来到了玛利亚和马大的家里(路加福音10:38-42)，玛利亚并不只是为耶稣进食服务，而是专心聆听耶稣的教诲，并且受到赞颂。这就形成了反对犹大的论点之一(约翰福音12:1-8): 逾越节前六日，耶稣来到伯大尼，就是他叫拉撒路从死里复活之处。有人在那里给耶稣预备筵席。马大伺候，拉撒路也在那同耶稣坐席的人中。马利亚就拿着一斤极贵的真哪哒香膏，抹耶稣的脚，又用自己头发去擦。屋里就充满了膏的香气。有一个门徒，就是那将要卖耶稣的加略人犹大，说，这香膏为什么不卖三十两银子周济穷人呢,他说这话，并不是挂念穷人，乃因他是个贼，又带着钱囊，常取其中所存的。耶稣说，由她吧，她是为我安葬之日存留的。因为常有穷人和你们同在。只是你们不常有我。 很明显，路加福音和约翰福音，都是利用耶稣的传统故事的其中一个，改变其人物和情节，让它为这两本福音书的观点服务。同样明显的是，嗜钱如命的犹大，看起来是为穷苦的人着想，实际上为了偷取耶稣和其他门徒的钱财，对犹大的这些 18 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 诅咒都很可能只是约翰福音编造出来的，而不是与事实吻合的。在最后的晚餐的时候约翰只需要提到魔鬼已经占据了犹大的身体让他出卖耶稣(约翰福音13:2)，更尖锐的是约翰福音写的是撒旦是在耶稣给他饼的时候进入了犹大身体的(约翰福音13:27)。 约翰福音中耶稣认定犹大是会出卖他的那个人，最后的晚餐中耶稣将要和门徒分离的所说的话，就证明了这一点(约翰福音13:1-2，4-11，18-19，21-30): 逾越节以前，耶稣知道自己离世归父的时候到了。他既然爱世间属自己的人，就爱他们到底。吃晚饭的时候，(魔鬼已将卖耶稣的意思，放在西门的儿子加略人犹大心里)。就离席站起来脱了衣服，拿一条手巾束腰。 随后把水倒在盆里，就洗门徒的脚，并用自己所束的手巾擦干。挨到西门彼得，彼得对他说，主阿，你洗我的脚吗,耶稣回答说，我所作的，你如今不知道，后来必明白。彼得说，你永不可洗我的脚。耶稣说，我若不洗你，你就与我无分了。西门彼得说，主阿，不但我的脚，连手和头也要洗。耶稣说，凡洗过澡的人，只要把脚一洗，全身就干净了。你们是干净的，然而不都是干净的。耶稣原知道要卖他的是谁，所以说，你们不都是干净的。我这话不是指着你们众人说的。我知道我所拣选的是谁。现在要应验经上的话，说，同我吃饭的人，会出卖我。如今事情还没有成就，我要先告诉你们，叫你们到事情成就的时候，可以信我是基督耶稣说了这话，心里忧愁，就明说，我实实在在地告诉你们，你们中间有一个人要卖我了。门徒彼此对看，猜不透所说的是谁。有一个门徒，是耶稣所爱的，侧身挨近耶稣的怀里。西门彼得点头对他说，你告诉我们，主是指着谁说的。那门徒便就势靠着耶稣的胸膛，问他说，主阿，是谁呢,耶稣回答说，我蘸一点饼给谁，就是谁。耶稣就蘸了一点饼，递给加略人西门的儿子犹大。他吃了以后，撒旦就入了他的心。耶稣便对他说，你所作的快作吧。同席的人，没有一个知道是为什么对他说这话。有人因犹大带着钱囊，以为耶稣是对他说，你去买我们过节所应用的东西。或是叫他拿什么周济穷人。犹大受了那点饼，立刻就出去。那时候是夜间了。 当耶稣和门徒分离前的演说随着神圣的祷告结束，又来了一段对犹大的回忆(约翰福音17:12): 我与他们同在的时候，因你所赐给我的名，保护了他们，我也护卫了他们，其 19 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 中除了那灭亡之子，没有一个灭亡的。好叫经上的话得应验。 犹大在约翰福音中的最后一幕是在抓耶稣的时候(约翰福音18:1-12): 耶稣说了这话，就同门徒出去，过了汲沦溪，在那里有一个园子，他和门徒进去了。卖耶稣的犹大也知道那地方。因为耶稣和门徒屡次上那里去聚集。犹大领了一队兵，和祭司长并法利赛人的差役，拿着灯笼，火把，兵器，就来到园里。耶稣知道将要临到自己的一切事，就出来，对他们说，你们找谁,他们回答说，找拿撒勒人耶稣。耶稣说，我就是。卖他的犹大也同他们站在那里。耶稣一说我就是，他们就退后倒在地上。他又问他们说，你们找谁,他们说，找拿撒勒人耶稣。耶稣说，我已经告诉你们，我就是。你们若找我，就让这些人去吧。这要应验耶稣从前的话，说，你所赐给我的人，我没有失落一个。西门彼得带着一把刀，就拔出来，将大祭司的仆人砍了一刀，削掉他的右耳。那仆人名叫马勒古。耶稣就对彼得说，收刀入鞘吧。我父所给我的那杯，我岂可不喝呢,那队兵和千夫长并犹太人的差役，就拿住耶稣，把他捆绑了。 犹大在这个故事中是一个不可缺少的角色，因为是他带着犹太人来抓耶稣的。但是跟其他福音书相比，他的作用是最小的。没有死亡之吻的出现。就约翰福音来讲，他完成了自己的使命，然后就从历史中消失了。 宗教经典福音和使徒行传中的犹大 从最宗教经典的福音书和使徒行传的调查来看，我们可以看到每一本都是怎样描写犹大这个形象的，但都是在传播犹大的卑劣形象，从最开始一直到现在无数个世纪。但是经过调查，我们会发现，犹大并不如我们想像中的那么卑劣。 当然，这些书中也没有出现任何词语来为犹大辩护，更不会像犹大福音一样，想要把犹大塑造成英雄的形象。现代学者指出他实际上不是背叛耶稣的“叛徒”(路加福音6:16例外)，而是在履行自己的使命，正如希伯来圣经所预言的那样， 他的使命是耶稣预知的，甚至可以说是耶稣安排的。但是宗教经典的文章中还是有对犹大罪恶的唾弃，最后犹大太过自责只能选择自杀。这不是一个按照希伯来圣经所 20 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 写做事或者遵照耶稣指示的人应有的下场。但是如果对犹大是歌颂，而不是责备，需要一个价值观的完全转变，正如犹大福音所体现的一样。 21 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 The Secret of Judas ---The story of the Misunderstood Disciple And His Lost Gospel Judas Iscariot is, if not the most famous, then surely the most infamous, of the inner circle of Jesus‘ disciples. He was one of the twelve apostles who stuck with him through thick and thin to the bitter end, until it became time to deny him three times before the cock crew twice, or tuck one‘s tail between one‘s legs and run for life back to Galilee, or, if you must, betray him. Is Judas just fulfilling biblical prophecy, implementing the plan of God for Jesus to die for our sins, doing what Jesus told him to do? Why else does he identify Jesus to the Jewish authorities with a kiss, just for thirty pieces of silver? What do the Gospels inside the New Testament—and then what does The Gospel of Judas outside the New Testament—tell us about all this? Jewish and Gentile Confessions In order to be able to understand the presentation of Judas in the Gospels of the New Testament, it is first necessary to understand the Gospels themselves, as products of their own time, serving the purposes of churches in the last third of the first century. They were not primarily historical records, but rather were Christian witnesses to Jesus, ―Gospels,‖ ―Good News.‖ They were written for evangelizing rather than simply to inform. The Evangelists worked hard to formulate the traditions they recorded in such a way as to convey the evangelizing point they had in mind. Since most of what we know about Judas is found in these Gospels, we must first become familiar with this evangelizing procedure of the Evangelists, before we can move back behind them half a century to talk about the historical Judas himself. Jesus‘ own ―public ministry‖ was largely confined to Jews, and his disciples were Jews. Those who had the Pentecost experience of receiving the Spirit after Easter were Jews from all over the ancient world. They had gathered in Jerusalem to celebrate a 22 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 Jewish festival. And Judas was a part of this very Jewish context out of which Christianity was born. Judaism was (and is) a very impressive ethical monotheistic religion, appealing not only to Jews, but also to Gentiles. They admired the high ethical standards of the Jewish community, and appreciated the form of worship they practiced throughout the Roman Empire: a religious service without the outdated trappings of a temple with animal sacrifice (confined to the temple in Jerusalem), but rather with an edifying, uplifting reading from their holy scriptures in Hebrew, followed by its interpretation in the everyday language of the audience. Gentiles liked to attend these services in Jewish synagogues, a Greek word that means ―assemblies.‖ But few of them were actually willing to convert to Judaism, to become Jews, ―proselytes,‖ by undergoing circumcision and accepting strict conformity to the Jewish lifestyle. Judaism meant abstaining from much of the desirable social life of their community! They preferred to attend the synagogue on the Sabbath, but live their normal lives the rest of the week. These Gentiles who attended the synagogue were called ―God-fearers,‖ but not ―Jews.‖ In the Jewish synagogues where Paul preached, these God-fearers were those who were most sympathetic to his message, for he offered them precisely what they wanted from Judaism: the high ethical ideal without animal sacrifice or outdated restrictions on their social relations. Baptism was much better than circumcision! And so the Gentile Christian Church blossomed, far surpassing in numbers what was left of Jesus‘ disciples in Galilee, the withering Jewish Christian Church. Barnabas had enlisted for his mission in Antioch the most prominent convert from Judaism since Easter: the Pharisee Paul, from Tarsus on the southern coast of modern Turkey, a Jew raised out there in the Gentile world (Acts 11:25–26). Paul and Barnabas took Titus, a Gentile convert to Christianity, with them to Jerusalem to convince the ―pillars‖ of the Jewish Christian Church there that this Gentile, though uncircumcised, should be recognized as a fully accredited Christian (Gal. 2:3). The Jerusalem Church conceded the point (Acts 15:19–21), and reached a working arrangement with Paul and Barnabas: the original disciples would continue their mission limited to Jews, but gave the right hand of fellowship to Paul and Barnabas to continue converting uncircumcised Gentiles (Gal. 2:7–9). Paul in turn agreed to make a collection 23 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 in Gentile churches for the poor of the Jerusalem Church (Gal. 2:10; Acts 11:29–30). This fine ecumenical solution ratified by the Jerusalem Council proved difficult to implement back in the mixed congregation of Antioch, for Paul and Barnabas had in practice given up their Jewish custom of eating only among Jews to retain their ceremonial purity. Instead they ate together with all members of their mixed congregation. The Lord‘s Supper could not be segregated! Even Peter, there for a visit from Jerusalem, went along with this tolerant Christian practice. But Jesus‘s brother James, who by then had taken over the leadership of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:13), sent delegates to Antioch to insist that Jewish Christians should eat only at a table with Jews, to retain their ceremonial purity, even if the congregation included Gentiles (Gal. 2:12). So Peter himself withdrew to a Jews-only table, and even Barnabas went along with this segregation (Gal. 2:11–13). But Paul stood his ground, denouncing this reliance on Jewish purity as a condition for salvation (Gal. 2:14–21), and from then on did his missionary work without the support of the church of Antioch or of Jewish Christianity. From Paul‘s time on, this alienation between the Jewish and Gentile branches of Christianity only got worse. The ecumenicity of the Jerusalem Council gave way to the dominance of the more numerous and prosperous Gentile Christian Church, which ―returned the favor‖ by rejecting the small Jewish Christian Church as heretical. By the fourth century, Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis on Cyprus, wrote against the Jewish Christians, calling them heretical sects of ―Ebionites‖ and ―Nazarenes.‖ The first term means ―the poor,‖ the second ―from Nazareth.‖ Both were originally names for Jesus and his disciples! All these Jewish Christians were doing was continuing their Jewish lifestyle, as had Jesus, while being Christians as well. Surely, we would not call them heretics today! Jewish and Gentile Gospels In the generation after Paul, each side had collected their treasured recollections of Jesus into Gospels, the Jewish Christians into their Sayings Gospel Q, and the Gentile Christians into their Narrative Gospel Mark. One main reason that the Sayings Gospel Q did not become a book within the New Testament is that the New Testament is the book 24 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 of the Gentile Christian Church, not the book of the Jewish Christian Church. We know about the Sayings Gospel Q only because, as a last expression of that ecumenism, both confessions decided to merge both the Sayings Gospel Q and the Narrative Gospel Mark into a single Gospel, each from their own perspective, of course. Matthew did it from the perspective of the Jewish Christian Church, Luke from the perspective of the Gentile Christian Church. So it is possible to reconstruct rather accurately, as a team of scholars I organized for that purpose have done,1 the Sayings Gospel Q, though no manuscripts have survived because it soon ceased to be copied by the Gentile Christian Church. The Sayings Gospel Q made no reference at all to Judas, but the Narrative Gospel Mark, followed by the other Gospels in the New Testament, presented the familiar picture of Judas leading the Jewish authorities to the Garden of Gethsemane to arrest Jesus. But it is precisely this familiar story that needs to be reexamined, in the context of the emergence of The Gospel of Judas. Indeed, before The Gospel of Judas was rediscovered, a distinguished Mennonite scholar had already undertaken just such a reexamination: William Klassen‘s 1996 book Judas: Betrayer or Friend of Jesus? did just that. 2 All of this now calls for our own reexamination, if The Gospel of Judas is to be correctly understood. But first we must familiarize ourselves with the Gospels of the New Testament themselves, from which our quite understandably hostile feelings about Judas, as well as an emerging more tolerant attitude toward Judas, are both derived. We begin with the first Gentile Christian Gospel, the Gospel of Mark. The Gentile Gospel of Mark Mark presents the inner circle of Jesus‘ disciples as being very ignorant about Jesus, as to who he was and what he was trying to do. You really have to wonder why they followed him at all—or you have to wonder why Mark portrayed them that way! So let‘s see how he did portray them, and try to figure out why. After telling the Parable of the Sower, which even I can understand, Jesus asked the disciples with amazement (Mark 4:13): Do you not understand this parable? Then how will you understand all the parables? A whole chapter of parables follows, which Jesus has to explain rather pedantically 25 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 to them (Mark 4:33–34): With many such parables he spoke the word to them, as they were able to hear it; he did not speak to them except in parables, but he explained everything in private to his disciples. Yet the disciples seem still in the dark (Mark 4:40–41): He said to them, ―Why are you afraid? Have you still no faith?‖ And they were filled with great awe and said to one another, ―Who then is this, that even the wind and the sea obey him?‖ They still don‘t seem to understand who Jesus was. When the disciples in the boat see Jesus walking on the water toward the boat (Mark 6:50–52): . . . They all saw him and were all terrified. But immediately he spoke to them and said, ―Take heart, it is I; do not be afraid.‖ Then he got into the boat with them and the wind ceased. And they were utterly astounded, for they did not understand about the loaves, but their hearts were hardened. Looking back on the feedings of the multitudes, Jesus asks (Mark 8:17–21): ―Why are you talking about having no bread? Do you still not perceive or understand? Are your hearts hardened? Do you have eyes, and fail to see? Do you have ears, and fail to hear? And do you not remember? When I broke the five loaves for the five thousand, how many baskets full of broken pieces did you collect?‖ They said to him, ―Twelve.‖ ―And the seven for the four thousand, how many baskets full of broken pieces did you collect?‖ And they said to him, ―Seven.‖ Then he said to them, ―Do you not yet understand?‖ It is not surprising that Jesus knows just how unreliable the inner circle is (Mark 14:27–28): And Jesus said to them, ―You will all become deserters; for it is written, ?I will strike the shepherd, and the sheep will be scattered.‘‖ How many of this inner circle of the Twelve does Mark portray as being with him at the end, at the foot of the cross? None! Jesus knew quite well that none would die with him, but that they would do a quick retreat to Galilee, as Jesus told the faithful women at the tomb (Mark 16:7): 26 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 But go; tell his disciples and Peter that he is going ahead of you to Galilee; there you will see him, just as he told you. In the Garden of Gethsemane, the inner circle had been out of it completely (Mark 14:37–41): He came and found them sleeping; and he said to Peter, ―Simon, are you asleep? Could you not keep awake one hour? Keep awake and pray that you may not come into the time of trial; the spirit indeed is willing, but the fl esh is weak.‖ And again he went away and prayed, saying the same words. And once more he came and found them sleeping, for their eyes were very heavy; and they did not know what to say to him. He came a third time and said to them, ―Are you still sleeping and taking your rest? Enough! The hour has come; the Son of Man is given over into the hands of sinners. Get up, let us be going. See, the one giving me over is at hand.‖ With this, the antihero Judas walks across the stage. But, as our survey of Mark‘s presentation of the inner circle indicates, none of them are really much better in Mark‘s presentation than Judas! Some have thought that such a scoundrel as Judas could not possibly have been chosen by Jesus as one of the Twelve, and admitted into the innermost circle. But, from Mark‘s point of view, he would have fitted right in! At least Peter should be presented favorably, since after all it is he who is the rock on which the church is built. But not in Mark—that is Matthew‘s effort to clean up Peter‘s act (Matt. 16:18)! In Mark, Peter‘s confession to Jesus at Caesarea Philippi, ―You are the Messiah‖ (Mark 8:29), takes another turn (Mark 8:31–33): Then he [Jesus] began to teach them that the Son of Man must undergo great suffering, and be rejected by the elders, the chief priest, and the scribes, and be killed, and after three days rise again. He said all this quite openly. And Peter took him aside and began to rebuke him. But turning and looking at his disciples, he rebuked Peter and said, ―Get behind me, Satan! For you are setting your mind not on divine things but on human things.‖ Peter, not the rock, but Satan? What is going on? ―Get behind me, Satan!‖ might fit Judas, but to refer to Peter? On the Mount of Olives, Jesus had predicted the Twelve would abandon him (Mark 14:27–31): 27 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 ―You will all become deserters; for it is written, ?I will strike the shepherd, and the sheep will be scattered.‘ But after I am raised up, I will go before you to Galilee.‖ Peter said to him, ―Even though all become deserters, I will not.‖ Jesus said to him, ―Truly I tell you, this day, this very night, before the cock crows twice, you will deny me three times.‖ But he said vehemently, ―Even though I must die with you, I will not deny you.‖ And all of them said the same. So did Peter stick by him to the bitter end? Not according to Mark! Instead, Mark tells us (Mark 14:50): ―They all forsook him, and fled.‖ When Jesus was being interrogated by the high priest, Peter followed him ―at a distance‖ (Mark 14:54). Then Peter cops out completely (Mark 14:66–72): While Peter was below in the courtyard, one of the servant-girls of the high priest came by. When she saw Peter warming himself, she stared at him and said, ―You also were with Jesus, the man from Nazareth.‖ But he denied it, saying, ―I do not know or understand what you are talking about.‖ And he went out into the forecourt. Then the cock crowed. And the servant-girl, on seeing him, began again to say to the bystanders, ―This man is one of them.‖ But again he denied it. Then after a little while the bystanders again said to Peter, ―Certainly you are one of them, for you are a Galilean.‖ But he began to curse, and he swore an oath. ―I do not know this man you are talking about.‖ At that moment the cock crowed for the second time. Then Peter remembered that Jesus had said to him, ―Before the cock crows twice, you will deny me three times.‖ And he broke down and wept. Judging by the way Mark presents Peter, it would not have been surprising if Peter, like Judas, had gone out and killed himself, for both publicly betrayed him. Instead, Peter lived to see a better day—but not Judas! They built the greatest cathedral in the world over the site where Peter is thought to have been buried. But Mark would not have contributed a penny to the massive fund-raising effort involved! Fortunately, that took place long after Mark‘s time. Jesus‘ family hardly comes off much better in Mark than do the apostles. There is no infancy narrative in Mark, so the whole Christmas story is missing. Instead, the Holy Family is ashamed of Jesus, convinced that he is out of his mind, so they try to get him 28 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 out of the public eye. Right after Mark‘s list of the twelve apostles, culminating in ―Judas Iscariot, who gave him over‖ (Mark 3:19), Mark Then he went home; and the crowd came together again, so that they could not even eat. When his family heard it, they went out to restrain him, for people were saying, ―He has gone out of his mind.‖ . . . Then his mother and his brothers came; and standing outside, they sent to him and called him. A crowd was sitting around him; and they said to him, ―Your mother and your brothers and sisters are outside, asking for you.‖ And he replied, ―Who are my mother and my brothers?‖ And looking at those who sat around him, he said, ―Here are my mother and my brothers! Whoever does the will of God is my brother and sister and mother.‖ The ―Holy Family‖? Hardly in Mark! Does Mark present Judas as all that much worse than the Holy Family? The same put-down applied to Jesus‘s hometown, Nazareth (Mark 6:1–6). Judas Iscariot fits all too well into Mark‘s portrayal not only of the twelve apostles, especially Peter, but also of the Holy Family and his hometown! What is going on here? Mark was the first Evangelist of the thriving Gentile Christian Church, as it became increasingly alienated from the Jewish Christian Church built with Jesus‘s original disciples. Put into that context, it is less surprising that Mark so decidedly puts down the Twelve and the Holy Family. One can only recall the strained relations reflected already by Paul (Gal. 1:15–19; 2:1–14). Should one expect the Gospel of the Gentile Church to be more favorable than was Paul toward Peter (―Cephas‖), whom Paul ―opposed to his face, because he stood self-condemned,‖ and toward the ―circumcision faction,‖ ―this hypocrisy,‖ those who were ―not acting consistently with the truth of the gospel,‖ not to speak of the ―false believers‖ who opposed Paul in Jerusalem? After all, Paul had warned explicitly against any other gospel than his own (Gal. 1:6–9). One would actually expect a Gentile Christian Gospel to be anything but enthusiastic about those whom Paul put down so decidedly! The portrayal in Paul‘s Letter to the Galatians of the Twelve (―Cephas and John‖), specifically Peter (―Cephas‖) and the Holy Family (―James‖), fits perfectly the negative portrayal of the Twelve, Peter, and the Holy Family in the Gentile Gospel Mark. One should not expect it to be 29 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 otherwise. But then the question has to be raised as to whether these Markan portrayals do full justice to these persons, or whether they are the victims of Paul‘s, and Mark‘s, theology. And what does this then suggest about Mark‘s portrayal of another one of the Twelve, Judas Iscariot? The Gospel of Mark has been characterized as ―a passion narrative with a long introduction.‖ What this characterization has in mind is the way in which Mark seems to have his focus on the cross long before the actual crucifixion story itself. Already very early on, the plot to kill Jesus is brought into the story (Mark 3: 6): The Pharisees went out and immediately conspired with the Herodians against him, how to destroy him. Then, the second half of Mark is dominated by Jesus again and again predicting his crucifixion in all too much detail even for Peter, namely (Mark 8:31–32): Then he began to teach them that the Son of Man must undergo great suffering, and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the scribes, and be killed, and after three days rise again. He said all this quite openly. Then on the descent from the Mount of Transfiguration, Jesus casually mentions his resurrection to Peter, James, and John, who had been with him there (Mark 9:9): As they were coming down the mountain, he ordered them to tell no one about what they had seen, until after the Son of Man had risen from the dead. So they kept the matter to themselves, questioning what this rising from the dead could mean. Had he not just told them that after three days he would rise again? Shortly thereafter, there is a second detailed prediction of Good Friday and Easter (Mark 9:30–32): He was teaching his disciples, saying to them, The Son of Man is to be given over into human hands, and they will kill him, and three days after being killed, he will rise again. But they did not understand what he was saying and were afraid to ask him. Then, a third time, Jesus describes in even more detail what is going to happen (Mark 10:32–34): He took the twelve aside again and began to tell them what was to happen to him, saying, ―See, we are going up to Jerusalem, and the Son of Man will be handed over to the chief priests and the scribes, and they will condemn him to death; then they will hand 30 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 him over to the Gentiles; they will mock him, and spit upon him, and flog him, and kill him; and after three days he will rise again.‖ For all practical purposes, this is a rather detailed summary of Mark‘s passion and resurrection narratives (Mark 15–16). Indeed, it is generally recognized that such a detailed prediction was not made by the historical Jesus himself, but rather was formulated by the Evangelist and put on Jesus‘ tongue. Even the Pauline gospel, limited to preaching only ―Christ crucified‖ (1 Cor. 1:23; 2:2), crops up once in Mark on Jesus‘ tongue (Mark 10:45): For the Son of Man came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life a ransom for many. After all these allusions to the crucifixion, not to speak of detailed narrations, the Markan Jesus could quite understandably mention at the Last Supper (Mark 14:21): ―The Son of Man goes as it is written of him.‖ And Judas would only have to be a bit smarter than Peter and the other apostles to know that it was the will of God that Jesus die for our sins in accordance with the scriptures (1 Cor. 15:3). In view of Mark‘s portrayal of Jesus‘ death as the fulfillment of prophecy and as being the will of God of which Jesus and the Twelve were fully aware, with Jesus acquiescing to God‘s will even to the point of death, it is really surprising, not that Judas turned Jesus over to the authorities to kill him as part of the plan of God, but that Mark can even present this in a reproachful way (Mark 14:18–21): And when they had taken their places and were eating, Jesus said, ―Truly I tell you, one of you will give me over, one who is eating with me.‖ They began to be distressed and to say to him one after another, ―Surely, not I?‖ He said to them, ―It is one of the twelve, one who is dipping bread into the bowl with me. For the Son of Man goes as it is written of him, but woe to the one by whom the Son of Man is given over! It would have been better for that one not to have been born.‖ But then, according to Mark, if Judas Iscariot had never been born, how would the scripture have been fulfilled, how would the will of God have been done, how would Jesus have ―died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures‖ (1 Cor. 15:3)? Why pronounce a woe on Judas, who is only doing what he was born to do?—what God, and therefore Jesus, want him to do? 31 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 Mark explains that the Jewish authorities want to kill Jesus, but need to find a way to arrest him privately (Mark 14:1–2): The chief priests and the scribes were looking for a way to arrest Jesus by stealth and kill him; for they said, ―Not during the festival, or there may be a riot among the people.‖ Jesus picks this up to mock them at the arrest—and to emphasize that all they are doing is fulfilling the scriptures (Mark 14:48–50): ―Have you come out as against a robber, with swords and clubs to capture me? Day after day I was with you in the temple teaching, and you did not seize me. But let the scripture be fulfilled.‖ And they all forsook him, and fled. Thus Judas is aiding the Jewish authorities‘ arrest of Jesus in order to kill him. This cannot be, from Mark‘s point of view, just an innocent referral to the religious authorities to hear what Jesus has to say, such as is appropriate on any and every issue that arises within Judaism. Their intention is not to interview Jesus to learn who he is and what he is trying to do, whereupon they might agree with him and release him. They only want to ―arrest Jesus by stealth and kill him‖ (Mark 14:2). This had been their intention from the very beginning, when the Pharisees and Herodians conspired together ―how to destroy him‖ (Mark 3:6). So, from Mark‘s point of view, Judas is at best a party to the crime. Mark can‘t completely whitewash the scene by presenting Judas Iscariot as just doing the will of God and so the will of Jesus. The Gospel of Mark presents in graphic detail the scene in the Garden of Gethsemane, where Judas plays the central role (Mark 14:43–45): And immediately, while he was still speaking, Judas came, one of the twelve, and with him a crowd with swords and clubs, from the chief priests and the scribes and the elders. Now the one who gave him over had given them a sign, saying, The one I shall kiss is the man; seize him and lead him away under guard. And when he came, he went up to him at once, and said, Master! And he kissed him. And they laid hands on him and seized him. It is of course this text that is primarily responsible for the ―bad press‖ Judas Iscariot has received ever since. 32 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 The Jewish Sayings Gospel Q The Jewish Christian Church of the first generation spoke primarily Aramaic, of which no written texts have survived. After all, most of the original disciples were illiterate! But, fortunately, somewhere along the way they did translate Jesus‘s sayings into Greek, no doubt for use in their mission among Greek-speaking Jews. They even brought them together into a small collection of Jesus‘s sayings. So I have spent the last two decades reconstructing it, with a group of scholars I brought together for this purpose. Let me explain: The Critical Edition of Q, which we published in 2000, presents this written text of sayings ascribed to Jesus. It is not a book that exists today in its own right in the New Testament. Instead, it lurks just below the surface, and has to be reconstructed. This is how: both Matthew and Luke had copies of the Sayings Gospel Q, and used it, together with the Gospel of Mark, in composing their Gospels, as a kind of ―ecumenical‖ gesture, Matthew from the point of view of the Jewish Christians, Luke from the point of view of the Gentile Christians. So when Matthew and Luke have the same saying of Jesus, but they cannot have gotten it from Mark (since it is not in Mark), they must have gotten it from another source. Scholars a century ago nicknamed this other source ―Q,‖ the first letter of the German word meaning ―source,‖ Quelle. Today we refer to it as the Sayings Gospel Q, to distinguish it from the four Narrative Gospels with which we are familiar from the New Testament: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Since Q itself does not have chapter and verse numbers, we make use of Luke‘s chapter and verse numbers when quoting Q. This is because Luke follows Q‘s sequence more faithfully than does Matthew. Since there is no birth narrative in Q, the text of Q begins at Luke 3 with John the Baptist. So the first chapter of Q is called Q 3. Q material is scattered through Matthew and Luke, but ends just before the passion narrative in Luke 22. So the last chapter of Q is Q 22. Since the Sayings Gospel Q is composed for use in the actual continuation of Jesus‘s own message by his disciples, it does not look back on Jesus‘s public ministry so much as a past reality to be described, as it is a collection of sayings still to be proclaimed. What is important is not who said what to whom, but that these sayings are decisive for 33 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 you—your fate hangs on hearkening to them! It is perhaps for this reason that it does not mention by name those who carry on the message. None of the Twelve is mentioned by name, not even Peter—and not Judas! The Jewish Church’s Ecumenical Gospel of Matthew The Gospel of Matthew seems to have been written when the remaining vestiges of the Jewish Church of Q merged into the much larger Gentile Church of Mark. The merging of the Gospels of the two communions was a kind of ecumenical gesture attesting to the hoped-for harmonizing of the two confessions. Matthew supplements the Markan record about Judas in significant ways. Mark had ascribed the initiative for the bribe to the chief priests (Mark 14:11). But in Matthew, Judas actually asks the chief priests to offer him a bribe (Matt 26:15): ―What will you give me if I give him over to you?‖ And Matthew focuses on Judas at the Last Supper when it comes to identifying who will give him over (Matt. 26:25): Judas, who gave him over, said, ―Surely not I, Rabbi?‖ He replied, ―You have said so.‖ This is not fully explicit, but nonetheless the reader gets the message: Judas will do it. It is quite significant that Matthew presents Judas here as addressing Jesus as Rabbi, rather than the Greek translation ―Lord‖ normally used in the Gospels. Of course it may very well be that in the Aramaic used at the Last Supper, and elsewhere, Jesus was in fact addressed as Rabbi. At that time it did not yet have the specialized modern meaning of Jewish clergy, but was just a Jewish term of respect for a religious leader. But there seems to be a clear aversion to Rabbi or Rabbouni on the part of Matthew and Luke: once when Mark uses Rabbouni of Jesus (Mark 10:51), both Matthew and Luke read ―Lord‖ (Matt. 9:28; Luke 18:41). Another time when Mark presents Peter addressing Jesus in the transfiguration story as Rabbi (Mark 9:5), Matthew and Luke read ―Lord‖ (Matt. 17:4; Luke 9:33). In still another Markan instance of Peter addressing Jesus as Rabbi (Mark 11:21), Matthew omits the address (Matt. 21:20), and Luke omits the whole incident. 34 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 It is only when Mark presents Judas addressing Jesus as Rabbi (Mark 14:45) that Matthew retains Rabbi (Matt. 26:49); Luke omits here the address completely (Luke 22:47). In fact, Luke never uses Rabbi anywhere. His is the Gospel most emphatically addressed to Gentiles! But Matthew actually inserts a second instance of Judas addressing Jesus as Rabbi (Matt. 26:25), where there is no parallel at all in the other Gospels. This is obviously because Matthew has disowned Judas. Such a form of address on the part of Judas merely documents his status as an unworthy disciple. Actually, Matthew explicitly rejects the use of Rabbi, by arguing that teachers of the Law and Pharisees seek to be so addressed out of pride (Matt. 23:5–7): They do all their deeds to be seen by others; for they make their phylacteries broad and their fringes long. They love to have the place of honor at banquets and the best seats in the synagogues, and to be greeted with respect in the marketplaces, and to have people call them Rabbi. It is hence to be avoided (Matt. 23:8): But you are not to be called Rabbi, for you have one teacher, and you are brethren. So Matthew emphasizes that it is Judas who calls Jesus Rabbi! When Judas actually kisses Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane to identify him to the Jewish authorities, Matthew has Jesus add (Matt. 26:50): ―Friend, do what you are here to do.‖ This is almost an exoneration of Judas for the identifying kiss! The irony of the scene is that Jesus addresses him as ―friend,‖ an extremely rare term on Jesus‘s lips! Then Matthew, alone among the Gospels, reports the remorse of Judas. He returns the money to the chief priests and elders, saying (Matt. 27:4): ―I have sinned in giving over innocent blood.‖ Then, when they shrug their shoulders, Judas, ―throwing down the pieces of silver in the temple, departed; and he went and hanged himself‖ (Matt. 27:5). Matthew, as a Jewish Gospel, would of course have every reason to present a more favorable view of the Jewish disciples of Jesus than do Paul and Mark. After all, it was Matthew who rescued Peter from being Satan, to let him be the rock (Matt. 16:18–19): And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven. 35 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 To be sure, Matthew retains Peter‘s opposition to the idea of the passion, and lets Peter still receive the rebuke ―Satan.‖ But Matthew did flesh out the dialogue to make it less shocking and more understandable (Matt. 16:22–23): And Peter took him aside and began to rebuke him, saying, ―God forbid it, Lord! This must never happen to you.‖ But he turned and said to Peter, ―Get behind me, Satan! You are a hindrance to me; for you are setting your mind not on divine things but on human things.‖ Here the Markan criticism is retained, but put in a context that mitigates it somewhat. To justify Peter‘s rejection of the idea of the passion, his very understandable comment is added: ―God forbid it, Lord! This must never happen to you.‖ And Jesus‘s explanation justifying his rebuke is added: ―You are a hindrance to me.‖ Matthew of course had every reason to clear Peter‘s name, since, after all, Peter is, of course after Jesus, the hero of his Gospel. If Mark might have been the first to cast a stone at Peter, Matthew would have been the first to lay a cornerstone at the cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. The Gentile Church’s Ecumenical Gospel of Luck Luke presented the public ministry of Jesus as a sort of idealized time, a period not only quite different from the time before Jesus‘ public ministry, but also quite different from Luke‘s own time long after Jesus‘ public ministry. We are quite familiar with Luke‘s way of idealizing the beginnings of the church after Easter as a wonderful time, but a time that did not continue down into his present. In Luke‘s book of Acts, the beginning of the church is idealized, with a kind of voluntary sharing of all goods and funds, almost a Christian kind of communism. However, this is no longer the practice in Luke‘s own time. It was just the beginning of the church, which he looked back on with admiration and nostalgia, but not as a way of life to follow now. It was not a time to imitate. Luke presented Jesus‘ public ministry in a similar way, as an idealized time in the past that does not really apply to the present. Luke reports that after failing in the temptation, the devil left Jesus ―until an opportune time‖ (Luke 4:13). The devil found 36 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 that opportune time just before the passion narrative, when Satan reappeared just in time to enter Judas (Luke 22:3) and to tempt Peter (Luke 22:31). The period of the devil‘s absence, corresponding to the public ministry of Jesus, is for Luke a paradise-like unrepeatable idyllic period of time, much like the idealized beginning of the Christian Church. This idealized time, free of the devil, corresponds very closely to the limits of Q in Luke. Q began at Luke 3:2, with John the Baptist, and went through Luke 22:30, just before the passion narrative. Indeed, the idyllic period of time ends in the very next verse after Q ends. Immediately after quoting the conclusion of Q in Luke 22:30, Luke presents Satan reemerging to tempt Peter and give Jesus over in Luke 22:31. Then Luke revokes quite explicitly the mission instructions of Q (quoted in Luke 10:1–16). Those mission instructions had stated (Q 10:4): Carry no purse, nor knapsack, nor sandals, nor stick, and greet no one on the road. Just listen to Luke revoking these mission instructions, to get ready for the passion narrative (Luke 22:35–38): And he said to them, ―When I sent you out with no purse or bag or sandals, did you lack anything?‖ They said, ―Nothing.‖ He said to them, ―But now, let him who has a purse take it, and likewise a bag. And let him who has no sword sell his mantle and buy one. For I tell you that this scripture must be fulfilled in me, ?And he was reckoned with transgressors‘; for what is written about me has its fulfillment.‖ And they said, ―Look, Lord, here are two swords.‖ And he said to them, ―It is enough.‖ In this way Luke prepares for Mark‘s immediately following report of the arrest (Mark 14:46–47): But one of those who stood near drew his sword and struck the slave of the high priest, cutting off his ear. So, by rearming the disciples, Luke has closed down the epoch of Q, wonderful though it may have seemed, and re-entered the ―real world‖ of push and shove. With Q safely behind him, Luke can proceed to follow Mark through the passion narrative, and move on into the Gentile Church‘s mission practices, which Luke exemplified in the book of Acts, in his portrayal of Paul moving about throughout the whole Hellenistic world. 37 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 This periodizing of history into an idealized past and a realistic present did not require Luke to omit the mission instructions of Q, though they were now outdated and formally abrogated by Jesus himself. Rather, Luke preserved them in their most archaic form (Luke 10:1–16). He had not been called upon to update them to conform to current practice, as had Matthew. Matthew, clinging longer to the older procedures, had to make the adjustments called for by the passage of time. Most prominently, Matthew justified, by appealing to Jesus‘ instructions, a mission limited to Jews, a Jewish mission carried out to the exclusion of Gentiles and Samaritans, probably almost up until Matthew‘s own time (Matt. 10:5b–6, 23): Go nowhere among the Gentiles, and enter no town of the Samaritans, but go rather to the lost sheep of the house of Israel. . . . When they persecute you in one town, flee to the next; for truly I tell you, you will not have gone through all the towns of Israel before the Son of Man comes. It is this Jews-only mission that one must presuppose was still being carried out by the Jerusalem Church, at the time James sent delegates to Antioch to enforce the segregated policy at the Lord‘s Supper in Antioch, which Paul had so strenuously opposed. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus does not say to Peter, ―Get behind me, Satan!‖ This scene would come right after Luke 9:22, to be parallel to Mark 8:33, but is completely missing. Satan tried to get hold of Peter, but Jesus protected him (Luke 22:31–32): Simon, Simon, listen! Satan has demanded to sift all of you like wheat, but I have prayed for you that your own faith may not fail, and you, when you have turned back, strengthen your brothers. But Satan has instead gotten a grip on Judas (Luke 22:3): Then Satan entered into Judas called Iscariot, who was one of the twelve; he went away and conferred with the chief priests and officers of the temple police about how he might give him over to them. They were greatly pleased and agreed to give him money. So he consented and began to look for an opportunity to give him over to them when no crowd was present. One would think that Judas, into whom Satan had entered, would have been the most obvious candidate for an exorcism, such as Jesus performed most dramatically for 38 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 an epileptic boy (Mark 9:17–29). Even the disciples become adept at exorcism. On their return from the mission of the seventy, they report (Luke 10:17–18): The seventy returned with joy, saying, ―Lord, in your name even the demons submit to us!‖ He said to them, ―I watched Satan fall from heaven like a flash of lightning.‖ The best-known disciple from whom Jesus had cast out a demon, or, more precisely, seven demons, is of course Mary Magdalene (Luke 8:1–3): The twelve were with him, as well as some women who had been cured of evil spirits and infirmities: Mary, called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone out, and Joanna, the wife of Herod‘s steward Chuza, and Suzanna, and many others, who provided for them out of their resources. It is difficult to imagine Judas really being possessed by a demon, or even by Satan, and Jesus or one of the apostles not freeing him of that possession. Put otherwise, Luke‘s talk of Satan entering Judas sounds more like Luke‘s put-down than a historical fact. Judas wasn‘t really a demoniac. Luke modifies significantly, though in small details, the Markan report of Jesus speaking of the one who would betray him (Matt. 22:21–22): But see, the one who betrays me is with me, and his hand is on the table. For the Son of Man is going as it has been determined, but woe to that one by whom he is betrayed. Just whose hand is on the table is not made clear, but it replaces Mark‘s reference to someone who dips into the dish with Jesus, which is where John clearly identifies Judas (John 13:26). Luke then adds that after Jesus said that one at the table with him would give him over (Luke 22:23): They began to question one another, which of them it was that would do this. But rather than following this up by pointing to Judas, as does Matthew (Matt. 26:25), Luke instead inserts here a scene found earlier in Mark (Mark 10:41–45): the disciples argue about which of them was to be regarded as greatest (Luke 22:24–30), triggered in Mark by the request of James and John for places on each side of Jesus in his glory (Mark 10:38–40). This was so awkward that Matthew had transferred it to a request by their mother (Matt. 20:20–23), and Luke omits it completely, only to insert the ensuing discussion of true greatness into the Last Supper, rather than going on to identify 39 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 Judas as the one who would give him over. In the Garden of Gethsemane, Luke adds the fact that Judas was leading the crowd (Luke 22:47). As Judas comes to kiss Jesus, Jesus recognizes this act as the sign to the Jewish authorities (Luke 22:48): Judas, is it with a kiss that you are giving over the Son of Man? Judas promptly disappears from the scene, but instead one finds the Markan story of a disciple cutting off the right ear of a slave of the high priest, whereupon Luke has Jesus reproach the unnamed disciple (Luke 22:51): But Jesus said, ―No more of this!‖ And he touched his ear and healed him. Such an act of kindness to a person who had come to arrest him is worthy of Pope John Paul II forgiving the person who tried to assassinate him. Indeed, at the crucifixion only Luke presents Jesus saying (Luke 23:34): Father, forgive them; for they do not know what they are doing. Just where this leaves Judas is not made clear. For Luke, Judas paid the price for what he did (Acts 1:18): Now this man acquired a field with the reward of his wickedness; and falling headlong, he burst open in the middle and all his bowels gushed out. The Gospel of John It is decidedly the Gospel of John that bears most of the responsibility for discrediting Judas completely. Here is the way he does it (John 6:64–71): ―But among you there are some who do not believe.‖ For Jesus knew from the first who were the ones that did not believe, and who was the one that would give him over. And he said, ―For this reason I have told you that no one can come to me unless it is granted by the Father.‖ Because of this many of his disciples turned back and no longer went about with him. So Jesus asked the twelve, ―Do you also wish to go away?‖ Simon Peter answered him, ―Lord, to whom can we go? You have the words of eternal life. We have come to believe and know that you are the Holy One of God.‖ Jesus answered them, ―Did I not choose you, the twelve? Yet one of you is a devil.‖ He was speaking of Judas son of Simon Iscariot, for he, though one of the twelve, was going to give him over. 40 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 The frequent question as to why Jesus would have included Judas in his inner circle is thus most acute in the Gospel of John. If Jesus knew ―from the first‖ that Judas would give him over, he must have included him for that very purpose! Just as Luke had transferred Peter being called Satan (Mark 8:33) into Judas being possessed by Satan (Luke 22:3), just so John presents Judas being possessed by Satan. He smuggles this ―detail‖ into the story much earlier than at the Last Supper: There is a familiar scene of Jesus at the home of Simon the leper in Bethany (Mark 14:3–9), or, as Luke has it, at the home of Simon the Pharisee much earlier, in Galilee (Luke 7:36). A woman (Luke 7:37: a prostitute), carrying an alabaster jar of very costly ointment of nard, pours it over his head (Luke 7:38: his feet), whereupon those present (Luke 7:39: the Pharisee) are indignant at the waste. If one can thus see how Luke changes a story in the home of a leper into something that fits better his polemic against the Pharisees, it should come as no surprise to find that the Gospel of John transforms much the same story to serve his purposes as a polemic against Judas. John takes the familiar story of Jesus in the home of Mary and Martha (Luke 10:38–42), where Mary is praised for her attentive listening to Jesus, rather than just serving him at table, and turns it into a polemic against—Judas (John 12:1–8): Six days before the Passover Jesus came to Bethany, the home of Lazarus, whom he had raised from the dead. There they gave a dinner for him. Martha served, and Lazarus was one of those at the table with him. Mary took a pound of costly perfume made of pure nard, anointed Jesus‘ feet, and wiped them with her hair. The house was fi lled with the fragrance of the perfume. But Judas Iscariot, one of his disciples (the one who was about to give him over), said, ―Why was this perfume not sold for three hundred denarii and the money given to the poor?‖ (He said this not because he cared about the poor, but because he was a thief; he kept the common purse and used to steal what was put in it.) Jesus said, ―Leave her alone. She bought it so that she might keep it for the day of my burial. You always have the poor with you, but you do not always have me.‖ Here it is quite obvious that Luke, and then John, take a story from the tradition about Jesus and, by changing the characters and plot, makes it serve their polemical purposes. This should then make it equally clear that the damning of Judas, as the keeper of the moneybags, who only pretends to care for the poor so as to steal money from Jesus 41 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 and the other disciples, is more probable as a creation of John than as a historical fact. At the Last Supper John needs only to mention that the devil had already inspired Judas to give him over (John 13:2), and more pointedly John writes that Satan entered Judas when Jesus gave him bread he had dipped into the dish (John 13:27). The Gospel of John has Jesus identify Judas as the one to give him over, already at the beginning of the parting discourse held at the Last Supper (John 13:1–2, 4–11, 18–19, 21–30): Jesus knew that his hour had come to depart from this world and go to the Father. Having loved his own who were in the world, he loved them to the end. The devil had already put it into the heart of Judas son of Simon Iscariot to give him over. And during supper Jesus . . . got up from the table, took off his outer robe, and tied a towel around himself. Then he poured water into a basin and began to wash the disciples‘ feet and to wipe them with the towel that was tied around him. . . . Jesus said to him [Simon Peter], ―One who has bathed does not need to wash, except for the feet, but is entirely clean. And you are clean, though not all of you.‖ For he knew who was to betray him. . . . ―I am not speaking of all of you; I know whom I have chosen. But it is to fulfill the scripture, ?The one who ate my bread has lifted his heel against me.‘ I tell you this now, before it occurs, so that when it does occur, you may believe that I am he.‖ . . . After saying this Jesus was troubled in spirit, and declared, ―Very truly, I tell you, one of you will betray me.‖ The disciples looked at one another, uncertain of whom he was speaking. One of his disciples—the one whom Jesus loved—was reclining next to him; Simon Peter therefore motioned to him to ask Jesus of whom he was speaking. So while reclining next to Jesus, he asked him, ―Lord, who is it?‖ Jesus answered, ―It is the one to whom I give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish.‖ So when he had dipped the piece of bread, he gave it to Judas son of Simon Iscariot. After he received the piece of bread, Satan entered into him. Jesus said to him, ―Do quickly what you are going to do.‖ Now no one at the table knew why he said this to him. Some thought that, because Judas had the common purse, Jesus was telling him, ―Buy what we need for the festival‖; or, that he should give something to the poor. So, after receiving the piece of bread, he immediately went out. And it was night. In the so-called high priestly prayer with which Jesus‘ parting discourse concludes, 42 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 there is a flashback to Judas (John 17:12): While I was with them, I protect them in your name that you have given me. I guarded them, and not one of them was lost except the son of destruction, so that the scripture might be fulfilled. The final scene of Judas in the Gospel of John is at the arrest (John 18:1–12): After Jesus had spoken these words, he went out with his disciples across the Kidron valley to a place where there was a garden, which he and his disciples entered. Now Judas, who gave him over, also knew the place, because Jesus often met there with his disciples. So Judas brought a detachment of soldiers together with police from the chief priests and the Pharisees, and they came there with lanterns and torches and weapons. Then Jesus, knowing all that was to happen to him, came forward and asked them, ―Whom are you looking for?‖ They answered, ―Jesus of Nazareth.‖ Jesus replied, ―I am he.‖ Judas, who gave him over, was standing with them. When Jesus said to them, ―I am he,‖ they stepped back and fell to the ground. Again he asked them, ―Whom are you looking for?‖ And they said, ―Jesus of Nazareth.‖ Jesus answered, ―I told you that I am he. So if you are looking for me, let these men go.‖ This was to fulfill the word that he had spoken, ―I did not lose a single one of those whom you gave me.‖ Then Simon Peter, who had a sword, drew it, struck the high priest‘s slave, and cut off his right ear. The slave‘s name was Malchus. Jesus said to Peter, ―Put your sword back into its sheath. Am I not to drink the cup that the Father has given me?‖ So the soldiers, their officer, and the Jewish police arrested Jesus and bound him. Here Judas plays his indispensable role in the story, of bringing the Jewish authorities to arrest Jesus. But his role is, compared to in the other Gospels, minimal. There is no kiss of death. He does his thing and disappears from history, as far as the Gospel of John is concerned. Judas in the Canonical Gospels and Acts From this survey of the canonical Gospels and the book of Acts, one can see how each handles the figure of Judas, both in the sense that they are the genesis of the horrible image of Judas down through the centuries, and the sense that upon inspection they do 43 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 not present that image as being as horrible as we have usually assumed. To be sure, they do not in any sense of the word vindicate him; much less make him into the hero, as apparently The Gospel of Judas would try to do. Modern efforts point out that he is not (with the one exception of Luke 6:16) actually said to betray Jesus as a ―traitor,‖ and that he is only carrying out his role as prophesied in the Hebrew scriptures, predicted by Jesus, even ordered by Jesus. But the canonical texts also pronounce a woe on him for his evil deed, and present him in such remorse that he kills himself. This is not what one normally does in fulfilling the Hebrew Scriptures or obeying Jesus! But a pre-sentation in which Judas is to be praised, not blamed, calls for a rather complete reversal of values, such as we await in The Gospel of Judas. 44 英语系2003级毕业论文 犹大的秘密 张捷 45