unit9-13

nullLecture 9Lecture 9 The use of English （I） ReviewReviewWhat do we mean by “prototype”? Use an example to illustrate. How do you understand the following book title? Women, Fire and Dangerous Things (George Lakoff 1987)AppreciateAppreciate老音乐好听， 旧钞票会升值， 老朋友最能信任， 谁说旧的没有新的好？ -- 胖仔物语 How is this ballad semantically interesting? Major contents Major contents 9.1 Pragmatic approach to language 9.2 Deictic expressions 9.3 Speech act theory 9.4 Presupposition 9.1 Pragmatic approach to language9.1 Pragmatic approach to languagePragmatics is the study of meaning in use meaning in context speaker meaning contextual meaning Pragmatics studies communication (utterance production and comprehension) from a functional (i.e. social, cultural, cognitive) perspective.Semantics vs pragmaticsSemantics vs pragmaticsSemanticism: semantics includes pragmatics Pragmaticism: pragmatics includes semantics Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.Mean and SayMean and Say ‘It wasn’t what he said, but what he meant.’ ‘Then you should say what you mean’, the March Hare went on. ‘I do, Alice hastily replied; ‘at least – at least I mean what I say – that’s the same thing, you know.’ ‘Not the same thing a bit’, said the Hatter. “You might just as well say that ‘I see what I eat’ is the same thing as ‘I eat what I see’!” “You might just as well say,” added the March Hare, “that ‘I like what I get’ is the same thing as ‘I get what I like’!” “You might just as well say,” added the Dormouse … “that ‘I breathe when I sleep’ is the same thing as ‘I sleep when I breathe’!” (Lewis Carroll: Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland)Literal meaning, utterance meaning, speaker meaningLiteral meaning, utterance meaning, speaker meaningI met him yesterday. You’re really friendly. A: Do you like Harry and John? B: I like Harry.9.2 Deictic expressions （指示语）9.2 Deictic expressions （指示语）Deixis: (from Greek) anchoring, pointing (toward the context) phenomenon. The linguistic means used in this function are known as deictics, indexicals( or indexical / deictic expressions). Examples: pronouns, demonstratives, time and place adverbs, and some grammatical categories such as tense.Characteristics in useCharacteristics in use The egocentricity of deixis Deictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event. The unmarked points, called the deictic center, are typically assumed to be as follows(S. Levinson: Pragmatics): I love this game! null-the central person is the speaker -the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance -the central place is the speaker’s location at utterance time -the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance -the social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relativeDiscussDiscussPP> 147-148 No. 2, 3Deictic vs. Non-deicticDeictic vs. Non-deicticDeictic: gestural/symbolic You, you, but not you, are dismissed. (gestural) What did you say? (Symbolic) Non-deictic: anaphoric /non-anaphoric Jack is a student. He comes from Britain. You can never tell what sex they are nowadays. There you go again./There we go. I did this and that. Classification of deixisClassification of deixisPerson deixis Place deixis Time deixis social deixis discourse deixis9.3 Speech act theory9.3 Speech act theorySaying is acting. (John Austin, How to Things with Words, 1962) Teacher: Class begins. Boss: You are fired!null“Speech acts” refer to actions performed via utterances. Speech acts are “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”. “The unit of linguistic communication is not, as has generally been supposed, the symbol, word or sentence,… but rather the production of the symbol or word or sentence in the performance of the speech act” — Searle null a. There is a book on the desk. b. I promise I’ll be there ten sharp tomorrow. hereby-test: first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, performative verbs (with exceptions, though)Constatives ( 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 述句） and performatives （施为句）Collapse of Performative HypothesisCollapse of Performative Hypothesisa. Not all performative utterances require a performative verb; b. An utterance with a performative verb may not be the type of act suggested by the verb; e.g. A kidnapper: I advise you to give me all in your pocket.Do the following count as promises? If not, why?Do the following count as promises? If not, why?a. I promise I’ll fail you in the exam. b. I promise that next Friday will be his birthday. c. I promise that I saw him yesterday. d. I promise that you’ll help me out of trouble. e. He promises that he’ll help me. f. I promised that I would help him.felicity conditions （适切条件）felicity conditions （适切条件）a. Essential condition （基本条件） b. Preparatory condition (预备条件） c. Propositional content condition （命题 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 条件） d. Sincerity condition （真诚条件）Felicity conditions for a promise:Felicity conditions for a promise:1) The speaker can do what is promised; (基本） 2）The promised act has not taken place yet; (预备） 3）The utterance is about a future act; The promised act is to the benefit of the hearer; The promised act will be fulfilled by the speaker;（命题内容） 4) The speaker means what he says. （真诚） etc. PracticePracticePP. 149-150 No. 5Austin’s classificationAustin’s classification- locutionary act: what is said - illocutionary act: what is intended to do - perlocutionary act: what is to be effected Leech: locutionary act performing an act of saying sth Illocutionary act performing an act in saying sth Perlocutionary act performing an act by saying sthnullPractice: Analyze A’s remark in the following in terms of the three acts. A: The phone is ringing. B: (Stands up and picks up the receiver) Hello.Searle’s classification of illocutionary actsSearle’s classification of illocutionary actsRepresentatives/assertives（阐述类）: describe, inform, deny, state, claim, assert, remind, etc. Directives （指令类）: request, ask, urge, tell, demand, order, advise, command, beseech, etc. Commissives （承诺类）: commit, promise, threaten, pledge, consent, refuse, offer, guarantee, etc.nullExpressives （表达类）: apologize, boast, thank, deplore, welcome, congratulate, greet, etc. Declarations （宣告类）: declare, resign, appoint, nominate, bless, christen, name, etc. Indirect speech actsIndirect speech actsA direct performative act: I order you to leave the room. P. 150 No. 6 How to perform speech acts?How to perform speech acts?Different cultures, different realizations e.g. Compliment-Compliment response e.g. A: Oh, what a beautiful handwriting! B: No,no, not at all, you are joking. Presentation sessionPresentation sessionComplimenting and responding to compliments in English9.4 Presupposition9.4 PresuppositionPresupposition and entailment Presupposition triggers: linguistics device that make inference possible. PP> 151-152 No. 8, 9 AssignmentsAssignmentsP. 155 No. 3 P. 156 No. 6, 7Lecture 10Lecture 10The use of English (II)ReviewReviewWhat are the three aspects of a speech act, according to John Searle? Use an example to illustrate.Major contentsMajor contents10.1 Cooperation in using English 10.2 Politeness in using English 10.3 Face considerations in using English 10.4 Developing pragmatic competence10.1 Cooperation in using English10.1 Cooperation in using EnglishCooperative Principle Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation, 1975Maxims of the principleMaxims of the principleQuality: Be truthful. a. Do not say what you believe to be false. b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Quantity: Be informative. a. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange) b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.null Relation: Be relevant. Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand. Manner: Be perspicuous. a. Avoid obscurity of expression. b. Avoid ambiguity. c. Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity) d. Be orderly. Plausibility of the maximsPlausibility of the maximsP. 172 No. 9Flouting of the maximsFlouting of the maximsHe is a machine. A: Where were you last night? B: I went out. A: Do you like the sisters? B: I like the younger sister.nullA: What do you think of my new hairstyle? B: Your dress is nice. A: Let’s get the kids something. B: Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. ImplicatureImplicatureIt is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance. When any of the maxims is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated, a particular conversational implicature arises.Some properties of conversational implicatureSome properties of conversational implicaturea. It can be cancelled, either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or, implicitly, by the co-text and context. (cancellability可取消性) A: Do you want some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake. (But any way, I’d like some.nullb. It can be inferred (calculability可推导性) P. 170 No. 3How to calculate an implicature?How to calculate an implicature?a.The conventional meaning of the words used, and the references of referring expressions; b.the cooperative principle and its maxims; c.the co-text and context; d.background knowledge; e.the supposition that all participants suppose that all relevant items falling under (1)-(4) are available to them all.nullA professor writes a recommendation letter as follows: “X has regularly and punctually attended all my classes. All his assignments were handed in on time and very neatly presented. I greatly enjoyed having X in my class.” ASK: What is his implied meaning?null1 Since I have good reason to believe that she has information about X’s writing skills, the speaker has deliberately failed to observe (flouted) the maxim “Be informative” 2 But I have no reason to believe that she has really opted out of the cooperative principle. So, she is only being apparently uninformative. 3 If I draw the inference that X hasn’t got very good writing skills, then the speaker is being cooperative. She knows that I am capable of working this out. 4 Therefore, she has implied (or “implicated” to use Grice’s term) that the student’s writing skills are not very good.nullc. It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open.(indeterminacy不确定性) P. 170 No. 4 d. Non-detachability [given the same proposition] A: Are you coming to the concert tomorrow? B1: There will be an exam soon. B2: Won’t there be an exam soon? B3: There will be an exam, won’t there?10.2 Politeness in using English10.2 Politeness in using EnglishLeech’s Politeness Principle Minimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs and Maximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.The 6 maxims of Leech’s ppt 关于艾滋病ppt课件精益管理ppt下载地图下载ppt可编辑假如ppt教学课件下载triz基础知识ppt he 6 maxims of Leech’s PPnullTact Maxim Minimize cost to other Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim Minimize benefit to self Maximize cost to selfnullPlease wait a second. Give me a hand. Could you sharpen these pencils, please. (less polite) Could these pencils be sharpened, please. (more polite) Could I have some more soup? (less polite) Is there some more soup? (more polite) nullI can offer you my car if you need it. You can offer me your car because I need it. Do have a bit more. Just have a taste of the fish. nullApprobation Maxim Minimize dispraise of other Maximize praise of other Maxim of modesty Minimize praise of self Maximize dispraise of selfnullWhat a marvelous meal you cooked! What an awful meal you cooked! A: This is one of the best articles I’ve ever read. B: Yes, it’s brilliant, isn’t it?nullAgreement Maxim Minimize disagreement between self and other Maximize agreement between self and other Sympathy Maxim Minimize antipathy between self and other Maximize sympathy between self and othernullI’m terribly sorry to hear about your cat. I’m delighted to hear about your cat.Politeness scale: DirectnessPoliteness scale: Directness direct Could you possibly answer the phone? Would you mind answering the phone? Can you answer the phone? Will you answer the phone? I want you to answer the phone. Answer the phone. indirectPoliteness scale: Cost - benefitPoliteness scale: Cost - benefitbenefit Have another sandwich. Enjoy your holiday. Look at that. Sit down. Hand me the newspaper. Peel these potatoes. Cost10.3 Face considerations in using English10.3 Face considerations in using EnglishFace, the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself, consisting in two related aspects: According to Brown and Levinson (1978/1987): negative face: the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction - i.e. to the freedom of action and freedom from impositionnullpositive face: the positive consistent self-image or ‘personality’ (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants. Presentation sessionPresentation sessionStrategies for doing FTAs in EnglishAssignmentsAssignmentsPP. 172-173 No. 10 PP. 176-177 No. 2, 3 PP. 178-180 No. 11 Lecture 11Lecture 11The Varieties of English (I)ReviewReviewWhat are some properties of conversational implicature? What are some maxims of politeness? Use an example for each maxim. Major contentsMajor contents 11.1 Interrelation between language and society 11.2 Regional dialects of English 11.3 Social dialects of English 11.4 Register theory 11.1 Interrelation between language and society11.1 Interrelation between language and societyChomsky (cognitive approach, ideal speaker) vs. Saussure (social semiotic approach) Any use of language is socially marked/stamped. Style is the man. [The story of the flowergirl in Pygmalion] As society changes, language will change. Language reflects society, as shown by the lexicon of "snow", "camel".nullThe social value of a dialect or variety reveals the social status of the speaker. A speaker with a large repertoire is likely to be more successful in his future career. For example, the ability to speak different dialects/mandarin Chinese is often advantageous in job hunting. The speech of a speaker acting as a father/son/husband/teacher/friend is varied. Approaches to the study of the interrelationApproaches to the study of the interrelationMacro-sociolinguistics: a bird's-eye view: how language functions in society and how language reflects the social differentiations. [sociology of language] Micro-sociolinguistics: a worm's-eye view: how language functions in the communication between members of the society. [sociolinguistics]11.2 Regional dialect11.2 Regional dialectLanguage and dialect Language: writing system; may include several dialects; often politically defined Dialect: [traditionally only variation with space, but now with the space, the temporal factor and social factors] usu. spoken; often part of a language; not distinct enough from other dialects of the same language to be treated as an independent language; often marked by geographical or social barriers; restricted purposes Chinese vs. Cantonesenulldialect A regionally or socially distinctive VARIETY of a language, identified by a particular set of WORDS and GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES. Spoken dialects are usually also associated with a distinctive pronunciation, or ACCENT. Any LANGUAGE with a reasonably large number of speakers will develop dialects, especially if there are geographical barriers separating groups of people from each other, or if there are divisions of social class. nullIt is usually said that people speak different languages when they do not understand each other. But many of the so-called dialects of Chinese (Mandarin, Cantonese, Pekingese) are mutually unintelligible in their spoken form. (They do, however, share the same written language, which is the main reason why one talks of them as ‘dialects of Chinese’.) And the opposite situation occurs: Swedes, Norwegians and Danes are generally able to understand each other, but their separate histories, cultures, literatures and political structures warrant their being referred to as different languages. (David Crystal)nullRegional dialect often coincides with geographical barriers, like mountains, rivers, etc. [accent] [dialectology] Transition from one dialect to another is gradual rather than abrupt. Two neighboring dialects are often intelligible. P. 192 No. 1 Temporal dialectTemporal dialect[temporal distance] Old English; Middle English; Modern English [diachronic/historical linguistics vs. synchronic linguistics] PP. 192-193 No. 2 11.3 Social dialect11.3 Social dialectSocial dialect (also social-class dialect, sociolect, class dialect) [social distance] arises from the separation brought about different social conditions. It refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. Language varies according to gender, age, occupation, race, education, social status, etc.Language and sexLanguage and sexPP. 196-198 No. 5nullLanguage and age: level tone; use of words; tempo; ellipsis; etc. Language and race: Black English [African pidgin] drop of inflections, simplified morphology and grammar Language and social class: social status and the use of language Language and occupation: jargon; technical terms [doctor-patient conversation] nullLanguage and social groups: underground society argot The specialized language and vocabulary of a particular group of people, especially of a criminal or underworld group. Idiolect: language and individuality, e.g Shakespeare's language An idiolect is the speech variety of an individual. Anyone in this class speaks an idiolect? PP. 193-195 No. 3Taboo and euphemismTaboo and euphemismTaboo (tabu, a Polynesian word) Taboo word: a word that is often avoided because it may cause offence .Types of taboo wordsTypes of taboo wordsSwear words/curse words: those that invoke damnation,misfortune or degradation of the target person or subject, e.g. damn. Obscene/dirty words: those referring to sexual organs and acts, body elimination process.Presentation sessionPresentation sessionEuphemisms in EnglishEuphemismEuphemismderived from Greek, eu––“good”, phem –––“speak”. “making something sound better”. Use of euphemisms :Use of euphemisms :A. appearance, age, disease, death. ugly–––plain; homely fat ––––chubby; stout; plumy cripple––––physically handicapped old –––––getting on years; senior; elderly madhouse–––––mental house pregnant ––––– in the family way die ––––– pass away, go to the better world, go out of third world, go aloftB. Physiological aspectB. Physiological aspect sex organs --private parts have sex with-- make love defecate/urinate–––go to stool; pass water;go to W.C.C. Political aspectsC. Political aspects poor–––––needy bankrupt–––––out of the game poor area–––––underprivileged area hair dresser–––––beautician dust man–––––sanitary engineer economic crises–––––recession; depression strike––––––industrial action/dispute 11.4 Register theory (Variation with the use)11.4 Register theory (Variation with the use)Halliday: Register