Edited by
Peter Ramm,
James Jian-Qiang Lu, and
Maaike M.V. Taklo
Handbook of Wafer Bonding
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/9783527644223
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Edited by Peter Ramm, James Jian-Qiang Lu, and
Maaike M.V. Taklo
Handbook of Wafer Bonding
The Editors
Dr. Peter Ramm
Fraunhofer Research Institution for
Modular Solid State Technologies
EMFT
Hansastrasse 27d
80686 Munich
Germany
Prof. Dr. James Jian-Qiang Lu
Rensellaer Polytechnic Institute
110 8th Street
Troy, NY 12180-3590
USA
Dr. Maaike M.V. Taklo
SINTEF ICT
Gaustadalléen 23 C
0314 Oslo
Norway
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V
Contents
Preface XV
Obituary XVII
List of Contributors XXI
Introduction XXV
Part One Technologies 1
A. Adhesive and Anodic Bonding 3
1 Glass Frit Wafer Bonding 3
Roy Knechtel
1.1 Principle of Glass Frit Bonding 3
1.2 Glass Frit Materials 4
1.3 Screen Printing: Process for Bringing Glass Frit Material onto
Wafers 5
1.4 Thermal Conditioning: Process for Transforming Printed Paste into
Glass for Bonding 8
1.5 Wafer Bond Process: Essential Wafer-to-Wafer Mounting by a Glass
Frit Interlayer 11
1.6 Characterization of Glass Frit Bonds 14
1.7 Applications of Glass Frit Wafer Bonding 15
1.8 Conclusions 16
References 17
2 Wafer Bonding Using Spin-On Glass as Bonding Material 19
Viorel Dragoi
2.1 Spin-On Glass Materials 19
2.2 Wafer Bonding with SOG Layers 21
2.2.1 Experimental 21
2.2.2 Wafer Bonding with Silicate SOG Layers 22
2.2.3 Wafer Bonding with Planarization SOG 28
VI Contents
2.2.4 Applications of Adhesive Wafer Bonding with
SOG Layers 29
2.2.5 Conclusion 30
References 31
3 Polymer Adhesive Wafer Bonding 33
Frank Niklaus and Jian-Qiang Lu
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Polymer Adhesives 34
3.2.1 Polymer Adhesion Mechanisms 34
3.2.2 Properties of Polymer Adhesives 36
3.2.3 Polymer Adhesives for Wafer Bonding 38
3.3 Polymer Adhesive Wafer Bonding Technology 42
3.3.1 Polymer Adhesive Wafer Bonding Process 43
3.3.2 Localized Polymer Adhesive Wafer Bonding 50
3.4 Wafer-to-Wafer Alignment in Polymer Adhesive Wafer
Bonding 52
3.5 Examples for Polymer Adhesive Wafer Bonding Processes and
Programs 54
3.5.1 Bonding with Thermosetting Polymers for Permanent
Wafer Bonds (BCB) or for Temporary Wafer Bonds
(mr-I 9000) 54
3.5.2 Bonding with Thermoplastic Polymer (HD-3007) for Temporary and
Permanent Wafer Bonds 56
3.6 Summary and Conclusions 57
References 58
4 Anodic Bonding 63
Adriana Cozma Lapadatu and Kari Schjølberg-Henriksen
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Mechanism of Anodic Bonding 64
4.2.1 Glass Polarization 64
4.2.2 Achieving Intimate Contact 65
4.2.3 Interface Reactions 66
4.3 Bonding Current 67
4.4 Glasses for Anodic Bonding 68
4.5 Characterization of Bond Quality 69
4.6 Pressure Inside Vacuum-Sealed Cavities 70
4.7 Effect of Anodic Bonding on Flexible Structures 71
4.8 Electrical Degradation of Devices during Anodic
Bonding 71
4.8.1 Degradation by Sodium Contamination 72
4.8.2 Degradation by High Electric Fields 73
4.9 Bonding with Thin Films 75
4.10 Conclusions 76
References 77
Contents VII
B. Direct Wafer Bonding 81
5 Direct Wafer Bonding 81
Manfred Reiche and Ulrich Gösele
5.1 Introduction 81
5.2 Surface Chemistry and Physics 82
5.3 Wafer Bonding Techniques 84
5.3.1 Hydrophilic Wafer Bonding 84
5.3.2 Hydrophobic Wafer Bonding 86
5.3.3 Low-Temperature Wafer Bonding 88
5.3.4 Wafer Bonding in Ultrahigh Vacuum 89
5.4 Properties of Bonded Interfaces 90
5.5 Applications of Wafer Bonding 93
5.5.1 Advanced Substrates for Microelectronics 93
5.5.2 MEMS and Nanoelectromechanical Systems 95
5.6 Conclusions 95
References 96
6 Plasma-Activated Bonding 101
Maik Wiemer, Dirk Wuensch, Joerg Braeuer, and Thomas Gessner
6.1 Introduction 101
6.2 Theory 102
6.2.1 (Silicon) Direct Bonding 102
6.2.2 Mechanisms of Plasma on Silicon Surfaces 103
6.2.3 Physical Defi nition of a Plasma 104
6.3 Classifi cation of PAB 104
6.3.1 Low-Pressure PAB 105
6.3.2 Atmospheric-Pressure PAB 106
6.4 Procedure of PAB 107
6.4.1 Process Flow 107
6.4.2 Characterization Techniques 108
6.4.3 Experiments and Results 110
6.5 Applications for PAB 111
6.5.1 Pressure Sensor 112
6.5.2 Optical Microsystem 112
6.5.3 Microfl uidics Packaging 113
6.5.4 Backside-Illuminated CMOS Image Sensor 113
6.5.5 CMOS Compatibility of Low-Pressure PAB 114
6.6 Conclusion 115
References 115
C. Metal Bonding 119
7 Au/Sn Solder 119
Hermann Oppermann and Matthias Hutter
7.1 Introduction 119
R.He
加亮
R.He
下划线
VIII Contents
7.2 Au/Sn Solder Alloy 120
7.3 Refl ow Soldering 127
7.4 Thermode Soldering 130
7.5 Aspects of Three-Dimensional Integration and Wafer-Level
Assembly 132
7.6 Summary and Conclusions 135
References 136
8 Eutectic Au–In Bonding 139
Mitsumasa Koyanagi and Makoto Motoyoshi
8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Organic/Metal Hybrid Bonding 140
8.3 Organic/In–Au Hybrid Bonding 142
8.3.1 In–Au Phase Diagram and Bonding Principle 142
8.3.2 Formation of In–Au Microbumps by a Planarized Liftoff
Method 144
8.3.3 Eutectic In–Au Bonding and Epoxy Adhesive Injection 146
8.3.4 Electrical Characteristics of In–Au Microbumps 148
8.4 Three-Dimensional LSI Test Chips Fabricated by Eutectic In–Au
Bonding 149
8.5 High-Density and Narrow-Pitch Mircobump Technology 152
8.6 Conclusion 157
Acknowledgment 157
References 157
9 Thermocompression Cu–Cu Bonding of Blanket
and Patterned Wafers 161
Kuan-Neng Chen and Chuan Seng Tan
9.1 Introduction 161
9.2 Classifi cation of the Cu Bonding Technique 162
9.2.1 Thermocompression Cu Bonding 162
9.2.2 Surface-Activated Cu Bonding 162
9.3 Fundamental Properties of Cu Bonding 163
9.3.1 Morphology and Oxide Examination of Cu Bonded Layer 163
9.3.2 Microstructure Evolution during Cu Bonding 164
9.3.3 Orientation Evolution during Cu Bonding 165
9.4 Development of Cu Bonding 166
9.4.1 Fabrication and Surface Preparation of Cu Bond Pads 166
9.4.2 Parameters of Cu Bonding 167
9.4.3 Structural Design 168
9.5 Characterization of Cu Bonding Quality 169
9.5.1 Mechanical Tests 169
9.5.2 Image Analysis 170
9.5.3 Electrical Characterization 171
9.5.4 Thermal Reliability 171
Contents IX
9.6 Alignment Accuracy of Cu–Cu Bonding 171
9.7 Reliable Cu Bonding and Multilayer Stacking 172
9.8 Nonblanket Cu–Cu Bonding 174
9.9 Low-Temperature (<300 °C) Cu–Cu Bonding 176
9.10 Applications of Cu Wafer Bonding 178
9.11 Summary 178
References 179
10 Wafer-Level Solid–Liquid Interdiffusion Bonding 181
Nils Hoivik and Knut Aasmundtveit
10.1 Background 181
10.1.1 Solid–Liquid Interdiffusion Bonding Process 181
10.1.2 SLID Bonding Compared with Soldering 182
10.1.3 Material Systems for SLID Bonding 183
10.2 Cu–Sn SLID Bonding 189
10.2.1 Cu–Sn Material Properties and Required Metal
Thicknesses 190
10.2.2 Bonding Processes 191
10.2.3 Pretreatment Requirements for SLID Bonding 195
10.2.4 Fluxless Bonding 196
10.3 Au–Sn SLID Bonding 199
10.3.1 Au–Sn Material Properties and Required Metal
Thicknesses 199
10.3.2 Bonding Processes 199
10.4 Application of SLID Bonding 201
10.4.1 Cu–Sn Bonding 201
10.4.2 Au–Sn Bonding 204
10.5 Integrity of SLID Bonding 207
10.5.1 Electrical Reliability and Electromigration Testing 207
10.5.2 Mechanical Strength of SLID Bonds 207
10.6 Summary 210
References 212
D. Hybrid Metal/Dielectric Bonding 215
11 Hybrid Metal/Polymer Wafer Bonding Platform 215
Jian-Qiang Lu, J. Jay McMahon, and Ronald J. Gutmann
11.1 Introduction 215
11.2 Three-Dimensional Platform Using Hybrid Cu/BCB
Bonding 217
11.3 Baseline Bonding Process for Hybrid Cu/BCB Bonding
Platform 220
11.4 Evaluation of Cu/BCB Hybrid Bonding Processing Issues 222
11.4.1 CMP and Bonding of Partially Cured BCB 222
11.4.2 Cu/BCB CMP Surface Profi le 223
X Contents
11.4.3 Hybrid Cu/BCB Bonding Interfaces 224
11.4.4 Topography Accommodation Capability of Partially Cured
BCB 227
11.4.5 Electrical Characterization of Hybrid Cu/BCB Bonding 231
11.5 Summary and Conclusions 232
Acknowledgments 233
References 233
12 Cu/SiO2 Hybrid Bonding 237
Léa Di Cioccio
12.1 Introduction 237
12.2 Blanket Cu/SiO2 Direct Bonding Principle 239
12.2.1 Chemical Mechanical Polishing Parameters 239
12.2.2 Bonding Quality and Alignment 243
12.3 Blanket Copper Direct Bonding Principle 245
12.4 Electrical Characterization 251
12.5 Die-to-Wafer Bonding 255
12.5.1 Daisy Chain Structures 256
12.6 Conclusion 257
Acknowledgment 257
References 258
13 Metal/Silicon Oxide Hybrid Bonding 261
Paul Enquist
13.1 Introduction 261
13.2 Metal/Non-adhesive Hybrid Bonding – Metal DBI® 261
13.3 Metal/Silicon Oxide DBI® 262
13.3.1 Metal/Silicon Oxide DBI® Surface Fabrication 263
13.3.2 Metal/Silicon Oxide DBI® Surface Patterning 264
13.3.3 Metal/Silicon Oxide DBI® Surface Topography 264
13.3.4 Metal/Silicon Oxide DBI® Surface Roughness 264
13.3.5 Metal/Silicon Oxide DBI® Surface Activation
and Termination 265
13.3.6 Metal/Silicon Oxide DBI® Alignment and Hybrid Surface
Contact 265
13.3.7 Metal Parameters Relevant to DBI® Surface Fabrication and Electrical
Interconnection 268
13.3.8 DBI® Metal/Silicon Oxide State of the Art 270
13.4 Metal/Silicon Nitride DBI® 271
13.5 Metal/Silicon Oxide DBI® Hybrid Bonding Applications 273
13.5.1 Pixelated 3D ICs 273
13.5.2 Three-Dimensional Heterogeneous Integration 275
13.5.3 CMOS (Ultra) Low-k 3D Integration 276
13.6 Summary 276
References 277
Contents XI
Part Two Applications 279
14 Microelectromechanical Systems 281
Maaike M.V. Taklo
14.1 Introduction 281
14.2 Wafer Bonding for Encapsulation of MEMS 282
14.2.1 Protection during Wafer Dicing 282
14.2.2 Routing of Electrical Signal Lines 282
14.3 Wafer Bonding to Build Advanced MEMS Structures 284
14.3.1 Stacking of Several Wafers 284
14.3.2 Post-processing of Bonded Wafers 285
14.4 Examples of MEMS and Their Requirements for the Bonding
Process 286
14.5 Integration of Some Common Wafer Bonding Processes 287
14.5.1 Fusion Bonding of Patterned Wafers 287
14.5.2 Anodic Bonding of Patterned Wafers 290
14.5.3 Eutectic Bonding of Patterned Wafers: AuSn 293
14.6 Summary 297
References 297
15 Three-Dimensional Integration 301
Philip Garrou, James Jian-Qiang Lu, and Peter Ramm
15.1 Defi nitions 301
15.2 Application of Wafer Bonding for 3D Integration Technology 303
15.3 Motivations for Moving to 3D Integration 305
15.4 Applications of 3D Integration Technology 307
15.4.1 Three-Dimensional Applications by Evolution Not
Revolution 307
15.4.2 Microbump Bonding/No TSV 308
15.4.3 TSV Formation/No Stacking 310
15.4.4 Memory 312
15.4.5 Memory on Logic 321
15.4.6 Repartitioning Logic 322
15.4.7 Foundry and OSAT Activity 323
15.4.8 Other 3D Applications 323
15.5 Conclusions 325
References 325
16 Temporary Bonding for Enabling Three-Dimensional Integration
and Packaging 329
Rama Puligadda
16.1 Introduction 329
16.2 Temporary Bonding Technology Options 330
16.2.1 Key Requirements 331
16.2.2 Foremost Temporary Wafer Bonding Technologies 332
XII Contents
16.3 Boundary Conditions for Successful Processing 337
16.3.1 Uniform and Void-Free Bonding 337
16.3.2 Protection of Wafer Edges during Thinning and Subsequent
Processing 337
16.4 Three-Dimensional Integration Processes Demonstrated with
Thermomechanical Debonding Approach 338
16.4.1 Via-Last Process on CMOS Image Sensor Device
Wafers 338
16.4.2 Via-Last Process with Aspect Ratio of 2 : 1 341
16.4.3 Via-Last Process with 50 μm Depth Using High-Temperature TEOS
Process 341
16.4.4 Die-to-Wafer Stacking Using Interconnect Via Solid–Liquid
Interdiffusion Process 342
16.5 Concluding Remarks 343
Acknowledgments 344
References 344
17 Temporary Adhesive Bonding with Reconfi guration of Known Good
Dies for Three-Dimensional Integrated Systems 347
Armin Klumpp and Peter Ramm
17.1 Die Assembly with SLID Bonding 347
17.2 Reconfi guration 348
17.3 Wafer-to-Wafer Assembly by SLID Bonding 349
17.4 Reconfi guration with Ultrathin Chips 351
17.5 Conclusion 352
Acknowledgments 353
References 354
18 Thin Wafer Support System for above 250 °C Processing and Cold
De-bonding 355
Werner Pamler and Franz Richter
18.1 Introduction 355
18.2 Process Flow 356
18.2.1 Release Layer Processing 357
18.2.2 Carrier Wafer Processing 357
18.2.3 Bonding Process 357
18.2.4 Thinning 359
18.2.5 De-bonding Process 360
18.2.6 Equipment 361
18.3 Properties 361
18.3.1 Device Wafer Thickness 361
18.3.2 Thickness Uniformity 361
18.3.3 Stability 362
18.4 Applications 362
18.4.1 Bonding of Bumped Wafers 363
Contents XIII
18.4.2 Packaging of Ultrathin Dies 363
18.4.3 TSV Processing 364
18.4.4 Re-using the Carrier 364
18.5 Conclusions 364
Acknowledgments 365
References 365
19 Temporary Bonding: Electrostatic 367
Christof Landesberger, Armin Klumpp, and Karlheinz Bock
19.1 Basic Principles: Electrostatic Forces between Parallel Plates 367
19.1.1 Electric Fields and Electrostatic Forces in a Plate Capacitor 368
19.1.2 Electrostatic Attraction in a Bipolar Confi guration 369
19.1.3 Johnsen–Rahbek Effect 370
19.2 Technological Concept for Manufacture of Mobile Electrostatic
Carriers 371
19.2.1 Selection of Substrate Material 371
19.2.2 Selection of Thin-Film Dielectric Layers 372
19.2.3 Electrode Patterns: Materials and Geometry 374
19.2.4 Examples of Mobile Electrostatic Carriers 375
19.3 Characterization of Electrostatic Carriers 376
19.3.1 Electrical and Thermal Properties, Leakage Currents 376
19.3.2 Possible Infl uence of Electrostatic Fields on CMOS Devices 378
19.4 Electrostatic Carriers for Processing of Thin and Flexible
Substrates 379
19.4.1 Handling and Transfer of Thin Semiconductor Wafers 379
19.4.2 Wafer Thinning and Backside Metallization 380
19.4.3 Electrostatic Carriers in Plasma Processing 380
19.4.4 Electrostatic Carriers Enable Bumping of Thin Wafers 380
19.4.5 Electrostatic Carriers in Wet-Chemical Environments 381
19.4.6 Electrostatic Handling of Single Dies 381
19.4.7 Processing of Foils and Insulating Substrates 381
19.5 Summary and Outlook 382
References 383
Index 385
XV
Preface
One may ask if we need another book on wafer bonding. The answer is a clear
yes. The research and development on wafer bonding has truly sped up in the last
few years, motivated by the extended use of wafer bonding in new technology areas
with a variety of materials. It is very desirable to summarize the recent advances
in wafer bonding fundamentals, materials, technologies, and applications in a
handbook format, rather than just focusing on scientifi c fundamentals and/or
applications.
So far there have been several books and review articles on wafer bonding,
such as
• Tong, Q. - Y. and G ö sele, U. (1999) Semiconductor Wafer Bonding: Science and
Technology , John Wiley & Sons, Inc.;
• Alexe, M. and G ö sele, U. (eds) (2004) Wafer Bonding: Applications and Technol-
ogy , Springer;
• Pl ö ß l, A. and Kr ä uter, G. (1999) Wafer direct bonding: tailoring adhesion
between brittle materials. Materials Science and Engineering , R25 , 1 – 88.
We do need an update. The change is mainly due to the fast pace of research and
development in three - dimensional ( 3D ) integration, temporary bonding, and
microelectromechanical systems ( MEMS ) with new functional layers.
Formerly, wafer bonding was applied for manufacturing silicon - on - insulator
wafers, for fabrication of sensors and actuators, and for various fl uidic systems.
Today, manufacturers of IC wafers have also learnt the terminologies related to
wafer bonding. As Moore ’ s law seems to come to an end, or at least to meet some
resistance, memory and logic devices are being stacked in the third dimension to
increase the density of transistors and improve performance and functionality. IC
manufacturers work on larger wafers and produce wafers in huge quantities,
so they have truly challenged lately the vendors of wafer bonding tools. Their
interest in wafer stacking has resulted in increased alignment precision, tools for
larger wafers, an increased focus on new materials, lower cost and higher through-
put, etc.
Based on the tremendous progress in wafer bonding in recent years, we invited
world experts to contribute chapters to this wafer bonding handbook, covering a
XVI Preface
variety of technologies and applications. The wafer bonding technologies are pre-
sented in Part One. We have grouped them into (i) adhesive and anodic bonding,
(ii) direct wafer bonding, (iii) metal bonding, and (iv) hybrid metal/dielectric
bonding. Several other possible ways of sorting the technologies are possible, but
the sorting approach taken here distinguishes the materials, the approaches, and
their possible applications. In Part Two, some key wafer bonding applications are
summarized, that is, 3D integration, MEMS, and temporary bonding, to give
readers a fl avor for where the wafer bonding technologies are signifi cantly applied.
This handbook focuses on wafer - level bonding technologies including chip - to -
wafer bonding. However, some of the technologies can also apply to chip - to - chip
bonding, probably with some modifi cations.
Peter Ramm
James Jian - Qiang Lu
Maaike M.V. Taklo
XVII
Obituary
In Honor of Ulrich G ö sele (1949 – 2009)
The editors would like to honor Professor Ulrich G ö sele for his great contributions
to wafer bonding, and are proud to have his chapter on “ Direct Wafer Bonding ” – his
last authored article – in this book.
Ulrich M. G ö sele
25 January 1949 – 8 November 2009
The photo was taken in July 2009 (source: MPI Halle)
Professor Ulrich G ö sele passed away on 8 November 2009. His death was un
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