工商管理 外文文献 外文翻译 英文文献 企业文化的变革

TheEvolutionoftheCultureofEnterpriseAbstractAtthetopechelonsofcontemporarybusiness,managersarebecomingconcernedwiththeunsustainabilityofthewaycompaniesnowoperate.Atransformationofbasicbusinessstrategiesappearsmoreandmoreindicated.Forsuchtransformationtobeeffective,thecultureoftheenterprise--thegoalsitpursuesandthevisionofthesegoalsentertainedbymanagersandcollaborators--needstochange.Consequentlythereisagrowingquestioningoftheviabilityofthetypicalcultureoftoday'senterprise,andasearchformorefunctionalandtimelyconceptsforcreatinganewandmoretimelyculturalpattern.Theleadingedgeofthegloballyoperatingworldofbusinessisbecomingkeenlyconcernedwithchangesintoday'ssocial,economic,andecologicenvironment.Atthetopechelonsofmanagementanintensesearchisunderwayforup-to-datemodesofthinkingandacting.Itcomestotheforeintheemphasismanagersplaceoncorporatestrategy,corporateidentity,corporatephilosophy,evencorporateethics.Anorganizationalrevolutionisunderway,asmanagersseektocommunicatetheirvisionwiththeircollaborators.Theimportanceofcommunicationamongallbranchesandlevelsoftheenterpriseisbecomingrecognized.Itisalsorecognizedthatthecompanycanonlyfunctionwhenpeopleunder-standwhatgoalsmanagementpursues,andwhattheirownroleisintheachievementofthegoals.EnterprisecultureTheongoingtransformationoftheenterprisecultureisapositivefactorinourchangingandunpredictableworld.Itmeansthatcompaniesarebecomingmoresensitivetothechangesthatobtainintheirenvironment,andmorereadytorespondtothem.Thenewemphasisonmanagementandcompanyethicsalsosuggeststhatbusinessesarewillingtoassumetheresponsibilitythatgoeswiththeirlargerroleinsociety.Globalenterpriseswieldunprecedentedpowerandinfluence,andthetransformationoftheirculturewillbeacriticalfactorindecidingtheevolutionofourinterdependentsocio-economicandecologicsystems–andtherewithourindividualandcollectfuture.Thetransformationoftheenterprisecultureistimely:thecompanyculturedominantformostofthiscenturybecameobsolete.Itfocusedontheworkingsoftheenterprisewithoutmuchregardforitssocialandecologicenvironment;itoperatedonthepremisethatthebusinessofbusinessisbusiness--ifitcomesupwithgoodproductsorservices,itfulfillsallitsobligationsvis-a-vissocietyandnature.Theself-centeredmethodsofthetraditionalmanagementphilosophynolongerproduceacceptableresults--theyarelikeconcentratingallone'sskillsonflyinganairplaneandpayingscantattentiontotheairspaceinwhichoneisflying.Thecaptainsofcontemporarybusinesscannotbesolelyconcernedwiththeinternalfunctioningoftheiraircraft:theymustalsosetacourseinreferencetoclimaticconditions,currentpositionandprojecteddestination,andthetrafficonthenetworkofroutescriss-crossingtheglobe.Thattrafficisdiversifiedandcomplex.Itincludes,inadditiontocustomers,suppliers,distributors,R&Dpartners,technologysubcontractors,andgovernmentaldepartmentsandministries,andnumerousothercooperativeandcompetitiveaircraft,togetherwiththesocial,ecologic,andevenculturalmilieuofthevariousbasesofoperation.Globalcompaniesnolongerresembleagiantmechanism,controlledbythoseontop.Thisisnewinthehistoryofmodernbusiness.Formostofthe20thcentury,topmanagementcouldcommandthecompanystructureswithoutbeinginfluencedby,orevenmuchconcernedwith,itslowerechelons.Motivationfortask-fulfillmentwascreatedbymaterialincentivesbolsteredbythreats;individualcreativityandinitiativeweredismissedasunnecessarynuisance.Powerwasconcentrated,togetherwithresponsibilityandoverview;middlemanagementhadaccessonlytotheinformationthatwasimmediatelyrelevanttoitstasks.FollowingtherecipesprescribedinFrederickTaylor's"scientificmanagement",thedistributionoftaskswasestablishedatheadquartersandthecompany'sfunctionsweredividedintoindividualworkcomponents.Planningwasbasedonabeliefincontrolandpredictability,effectsweretracedtocauses,andcauseswerequantitativelyanalyzed.Companyoperationsbasedoncause-effectchainsweregivenvalueindependentoftimeandplace:asinamachine,itwasheldthatthesameinputwouldalwaysproducethesameoutput.Thiswasthephilosophyoftheleadingcompaniesofthe20thcentury;themodelforsuccessatGeneralMotorsandStandardOil,andtherestoftheFortune500group.Theeconomicgrowth-environmentofthepost-warperioddidnotprovidegroundstomodify,orevenquestion,thisphilosophy.Almostanythinganenterprisingmanagerwouldtryhadaknackofsucceeding;hecouldevenengageinpersonalbravado.Technologicalprogressseemedassured,andexpandingmarketsseemedtodistributethebenefitsofgrowth.Thepost-wareconomywelcomedallentrepreneurs;theycouldgrowastheeconomydid.Long-termcosts,ifany,werehiddeninthelongterm.InthatregardbusinessmenwerefondofquotingKeynes:inthelongtermweshallallbedead.Ifthingsgetbetterandbetter,whybothertolookfurtherthanone'snose?Therewasnoneedtoworrywhetherornottherewouldbeprogress,itwasenoughtoguesswhatshapeitwouldtake,andhowthecompanycouldbenefitfromit.Inthe1970sand'80sthesituationhadchanged.Theeconomicgrowthcurveflattenedoutandoptimisticextrapolationsfailedtocometrue.Socialalienationandanomierose,andtechnologyproducedunexpectedside-effects:scaresandcatastrophesatThreeMileIsland,Bhopal,andChernobyl,theozoneholeovertheAntarctic,recurrentinstancesofacidrainandoilspill,andworseningenvironmentalpollutionincitiesandonland.Beliefinprogresswasshaken.Intellectualsandyouthgroupsfounditnecessary,andsomesegmentsofsocietyfashionable,toespousetheviewthattechnologicaladvanceisdangerousandshouldbehalted.Environmentaleffectsandsocialvalue-changebegantoenterasfactorsintheequationsofcorporatesuccess,andleadingmanagers,togetherwithconsultantsandmanagementtheorists,begantoreexaminetheiroperativeassumptions.Bythelate1980sfurtherchangesoccurredintheoperatingenvironment.Environmentalconcernsmovedfromthefringesofsocietyintothemarketplace;peopleprovedamenabletopayinghigherpricesforproductstheydeemedenvironmentallyfriendly;andtheywereknowntoboycottcompaniesthatremainedenvironmentallypollutingorunresponsive.Newinformationandcommunicationtechnologiescameonline,marketsbecameintegratedandinternationalized,productcyclesbecameshorterandproductlinesdiversified,andclientsandconsumersdemandedshorterdeliverytimesandhigherquality.Competitionmovedintotheglobalarena.Underthesecircumstancesclassicallyrunhierarchicalenterprisesprovedunabletocope.Thecentralizationofinformationanditsslowone-waypenetrationtolowerechelonsproducedfatalmistakes-andthenterminalrigidity.Thecompaniesthatsurviveddidsobytransformingthemselvesintoteam-orientedmulti-leveldecision-makingandimplementationstructures,ofteninthenickoftime.Inthelate1990sthediffusionofinformationandthegrowthintheintensityandnumberofinterfacesbetweenpeople,departments,anddivisionshaveradicallychangedthecompany'soperativestructures.Notonlyinformation,alsopeopleemergedasthekeyresourceoftheenterprise;teamworkprovedtobethebestwaythisresourcecouldbetapped.Theboundarybetweenthecompanyanditseconomic,social,andecologicenvironmentturnedfuzzy.Withinthebusinessspherefusions,alliances,andpartnershipsbecamecommonplace.Inmanycasesthecoreactivitiesoftheenterprisecametobesub-contracted,andworkrelationswithotherfirmsbecameasoperativeascompany-basedorganizationalstructures.Relianceondistributorsandsuppliers,andlinkagetolocalcommunitiesandecologiesturnedintostandardparametersofcorporatefunctioning.Underthesecircumstances,thereisadireneedfornewandadaptedmanagementconcepts.Thereisnodearthofadvice.Theoristsspeakofactivitybundlingandthecompany'capacitytosustainablycapturethehighestportionofthetotalindustryvalue-addedchain'sprofitmargin;strategyspecialistsemphasizetheneedformanagementtofocusondynamiccompetitivepositioningandcustomer-drivenprocesses;technologyconsultantsstresstheimportanceofanticipatoryR&Dinbothproductsandprocesses;andorganizationalexpertsinsistontheneedforlearningwithinnet-workedteamsoperatingbeyondestablishedcompanystructures.Leadingmanagersrealizethattheirvisionofthecompany'sfunctioningwithinitsglobalenvironment,anditsadaptabilitytochangesandtrendsinthatenvironment,isatleastequalinimportancetotheirabilitytoformulatestrategyandcarryoutoperations.ManagementguruTomPeterscalledintellectualcapitalacompany'sgreatestresource,andconsultantsGaryHamelandC.K.Prahaladnamedfuturevisionitsgreatestcompetitiveadvantage,morevaluablethanalargebankaccountoraleanorganization.Managerswhopossessintellectualcapitalandfuturevisionhaveasenseofpurpose,avoidwastingtimeonuselessexperimentsanddead-ends,andelicitdeepcommitmentfromtheircollaborators.Intoday'sworldeffectiveleadershipcallsforasoundknowledgenotonlyofcurrentcompanyoperationsandresources,butofitsabilitytoreachstrategic,financial,andorganizationalobjectivesintheyearsahead.Thisrequiresconsiderableacumen.Becausethefuture,asCharlesHandypointedout,couldbemostanything,butisnotlikelytobeacontinuationofthepast.Thoughtheenterpriseneedsanewanddifferentculture,thatculturemustbeefficient:itmustenableexecutivestocopewitheverlesspredictableeconomicconditions;offersufficientflexibilitytousenewtechnologiesastheycomeonline;developadaptabilityforthecompanytoenternewfieldsofactivityandleaveoldonesastheopportunitiespresentthemselves;andkeeptrackofthegrowinginterdependenceofthecompanywithitspartnersandcompetitorsanditseconomicandfinancialenvironment.Butthenewculturemustalsobeethical.Itmustrecognizetheimpactsoftheenterpriseonsocietyandonnature,andevenontheconditionsthatwebequeathonfuturegenerations.Anditmustbereadytoacceptresponsibilityfortheseimpacts.Acceptingresponsibilityinthesphereofsocietyandnatureisnotonlygoodcommonsense,itisalsogoodbusinesssense.Therearenolongerdefiniteboundarieswherewhereacompanyendsandsocietyandnaturebegins.Thebasicenduringinterestsoftheenterpriseanditssocialandecologicalenvironmentcoincide.Whatisgoodforsocietyandfornatureisalsogoodforthecompany--hencewhatisultimatelygoodforthecompanymustalsobegoodforsocietyandfornature.Thiscoincidenceofinterestswillnotchangeinthefuture;onthecontrary,itwillbecomemorepronounced.Thesuccessfulmanagersofthefuturewillbethosethatrecognizethisfactandactonit.Theywillbeeffectiveaswellasethical:leadersofresponsiblecorporatecitizensintheglobalsocio-economic-ecologicalsystemthatisalreadyemergingworldwide.CorporatecultureCorporatecultureistheglue,ifyouwill,thatholdsanorganizationtogether.Itincorporatesanorganization’svalues,itsnormsofbehavior,itspoliciesanditsprocedures.Themostimportantinfluenceoncorporatecultureisthenationalcultureofthecountryinwhichthecorporationisbased.Thatmayseemobvious,butthereareotherfactorsthatalsohelptoshapeacorporation’sculture—itsviewsofanditsinteractionswiththe“outsideworld.”Theownershipstructureofthecompanywillgoalongwayindefiningacorporateculture.Forexample,thecultureofafamily-ownedfirmislikelytobequitedifferentfromthatofapubliclyheldcompany.Also,theindustrythatthecorporationispartofwillhelpshapeitsculturalvalues.Forexample,ahigh-techcomputersoftwarefirm(arelativelyyoungindustry)islikelytohaveamuchmoreinformalandentrepreneurialculturethansaythatofaninvestmentbank(amatureindustry).And,likewise,anorganizationinaserviceindustrywillhaveadifferentculturethanthatofamanufacturingorminingcompany.Differencesinthecorporatecultureoforganizationsinthesamehomecultureandindustrymaystillbeprofound—sometimesasprofoundasthedifferencesbetweennationalculturesthemselves.Corporate-culturecomponentsLikenationalculture,corporateculturehassomebasiccomponentsthatmakeupthewhole.Whilenationalculturalcomponentsincludesuchthingsaslanguage,religion,andhumor,thecomponentsofcorporateculturetendtobemoreutilitarian.Noonesinglecomponentcanrevealthetrueinternalmake-upofacorporationbutwhentheyaretakenasawhole,theypresentaclearpictureofacompany’svaluesandgoals.Thekeycorporateculturalcomponentsare: ThesystemofrewardsWhattypeofemployeebehaviorisappreciatedandrewarded?Dorisktakersmoveupinmanagementranksordoesthecorporationrewardloyaltyandlong-termserviceinstead? HiringdecisionsThetypeofindividualacompanyhiressaysmuchaboutitsculture.Isacompanyreadytogrowandacceptnewideasbyhiringadiverseworkforceorisitcontenttokeephiringthesametypeofindividualtobuildahomogeneousworkforce? ManagementstructureDoesthecorporationhavearigidhierarchicalstructure?Isitmanagedbyanexecutivecommitteeoradominatingchairman? Risk-takingstrategyWhatisthecorporation’sviewofrisk?Doesitencouragetakingchances,tryingnewproductsandmarkets?Orisitcontentwithwell-establishedmarketsandproducts? PhysicalsettingIstheofficeanopenplanthatencouragescommunicationandasenseofegalitarianism?Oraremanagementofficessegregatedfromthestaffworkplace?Isheadquarteramonumenttoownershiporafunctionalworkingenvironment?NationalculturalinfluencesAsexplainedpreviously,Asiansplaceahighvalueonconceptassociatedwithsocialharmony,whileWesternersputgreateremphasisonindividuals’rightsandresponsibilities.ItisnosurprisetofindthatJapanesecorporationsalmostalwaysplacegreatemphasisongroupharmonyintheircorporatecultures.Theydesignasystemthatrewardsconformity,hirestaffthatisrelativelyhomogeneousandtendtoshyawayfromrisk-takingandtheentrepreneurialspirit.Bythesametoken,itshouldbenosurprisethatmanyAmericancorporationsarelikelytohireanentrepreneurialtypeandrewardrisk.Thereisnoescapingthefactthatanationalcultureshapescorporateresponsibilities,practicesandtraditions.Apairofstudies,oneregardingsixAsiannationscompletedin1996byWirthlinWorldwide,andoneregardingNorthAmericaconductedin1994byDavidI.HitchcockofthecenterforstrategicandInternationalStudies,revealedstrikingdifferencesbetweenthemostcherishedvaluesofAsianandNorthAmericanbusinessexecutives.Thesestudiesunderscorethepointthatnationalculturesdohaveparamountinfluenceontheformationofcorporatecultures.InAsiathetopsevenvalueslistedbyexecutiveswere:1. hardwork2. respectforlearning3. honesty4. opennesstonewideas5. accountability6. self-discipline7. self-relianceThetopsevennorthAmerican(UnitedStatesandCanada)valueswere:1. freedomofexpression2. personalfreedom3. self-reliance4. individualrights5. hardwork6. personalachievement7. thinkingforone’sselfCauseandeffectIfyoulookatthetraitsemphasizedbythebusinessexecutives,youcanbegintobuildacorporateculture—albeitastereotype—ofanAsianfirmandaNorthAmericanfirmandtounderstandthedifferencesinmanagementtechniqueandskillsbetweenAsiancorporationsandNorthAmericanones.InAsia,thereisnomentionofindividualrightsoranyhintofrewardfor“thinkingforone’sself.”Hence,thetypeoforganizationalstructurethat5hasemergedacrossAsiaisoneofaveryhierarchical,bureaucraticcorporationthatvaluessuchintangiblesas“respectforlearning”and“honesty.”Bythesametoken,takingthevaluesstressedbyNorthAmericanexecutives,youwouldexpecttofindcorporationsthatarelessstructuredandmoreentrepreneurialthanJapaneseones—and,ingeneral,thatisverymuchthecase.Remember,though,thatwithinthesamehomeculture,youstillgetvastdifferencesincorporateculture.WhileIBMandCompaqmaybeinthesamecountryandinthesameindustry,theircorporateculturesinmanywaysaredifferent.OneinterestingfootnotefromthesestudieswasthatfemaleAsianexecutiveshadavalueprofilethatmorecloselyresembledthatofNorthAmerican.Asianwomenfocusmoreonindependenceandself-reliancewhileAsianmenfocusmoreonharmonyandorder.Thisdifferencemaybeduetothefactthatwomenhavebeenshutoutofthe“oldboys’network”andhavebeenforcedtorelymoreonentrepreneurialskillsthanAsianmalestosucceed.ProfitablecorporatecultureTheconceptofcorporatecultureisallwellandgoodbutdoestheconcepthaveanymeasurableimpactonacorporation’sbottomlineoronstaffbehavior?Itcertainlydoes,thoughtheimpactisdifficulttoquantify.Havingastrongcorporatecultureprovidesaclearsenseofidentityforstaff,clarifiesbehaviorandexpectationsandusuallymakesdecisionmakingfairlyeasybecausesomuchisalreadydefined.Peopleknowwheretheystandandwhatisexpectedofthem.However,astrongcorporateculturealsohasadownside.Anycorporationthathasanentrenchedculturewillfindchangedifficult.Theinabilitiestobeflexible,toactquicklyandtochangerapidlyareallcompetitivedisadvantagesintheglobalmarketeconomy.Aweakcorporateculturewillsimplyhavelittleinfluenceonemployeebehavior.Thenitcomestothebottomline,itisimportantforacorporationtohaveacultureofaccountability.Withastrongaccountabilityculture,acorporationcanavoidimposingacostlymonitoringsystemwhichoftenhurtsemployeemoraleanddiminishesproductivity.Finally,ifyouhaveaweakormistrustingcorporateculture,employeeswillvote“withtheirfeet.”Inatightlabormarketthebadworkerswilldriveoutthegoodandthesituationgetsevenworse.Acorporationwillalwaysneedsometypeofcontrolsbutthegoalistohaveasfewcontrolsaspossible—justenoughtoensurethatpeopledon’tviolatetherules.EmployeereactionsIntruth,measuringthepositiveornegativeimpactofacorporatecultureonacompany’sbottomlineremainsanelusivegoal.Mostcompaniesdonotquantifytheeffectsofcorporateculture.Accordingtoa1996globalsurveyofbusinessexecutivesinAustralia,Canada,France,Germany,Holland,theUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedstatesdonebytheconsultantsProudfootPLC,only38percentofcompaniesindicatedthattheymeasuredtheeffectsoftheireffortstochangecorporateculture.Yet86percentclaimedtheirculturechangeprogramsaresuccessful.Methodsofmeasurementincludedemployeesurveysthemostcommonpracticeoverall),meetings,independentsurveysandinformalfeedback.Despitetheinabilitytomeasureimpact,morethanhalfofallexecutivessurveyed(52percent)feltthatcorporateculturecontributesagreatdealtothesuccessoftheircompanies.Theyjustcouldn’tsayhowmuchwithanygreatamountofcertainty.ViewsofsuccessThemaingoalofanycorporationistobesuccessful.Buthowyoudefinesuccesswill,ofcourse,haveanimpactonhowyouorganizeourbusinessanditsculture.Again,theinfluenceofnationalcultureandlocalexpectationsplayaparamountroleindeterminingthecorporateview.WirthlinConsulting’sWorldwideMonitorfindswhatconsumersin13countriesviewasforacorporation.Mostconsumerssaidproducingtheverybestproductsandservicesdefinedsuccess(indicatingtheirindividualisticcultures).However,inJapan,themostnotableattributewascaringaboutthecountry’ssocialandenvironmentalneeds—athrowbacktotheculture’semphasisontheimportanceofthegroupovertheindividual.InItaly,ifacompanywaswellrunandwellmanaged,thenitwasthoughttobesuccessful--anindicationofconcernaboutthatculture’shistoryofchaoticpoliticsandbusinessmanagement.InMexico,astableandprofitablecorporationwasthebenchmarkofsuccess.Fromtheseresponsesyoucanseethedifficultiesofattemptingtosetupacorporateculturethatcaneffectivelymoveacrossbordersandmeetthediverseneedsofconsumersindifferentcountries.TheidealcorporatecultureItwouldbeimpossibletogiveprecisedetailonwhattheperfecttypeofcorporatecultureshouldbeforaglobalcompany.Itdependssomuchontheculturesyouareoperatingin,thesubjectindustryandthebasicculturalcomponents.However,therearesomebasictraits:Anycultureneedstodevelopasenseofaccountabilityamongstaffandemployees.Itneedstobecoherentlytransmittedacrosscultures.Ifitistooakintotheheadquarters’culture,employeessimplywon’tacceptit.Thinklocally,actconsistently.Whileflexibilityisimportant,theremustbeaconsistentapplicationofprinciplesacrosscultures.Itmustbeattunedtothecompetitiverequirementsoftheworldmarketandbeabletochangetoadapttonewmarketconditions.ErvinLaszlo，TheJournalofGeneralEvolution.1998,Vol.52.pp.181-186.企业文化的变革艾尔文.拉兹洛在当代商业的高层阶级中，经理们开始考虑不能保持公司现在的运行模式。基本商业策略的改变正变得原来越明显。由于这种转变的影响，企业文化——追求的目标以及这些目标如何被经理们和合伙人们演绎——需要改变。因此出现了愈来愈多的对于当代企业的传统文化方式的生存能力的质疑，以及寻找更加有效与与符合当代思想的观念去创造一个新的，更加合适的文化形式。商业全球化运作的世界前沿正在明锐的考虑着当今世界在社会，经济，生态环境方面的变化。在高级管理层，正在当代的思考与行为模式下积极的探索。强调经理在公司策略，企业标志，企业哲学，甚至企业道德中的地位越来越惹人注意。一个组织上的革命正在进行，经理寻求与他们合伙人之间的想法上交流。企业所有分支与阶级之间的交流的重要性正在被考虑。它也考虑到只有当人们理解管理层所追求的目标和他们在实现这个目标的过程中扮演着什么角色的时候，公司才能够运转。在我们变化和不可预知的世界，迫切地改造企业文化是一个积极因素。这意味着企业变得越加敏感来应对变化的环境,并获得更愿意的回应。新的重点放在管理，伴随着大的社会上的角色，企业伦理也表明愿意承担责任。全球企业持前所未有的权力和影响,改造他们的文化将是一个关键的因素在一定程度上决定了我们的相互依存的经济发展与进化生态。变革企业文化是企业文化的主导，那即是:大半个世纪成了过时。它着眼于企业的运作不需要太多的关心它的社会和生态环境的前提下,它运作的业务交易就是交易——如果它符合优良的产品或服务,它实现了它所有的与社会和自然的义务。以自我为中心的传统的管理哲学的方法——不再获得满意效果,他们就像集中所有的技能的驾驶员驾驶飞机,在其中你飞行，全神贯注。机长不能仅仅关注当代内部的运作:他们必须设置飞机在这一过程中参考的气候条件,当前位置和预计的目的地,交通网络的路由球。多种多样,交通和复杂的。它包括了客户、供应商、分销商、研发合作伙伴、技术转包商,并政府部门和部门和许多其他的合作和竞争的飞机,配合社会、生态、甚至文化环境的各种运作。跨国公司不再像一个巨大的机制,受控于那