石油资源勘查专业英语

Unit1BasicGeologyLesson1GeologyEarthscience(alsoknownasgeoscience,thegeosciencesortheEarthsciences),isanall-embracingtermforthesciencesrelatedtotheplanetEarth.Itisarguablyaspecialcaseinplanetaryscience,theEarthbeingtheonlyknownlife-bearingplanet.TherearebothreductionistandholisticapproachestoEarthsciences.TheformaldisciplineofEarthSciencesmayincludethestudyoftheatmosphere,oceansandbiosphere,aswellasthesolidearth.Geologyisgenerallycategorizedwithinthegeosciences.Geology(fromtheGreek，geo,"earth"and,logos,"speech")isanaturalscience,whichstudiesthegeologyscienceoftheearth'shistory,composition,andstructure,andtheassociatedprocesses.Itdrawsuponchemistry,biology,physics,astronomy,andmathematics(notablystatistics)forsupportofitsformulations.Geologyisaverycomplexscience.TherearemanybranchesofGeology,whichcanbegroupedunderthemajorheadingsofphysicalandhistoricalgeology.PhysicalGeologyPhysicalgeologyincludesmineralogy,thestudyofthechemicalcompositionandstructureofminerals;petrology,thestudyofthecompositionandoriginofrock;geomorphology,thestudyoftheoriginoflandformsandtheirsmodificationbydynamicprocesses;geochemistry,thestudyofthechemicalcompositionoftheearthmaterialsandthechemicalchangesthatoccurwithintheearthandonitssurface;geophysics,thestudyofthebehaviorofrockmaterialsandinresponsetostressesandaccordingtotheprinciplesofphysics;sedimentology,thescienceoftheerosionanddepositionofrockparticlesbywind,water,orice;structuralgeology,thestudyoftheforcesthatdeformtheearth’srocksandthedescriptionandmappingofdeformedrockbodies;economicgeology,thestudyoftheexplorationandrecoveryofnaturalresources,suchasoresandpetroleum;andengineeringgeology,thestudyoftheinteractionoftheearth’scrustwithhuman-madestructuressuchastunnel,mines,dams,bridges,andbuildingfoundations.HistoricalgeologyHistoricalgeologydealswiththehistoricaldevelopmentoftheearthfromthestudyofitsrocks.Theyareanalyzedtodeterminetheirstructure,composition,andinterrelationshipsandareexaminedforremainsofpastlife.Historicalgeologyincludespaleontology,thesystematicstudyofpastlifeforms;stratigraphy,oflayeredrocksandtheirinterrelationships;paleogeography,ofthelocationsofancientlandmassesandtheirboundaries;andgeologicmapping,thesuperimposingofgeologicinformationuponexistingtopographicmaps.Historicalgeologistsdividealltimesincetheinformationoftheearliestknownrocks(c,4billionyearsago)intofourmajordivisions:thePrecambrian,Paleozoic,Mesozoic,andCenozoiceras.Each,excepttheCenozoic,endedwithprofoundchangesinthedispositionoftheearth’scontinentsandmountainsandwascharacterizedbytheemergenceofnewformsoflife.Broadcyclicalpatterns,whichrunthroughallhistoricalgeology,includeaperiodofmountainandcontinentbuildingfollowedoneoferosionand,inturn,byanewperiodofelevation.EarlyGeologicStudiesObservationsonearthstructureandprocessesweremadebyanumberoftheancients,includingHerodotus,Aristotle,Lucretius,Strabo,andSeneca.Theirindividualeffortsinthenaturalhistoryoftheearth,however,providednosustainedprogress.Theirmajorcontributionisthattheyattributedthephenomenatheyobservedtonaturalandnotsupernaturalcauses.ManyoftheideasexpressedbythesemenwerenottoresurfaceuntiltheRenaissance.LaterLeonardodaVincicorrectlyspeculatedonthenatureoffossilsasremainofancientorganismsandontherolethatriversplayintheerosionofland.Agricolamadeasystematicstudyoforedepositsintheearly16thcentury.RobertHookeandNicolausStenobothmadepenetratingobservationsonthenatureoffossilsandsediments.EvolutionofModernGeologyModerngeologybeganinthe18thcentury,whenfieldstudiesbytheFrenchmineralogistJ.E.Guttardandothersprovedmorefruitfulthanspeculation.TheGermangeologistAbrahamGottlobWerner,inspiteofthemanyerrorsofhisspecificdoctrinesandthediversionofmuchofhisenergyintoafruitlesscontroversy(inwhichhemaintainedthatoriginofallrockswasaqueous),performedagreatserviceforthesciencebydemonstratingthechronologicalsuccessionofrocks.In1795theScottishgeologistJamesHuttonlaidthetheoreticalfoundationformuchofthemodernsciencewithhisdoctrineofuniformitarianism,firstpopularizedbytheBritishJohnPlayfair.LargelythroughtheworkofsirCharlesLyell,thisdoctrinereplacedtheopposingoneofcatastrophism.Geologyinthe19thcenturywasinfluencedalsobytheworkofCharlesDarwinandenrichedbytheresearchesoftheSwiss-AmericanLouisAgassiz.Inthe20thcentury,geologyhasadvancedatanever-increasingpace.Theunravelingofthemysteryofatomicstructureandthediscoveryofradioactivityallowedprofoundadvancesinmanyphasesofgeologicresearch.ImportantdiscoveriesweremadeduringtheInternationalGeologicalYear(1957-58),whenscientistsfrom67nationsjoinedforceininvestigatingproblemsinallbranchesofgeology.Thesystematicsurveyoftheearth’soceansbroughtradicalchangesinconceptsofcrustalevolution.Asaresultofnumerousflybyspacecraft,geologicalstudieshavebeenextendedtoincluderemotesensingofotherplanetsandsatellitesinthesolarsystemandthemoon.Laboratoryanalysesofrockssamplesbroughtbackfromthemoonhaveprovidedinsightintotheearlyhistoryofnear-earthspace.On–siteanalysesofMartiansoilsamplesandphotographicmappingofitssurfacehavegivencluesaboutitscompositionandgeologichistory,includingthepossibilitythatMarsoncehadenoughwatertoformoceans.PhotographsofthemanyactivevolcanoesonJupiter’smoonIohaveprovidedcluesaboutearth’searlyvolcanicactivity.Geologicalstudiesalsohavebeenfurtheredbyorbitinglaboratories,suchasthesixlaunchedbetween1964intheOrbitingGeophysicalObservatory(OGO)seriesandthePolarOrbitingGeomagneticSurvey(POGS)satellitelaunchedin1990;remote-imagingspacecraft,suchastheU.S.Landsatprogram(Landsat7,launchedin1999,wasthemostrecent)andFrenchSPOTseries(SPOT4,launchedin1988,wasthemostrecentintheprogram);andgeologicalstudiesonspaceshuttlemissions.NewWordsandPhrases1.mineralogyn.矿物学2.petrologyn.岩石学3.geomorphologyn.地貌学4.geochemistryn.地球化学5.geophysicsn.地球物理学6.sedimentologyn.沉积学7.structuralgeology构造地质学8.economicgeology经济地质学（矿床学）9.paleontologyn.古生物学10.stratigraphyn.地层学11.paleogeographyn.古地理学12.Precambriann.adj.前寒纪13.Paleozoicn.adj.古生代（界）14.Mesozoicn.adj.中生代（界）（的）15.Cenozoicn.adj.新生代（界）（的）16.catastrophism灾难论17.remotesensingn.遥感18.spaceshuttle航天飞机19.Herodotus（希腊历史学家）希罗多德（约公元前485-约公元前425）20.Werne维尔纳(1750-1817)德国地质学家、矿物学家，水成论的创立者21.uniformitarianismn.均变论22.Aristotle亚里士多德（公元前322-公元前384古希腊大哲学家，科学家）23.Renaissancen.文艺复兴（时期）24.CharlesDarwin查尔斯达尔文，英国博物学家，进化论创立者25.Landsatn.（美国）地球资源（探测）卫星26.aqueous[；]adj.含水的，似水的Translations&InterpretationsofdifficultSentences1Broadcyclicalpatterns,whichrunthroughallhistoricalgeology,includeaperiodofmountainandcontinentbuildingfollowedoneoferosionand,inturn,byanewperiodofelevation.贯穿着整个地史时期最主要的循环模式，包括一段时期的造山和大陆，随后发生的侵蚀作用，然后，是一个新时期的抬升。2Theirindividualeffortsinthenaturalhistoryoftheearth,however,providednosustainedprogress.然而，他们的个人努力并没有使得地球的自然历史研究持续进步。3LaterLeonardodaVincicorrectlyspeculatedonthenatureoffossilsasremainofancientorganismsandontherolethatriversplayintheerosionofland.后来，列奥纳多·达·芬奇把化石的本质作为古代生物的残体进行了正确的考辨反思，并推测了河流对陆地的剥蚀作用。Lesson2TheEarthIngeologyandastronomy,theEarthisthefifthlargestplanetofthesolarsystemandtheonlyplanetdefinitelyknowntosupportlife.Gravitationforceshavemoldedtheearth,likeallcelestialbodies,intoasphericalshape.However,theearthisnotanexactsphere,beingslightlyflattenedatthepolesandbulgingattheequator,whichmeansthattheequatorialdiameterof12,756kmislargerthanthepolardiameterof12,714km.Andthemassoftheearthis6×1024kg.Thealtitudeofthesurfacefeaturesrangefrom11kmbelowto9kmabovesealevel，and70%ofthesurfaceiscoveredwithliquidwater,whichmakesituniqueinthesolarsystem.Additional,Earthhasanatmospherereachingseveralhundredkmintospace,consistingof78%nitrogen,21%oxygen,1%othergasesincludingcarbondioxideandwatervapour.Earthistheonlyplanetinoursolarsystemtohavelargequantitiesoffreeoxygeninitsatmosphere.Knowledgeoftheearth’sinteriorhasbeengatheredbythreemethods:bytheanalysisofearthquakewavespassingthroughtheearth,byanalogywiththecompositionofmeteorites,andbyconsiderationoftheearth’ssize,shape,anddensity.Researchbythesemethodsindicatesthattheearthhasazonedinterior,consistingofconcentricFigureofTheEarth’sLayersshellsdifferingfromoneanotherbysize,chemicalmakeup,anddensity.TheplanetEarthismadeupofthreemainshells:theverythin,brittlecrust,themantle,andthecore;themantleandcoreareeachdividedintotwoparts.Althoughthecoreandmantleareaboutequalinthickness,thecoreactuallyformsonly15percentoftheEarth'svolume,whereasthemantleoccupies84percent.Thecrustmakesuptheremaining1percent.TheEarth’sCrustandtheMohoBecausethecrustisaccessibletous,itsgeologyhasbeenextensivelystudied,andthereforemuchmoreinformationisknownaboutitsstructureandcompositionthanaboutthestructureandcompositionofthemantleandcore.Withinthecrust,intricatepatternsarecreatedwhenrocksareredistributedanddepositedinlayersthroughthegeologicprocessesoferuptionandintrusionoflava,erosion,andconsolidationofrockparticles,andsolidificationandrecrystallizationofporousrock.Bythelarge-scaleprocessofplatetectonics,abouttwelveplates,whichcontaincombinationsofcontinentsandoceanbasins,havemovedaroundontheEarth'ssurfacethroughmuchofgeologictime.Theedgesoftheplatesaremarkedbyconcentrationsofearthquakesandvolcanoes.CollisionsofplatescanproducemountainsliketheHimalayas,thetallestrangeintheworld.Theplatesincludethecrustandpartoftheuppermantle,andtheymoveoverahot,yieldinguppermantlezoneatveryslowratesofafewcentimetersperyear,slowerthantherateatwhichfingernailsgrow.Thecrustismuchthinnerundertheoceansthanundercontinents.TheboundarybetweenthecrustandmantleiscalledtheMohorovicicdiscontinuity(orMoho);itisnamedinhonorofthemanwhodiscoveredit,theCroatianscientistAndrijaMohorovicic.Noonehaseverseenthisboundary,butitcanbedetectedbyasharpincreasedownwardinthespeedofearthquakewavesthere.TheexplanationfortheincreaseattheMohoispresumedtobeachangeinrocktypes.DrillholestopenetratetheMohohavebeenproposed,andaSovietholeontheKolaPeninsulahasbeendrilledtoadepthof12kilometers,butdrillingexpenseincreasesenormouslywithdepth,andMohopenetrationisnotlikelyverysoon.TheEarth’sMantleExtendingtoadepthofc.2,900km,themantleprobablyconsistsofverydense(averagec.3.9)rockrichinironandmagnesiumminerals.Althoughtemperaturesincreasewithdepth,themeltingpointoftherockisnotreachedbecausethemeltingtemperatureisraisedbythegreatconfiningpressure.Atdepthsbetweenc.100andc.200kminthemantle,aplasticzone,calledtheasthenosphere,isfoundtooccur.Presumablytherocksinthisregionareveryclosetomelting,andthezonerepresentsafundamentalboundarybetweenthemovingcrustalplatesoftheearth’ssurfaceandtheinteriorregions.Themoltenmagmathatintrudesupwardintocrustalrocksorissuesfromavolcanointhefromoflavamayoweitsorigintoradioactiveheatingortothereliefofpressureinthelowercrustanduppermantlecausedbyearthquakefaultingoftheoverlyingcrustalrocks.⑤Similarly,itisthoughtthattheheatenergyreleasedintheupperpartofmantlehasbrokentheearth’scrustintovastplatesthatslidearoundontheplasticzone,settingupstressesalongtheplatemarginsthatresultintheformationoffoldsandfaults.TheEarth’sCoreThoughtobecomposedofironandnickel,thedense(c.11.0)coreoftheearthliesbelowmantle.Theabruptdisappearanceofdirectcompressionalearthquakewaves,whichcannottravelthoughliquids,atdepthsbelowc.2,900kmindicatesthattheouter2,200kmofthecorearemolten.Itisthought,however,thattheinner1,260kmofthecorearesolid.Theoutercoreisthoughttobethesourceoftheearth’smagneticfield:Inthe‘dynamotheory’advancedbyW.M.ElasserandE.Bullard,tidalenergyorheatisconvertedtomechanicalenergyintheformofcurrentsintheliquidcore;thismechanicalenergyisthenconvertedtoelectromagneticenergy,whichweseeasthemagneticfield.TheEarth’sAgetheearthisestimatedtobe4.5billionto5billionyearsold,basedonradioactivedatingoflunarrocksandmeteorites,whicharethoughttohaveformedatthesametime.Theoriginoftheearthcontinuestobecontroversial.Amongthetheoriesastoitsorigin,themostprominentaregravitationalcondensationhypotheses,whichsuggestthattheentiresolarsystemwasformedatonetimeinasingleseriesofprocessesresultingintheaccumulationofdiffuseinterstellargasesanddustintoasolarsystemofdiscretebodies.Oldandnowgenerallydiscreditedtheoriesinvokedextraordinaryevents,suchasgravitationaldisruptionofastarpassingclosetothesunortheexplosionofacompanionstartothesun.NewWordsandPhrases1.geology[n.地质学2.astronomyn.天文学3.solarsystemn.太阳系4.gravitationn.地心吸力5.celestialbody[n.天体6.equatorn.赤道7.altituden.(海拔)高度8.meteoriten.陨石9.concentricadj.同心的10.brittleadj.易碎的11.intricateadj.复杂的12.collisionn.碰撞13.Himalayasn.喜马拉雅山脉14.Mohon.莫霍面Mohoroviidiscontinuity莫霍不连续面15.asthenospheren.软流圈16.radioactiveadj.放射性的17.magman.岩浆18.compressionaladj.压缩的，纵（波）的19.dynamotheory[n.（地磁场成因的）发电机理论20.lunar[adj.月亮的，月球的21.gravitationalcondensationhypotheses（天体形成的）重力凝聚假设，也称吸积作用22.crustalplate地壳板块23.interstellaradj.星际的24.lavan.熔岩Translations&InterpretationsofdifficultSentences1Researchbythesemethodsindicatesthattheearthhasazonedinterior,consistingofconcentricshellsdifferingfromoneanotherbysize,chemicalmakeup,anddensity.通过这些 方法 快递客服问题件处理详细方法山木方法pdf计算方法pdf华与华方法下载八字理论方法下载 研究表明地球的内部是由同心圈层组成，这些圈层的大小，化学组成以及密度互不相同。2Althoughthecoreandmantleareaboutequalinthickness,thecoreactuallyformsonly15percentoftheEarth'svolume,whereasthemantleoccupies84percent.虽然地核和地幔在重量上是近似均等的，地核只占地球体积的大约15%，而地幔占了84%。3Withinthecrust,intricatepatternsarecreatedwhenrocksareredistributedanddepositedinlayersthroughthegeologicprocessesoferuptionandintrusionoflava,erosion,andconsolidationofrockparticles,andsolidificationandrecrystallizationofporousrock.当如岩浆喷发和侵入，侵蚀，岩石颗粒的固结以及多孔岩石的凝固和重结晶等地质过程作用于地壳时，创造了地壳内复杂的格局。4Althoughtemperaturesincreasewithdepth,themeltingpointoftherockisnotreachedbecausethemeltingtemperatureisraisedbythegreatconfiningpressure.虽然随着深度的增加温度升高，但由于熔点随着压力的增加而升高，温度并未达到岩石的熔点。5Themoltenmagmathatintrudesupwardintocrustalrocksorissuesfromavolcanointhefromoflavamayoweitsorigintoradioactiveheatingortotherelieffpressureinthelowercrustanduppermantlecausedbyearthquakefaultingoftheoverlyingcrustalrocks.上覆地壳岩石的地震断层会导致下地壳和上地幔的热辐射或解压，这可能是是熔融的岩浆侵入地表岩石或火山喷发熔岩的主要原因。6Theoutercoreisthoughttobethesourceoftheearth’smagneticfield:Inthe‘dynamotheory’advancedbyW.M.ElasserandE.Bullard,tidalenergyorheatisconvertedtomechanicalenergyintheformofcurrentsintheliquidcore;thismechanicalenergyisthenconvertedtoelectromagneticenergy,whichweseeasthemagneticfield.外地核被认为是地球磁场的来源，根据W.M.ElasserandE.Bullard的“地磁场理论”，潮汐能或者热可以转化为液芯中的机械能流，机械能再转化为电磁能，也就是我们所知道的磁场。Lesson3EarthquakeandVolcanoesEarthquakeEarthquakeistremblingorshakingmovementoftheearth’ssurface.Mostearthquakesareminortremors.Largerearthquakesusuallybeginwithslighttremorsbutrapidlytaketheformofoneormoreviolentshocks,andendinvibrationsofgraduallydiminishingforcecalledaftershocks.Thesubterraneanpointoforiginofanearthquakeiscalleditsfocus;thepointonthesurfacedirectlyabovethefocusistheepicenter.Themagnitudeandintensityofanearthquakeisdeterminedbytheuseofscales,e.g.,theRichterscaleandMercalliscale.Mostearthquakesarecausallyrelatedtocompressionalortensionalstressesbuiltupatthemarginsofthehugemovinglithosphericplatesthatmakeuptheearth’surface.Theimmediatecauseofmostshallowearthquakesisthesuddenreleaseofstressalongafault,orfractureintheearth’scrust’resultinginmovementoftheopposingblocksofrockpastoneanother.Thesemovementscausevibrationstopassthroughandaroundtheearthinwavefrom,justasripplesaregeneratedwhenapebbleisdroppedintowater.Volcaniceruption,rockfalls,landslides,andexplosionscanalsocauseaquake,butmostoftheseareofonlylocalextent.ThereareseveraltypesofearthquakewavesincludingP,orprimary,waves,whicharecompressionalandtravelfastest;andS,orsecondary,waves,whicharetransverse,i.e.,theycausetheearthtovibrateperpendicularlytothedirectionoftheirmotion.SurfacewavesconsistofseveralmajortypesandarecalledL,orlong,waves.SincethevelocitiesofthePandSwavesareaffectedbythechangesinthedensityandrigidityofthematerialthroughwhichtheypass,theboundariesbetweentheregionsoftheearthknownasthecrust,mantle,andcorehavebeendiscernedbyseismologists,scientistswhodealwiththeanalysisandinterpretationofearthquakewaves.SeismographsareusedtorecordP,SandL’waves.ThedisappearanceofSwavesbelowdepthsof2,900kmindicatesthatatleasttheouterpartoftheearth’scoreisliquid.Theeffectsofanearthquakearestrongestinabroadzonesurroundingtheepicenter.Theextentofearthquakevibrationandsubsequentdamagetoaregionispartlydependentoncharacteristicsoftheground.Forexample,earthquakevibrationslastlongerandareofgreaterwaveamplitudesinunconsolidatedsurfacematerial,suchaspoorlycompactedfillorriverdeposits;bedrockareasreceivefewereffects.Theworstdamageoccursindenselypopulatedurbanareaswherestructuresarenotbuilttowithstandintenseshaking.There,Lwavescanproducedestructivevibrationsinbuildingsandbreakwaterandgaslines,startinguncontrollablefires.Damageandlossoflifesustainedduringanearthquakeresultfromfallingstructuresandflyingglassandobjects.Flexiblestructuresbuiltonbedrockaregenerallymoreresistanttoearthquakedamagethanrigidstructuresbuiltonloosesoil.Incertainareas,anearthquakecantriggermudslides,whichslipdownmountainslopesandcanburyhabitationsbelow.Asubmarineearthquakecancausetsunamis,damagingwavesthatrippleoutwardfromtheearthquakeepicenterandinundatecoastalcities.Onaverageabout1,000earthquakeswithintensitiesof5.0orgreaterarerecordedeachyear.Greatearthquakes(intensity8.0orhigher)occuronceayear,majorearthquakes(intensity7.0-7.9)occur18timesayear,strongearthquakes(intensity6.0-6.9)10timesamonth,andmoderateearthquakes(intensity5.0-5.9)morethantwiceaday.Becausemostoftheseoccurundertheoceanorinunderpopulatedareas,theypassunnoticedbyallbutseismologists.VolcanoesVolcanoesareventsorfissuresintheearth’scrustthoughwhichgases,moltenrock,orlava,andsolidfragmentsaredischarged.Thetermvolcanoiscommonlyappliedbothtotheventandtotheconicalmountainbuiltuparoundtheventbytheeruptedrockmaterials.Volcanoesaredescribedasactive,dormant,orextinct.Thesoilresultingfromdecompositionofvolcanicmaterialsisextremelyfertile,andtheashitselfisagoodpolishingandcleansingagent.Volcanoesarefoundinassociationwithmidoceanridgesystemsandalongconvergentplateboundaries,suchasaroundthePacificOcean’s‘RingofFire’,theringofplateboundariesassociatedwithvolcanicislandarcsandoceantrenchessurroundingthePacificOcean.IsolatedvolcanoesalsoforminthemidoceanareaofthePacificapparentlyunrelatedtocrustalplateboundaries.Theseseamountsandvolcanicislandchains,suchastheHawaiianchain,mayformfromrisingmagmaregionscalledhotspots.Morethan500volcanoesknowntohaveeruptedontheearth’ssurfacesincehistorictimes,andmanymorehaveeruptedontheoceanfloorunobservedbyhumans.FiftyvolcanoeshaveeruptedintheUnitedStates,whichranksthird,behindIndonesiaandJapan,inthenumberofhistoricallyactivevolcanoes.Oftheworld’sactivevolcanoes,morethanhalfarefoundaroundtheperimeterofthePacific,aboutathirdonmidoceanicislandsandinanarcalongthesouthoftheIndonesianisland,andaboutatenthintheMediterraneanarea,Africa,andAsiaMinor.Evidenceofextraterrestrialvolcanicactivityalsohasbeenfound.Spaceprobeshavedetectedtheremnantsofancienteruptionsonearth’smoon,Mars,andMercury;theseprobablyoriginatedbillionsofyearsago,sincethesebodiesarenolongercapableofvolcanicactivity.Triton(asatelliteofNeptune),Io(asatelliteofJupiter),andVenusaretheonlybodiesinthesolarsystembesidesearththatareknowntobevolcanicallyactive.Thevolcanicprocessesthatoccurintheouterportionofthesolarsystemareverydifferentfromthoseintheinnerpart.Eruptionsonearth,Venus,Mercury,andMarsareofrockymaterialandaredrivenbyinternalheat.Io’seruptionsareprobablysulfurcompoundsdrivenbytidalinteractionswithJupiter.Triton’seruptionsareofveryvolatilecompounds,suchasmethaneornitrogen,drivenbyseasonalheatingfromthesun.Terrestrialvolcaniceruptionsmaytakeoneormoreoffourchiefforms,orphases,knownasHawaiian,Strombolian,Vulcanian,andPelean.IntheHawaiianphasethereisarelativelyquie