语言学的名词解释(7)

WhenIwaspreparingthepostgraduateentranceexaminationofNNU(NanjingNormalUniversity),someofthesefollowingconceptshadbeentested,butthere'snospecificorclearexplanationinthetextbookrequiredbytheuniversity.Asinpreparingthesecond-roundexaminationIreadtheminotherrelevantbooks,Iwrotedownhereforyourreference.Hopetheyareusefultosomeofyou.1.Acculturation(同化过程）isaprocessinwhichmembersofoneculturalgroupadoptthebeliefsandbehaviorsofanothergroup.2.Adjacencypair（相邻语对）;asequenceoftwoutterancesbydifferentspeakersinconversation.Thesecondisaresponsetothefirst,suchasquestion/answersequencesandgreeting/greetingexchange.3.affix:aboundmorphemethatisattachedtoastemandmodifiesitsmeaninginsomeway.4.agreement(concord)（一致）:agrammaticalphenomenoninwhichtheformofonewordinasentenceisdeterminedbytheformofanotherwordwhichisgrammaticallylinkedtoit. E.g.inthesentenceTheboygoestoschooleveryday.Thereisanagreementinnumberbetweenboyandgoes.5.articulators（发音器官):thetongue,lips,andvelum,whichchangetheshapeofthevocaltracttoproducedifferentspeechsounds.6.aspect(体）:thegrammaticalcategoryrepresentingdistinctioninthetemporalstructureofanevent.Englishhastwoaspectconstruction---theperfectandtheprogressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）;thepuffofairthatsometimesfollowsthepronounciationofastopconsonant. E.g./p/inthewordpit.8.consonant（辅音）;aspeechsoundproducedbypartialorcompleteclosureofpartofthevocaltract,thusobstructingtheairflowandcreatingaudiblefriction.Consonantsaredescribedintermsofvoicing,placeofarticulation,andmannerofarticulation.9.converstionalimplicature（会话含义）:meaningsthatareexplicableinthelightofconverationalmaxims.10.communicativecompetence（交际能力）;theabilitytouselanguageappropriatelyinsocialsituations.11.constituent（成分）:asyntacticunitthatfunctionsaspartofalargeunitwithinasentence;typicalconstituenttypesareverbphrase,nounphrase,prepositionalphraseandclause.12.case(格)：thegrammaticalcategoryininflectionallanguagesbywhichtheformofanounornounphrasevariesforgrammaticalorsemanticreasons.Englishhasonlyonecasedistinctioninnouns—thegenitivecase(所有格),butEnglishpronounshavethreeformsthatcorrespondtothreeofthesixcasesinLatin.13.clause（小句）:agrammaticalunitthatcontainsasubjectandapredicate.Itmaybeasentenceorpartofasentence.14.closedclass（封闭词类）:agroupofwordswhosemembershipissmallanddoesnotreadilyacceptnewmembers.15.coinage（创新词）:theconstructionandadditionofnewwords.16.distribution(分布）:thesetofpositionsinwhichagivenlinguisticelementorformcanappearinalanguage.17.duality（双重结构）:atypeofdouble-layerstructureinwhichasmallnumberofmeaninglessunitsarecombinedtoproducealargenumberofmeaningfulunits.18.entailment（包含）;therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofone(thesecond)isinferredfromthetruthoftheother.19.euphemism（委婉语）:awordorphrasethatreplacesataboowordorisusedtoavoidreferencetocertainactsorsubjects,e.g.powderroomfortoilet.20.gardenpathsentence（花园小径句）:asentenceinwhichthecomprehenderassumesaparticularmeaningofawordoraphrasebutlaterdiscoversthattheassumptionwasincorrect,forcingthecomprehendertobacktrackandreinterpretthesentence21.freevariation;(自由变异)arelationbetweentwospeechsoundssuchthateitheronecanoccurinacertainpositionandthesubstitutionofonefortheothernevermakesanydifferenceinthemeaningoftheword.Forinstance,theunexploded(失去爆破)stop/d/inthephraseGoodmorningisinfreevaritationwiththeexploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection（屈折变化）:themorphologicalprocessbywhichaffixescombinewithwordsorstemstoindicatesuchgrammaticalcategoriesastenseorplurity.23.government（支配）:thegrammaticalphonomenoninwhichthepresenceofaparticularwordinasentencerequiresasecondwordwhichisgrammaticallinkedwithittoappearinaparticularform.E.g.aprepositionoraverbrequiresthatthepronounfollowingitbeintheobjectiveform,asinwithme,tohim.24.languageuniversal(语言共性):anypropertythatissharedbymost,ifnotall,humanlanugages.25.linguafranca:(通用语)Alanguagevarietyusedforcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplewodonototherwiseshareacommonlanguage.Forexample,Englishisthelinguafrancaoftheinternationalscientificcommunity.26.macrosociolinguistics;Thestudyoftheeffectoflanguageonsociety.27.microsociolinguistics:Thestudyoftheeffectofanyandallaspectsofsociety,includingculturalnorms,expetationsandcontexts,onthewaylanguageisused.Itisoftensimplycalledsociolinguistics.28.paradigmaticrelation:(纵组合关系)Thesubstitutionalrelationbetweenasetoflinguisticitems,thatis,linguisticforms(letters,wordsandphrases)canbesubstitutedforeachotherinthesamepositioninawordorsentence.E.g,b,p,s,fareinparadigmaticrelationinthewordsbit,pit,sit,fit,soareNature,Beauty,Love,Honestyinthesentences:Naturepurifiesthemind.Beautypurifiesthemind.Love purifiesthemind.Honestypurifiesthemind.29.syntagmaticrelation:(横组合关系)Therelationbetweenanylinguisticelementswhicharesimultaneouslypresentinastructure.E.g.inthewordbit,b,i,tareinsyntagmaticrelation,soarenature,purifies,the,mind,inthesentenceNaturepurifiesthemind.30.presupposition（预设）:implicitassumptionsabouttheworldacquiredtomakeanutterancemeaningfulorappropriate,e,g,“someteahasalreadybeentaken”isapresuppostionof“Takesomemoretea”.31.prototype(典型):Whatmembersofaparticularcommunitythinkofasthebestexampleofalexicalcategory,e.g.forsomeEnglishspeakers“cabbage”(ratherthan,say,carrot)mightbetheprototypicalvegetable.32.root(词根):themorphemethatremainswhenallaffixesarestrippedfromacomplexword.E.g.systemfromun-systematically.33.stem（词干）:thebasetowhichoneormoreaffixesareattachedtocreateamorecomplexformthatmaybeanotherstemoraword.34.taboo（禁忌语）:wordsthatareoffensiveorembarrassing,consideredinappropriatefor“politesociety”, thustobeavoidedinconversation.35.selectionalrestriction(选择限制):arestrictiononthecombiningofwordsinasentenceresultingfromtheirmeaning.36.linguisticuniversal:(语言共性)Thelinguisticuniversalsareprinciplesthatenablechildrentoacquireaparticularlanguageunconsciously,withoutinstructionintheearlyyearsoflife.AsawholetheyarereferredtoasUniversalGrammar.37.contrastivedistribution(对比分布)：Ifthespeechsoundsoccurinthesamephoneticcontextandthesubstitutionresultsacontrastinmeaning,wesaytheyareincontrastivedistribution.38.immidiateconstituentanalysis（直接成分 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 法）isthetechniqueofbreakingupsentencesintowordgroupsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttingsuntilthelevelofsinglewordsisreached.39.endocentricconstruction:(向心结构或内心结构)Oneconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproaching equivalence,tooneofitsconstituents.ThetypicalEnglishendocentricconstructionsarenounphrasesandadjectivephrases.40.exocentricconstruction(离心结构或外心结构)theoppositeofendocentricconstruction,referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothewholegroup.Mostconstructionsareexocentric.41.politenesscanbedefinedasthemeansemployedtoshowawarenessofanotherperson’spublicself-image.42.PP(politenessprinciple)tactmaxim;generosityprinciple;approbationmaxim;modestymaxim;agreementmaxim;sympathymaxim.43.irony(反语)istheuseofwordstoexpresssomethingotherthanandespeciallytheoppositeoftheliteralmeaningoftheutterance.44.code-switching:(语码转换)meansthealternationbetweentwoormorelanguages,languagevarietiesorregistersincommunication.45.affectivefilter(情感过滤)：Ascreenofemotionthatcanblocklanguageacquisitionorlearningifitkeepsthelearnersbeingtooself-consciousortooembarrassedtotakerisksduringcommunicativeexchanges.46.Conversion（转类构词）isachangeinthegrammaticalfunctionofawordwithoutaddingorremovinganypartofit.Awordbelongingtoonepartofspeechisextendedtoanotherpartofspeech.Itisalsocalledfunctionalshiftorzeroderivation.47.lexicalmeaningVSgrammaticalmeaning(词汇意义与语法意义)Themeaningofasentenceiscarriedbythewordsproperaswellasbythepatternsofwordorderthatispartofthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.Thepartofthesentencemeaningcontributedbywordsiscalledthelexicalmeaningandthepartofsentencemeaningthatdependsuponthewaythewordsareputtogetheriscalledgrammaticalmeaning,inwhichthefunctionwordsandthewordorderplayaveryimportantrole.48.paralinguisticmeaningVSnon-linguisticmeaning(副语言意义与非语言意义)Inhumancommunication,apartfromthelinguisticmeaningconveyedbylanguageitself,therearenumerousparalinguisticmeaningsandnon-linguisticmeaningsthatareperceivedsimultaneouslybythehearer.Paralinguisticmeaningsarethoseattachedtotheverbalexpressionsbyqualityofvoice,tempoofspeech,posture,facialexpressionandgestures.Non-linguisticmeaningsarethoseindicatedbynon-verbalnoisessuchascough,sigh,tongue-clicking,variouskindsofbodylanguagesanddifferentcontextsofsituation.49.denotationVSconnotation(外延与内涵)Denotationisastraightforward,literalmeaningofthewordeverymemberofthelanguagespeakingcommunitywillagreeon.Connotationisnotthebasicmeaingofthewordbutsomeemotiveorevaluativemeaingsassociatedwiththewordbyindividuallanguageusersintheirmind.50.linguisticrelativityVSlinguisticdeterminism(语言相对论与语言决定论)TheSapir-WholfHypothesisstatesthatthereisasystematicrelationshipbetweenthegrammaticalcategoriesofthelanguageapersonspeaksandhowthatpersonbothunderstandstheworldandbehavesinit.Itboilsdowntotwoprinciples:linguisticrelativityandlinguisticdeterminism.Linguisticrelativitystatesthatdisctinctionsencodedinonelanguageareuniquetothatlangagealone,andthatthereisnolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.Linguisticdeterminismreferstotheideathatthelanguageweusedetermines,tosomeextent,thewayinwhichweviewandthinkabouttheworldaroundus.Thisconcepthastwoversions;strongdeterminismandweakdeterminism.Thestrongversion,whichhasfewfollowerstoday,holdsthatlanguageactuallydeterminesthought,whereasthatweakversion,whichiswidelyacceptedtoday,merelyholdsthatlanguageaffectsthought.