新2011GRE Issue作文（写作参考）思想，行为，方法Revised GRE Issue

  1    为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的《拯救我的新 GRE Issue》一书样稿，无偿网络发布。 此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888james@tongji.edu.cn，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。 本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。 感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。 祝各位旧 G 新 G 网友考试顺利！   Chapter 11 写作参考：思想，行为，方法 Writing Reference: Thinking, Behavior, Methods   2    为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的《拯救我的新 GRE Issue》一书样稿，无偿网络发布。 此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888james@tongji.edu.cn，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。 本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。 感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。 祝各位旧 G 新 G 网友考试顺利！   11 本章目录 Chapter Contents 有关信仰 Belief 113 Reference 145 信仰与质疑 Beliefs and Skepticism 112 质疑与生活 Skepticism and Life 113 挑战信仰 Intellectual Challenge 112 辩论 Argument 113 四种讨论方法 Four Discussion Methods 112 Reference 150 反对的艺术 The Art of Disagreement 113 建设性反对 Constructive Disagreement 112 想象力 Imagination 113 创造力 Creativity 112 创意 Best Ideas 113 Reference 155 模仿与创新 Imitation and Creation 112 有关态度 Attitude 113 形象与实际 Image and Reality 113 风险管理 Think before You Act 112 有关成功 Success 113 Reference 160 设定个人目标 Setting Personal Goals 112 知识与经验 Knowledge and Experience 113 个人主义与集体主义 Individualism and Collectivism 112 功利主义 Utilitarianism 113 马基雅维利主义 Machiavellism 113 Reference 165 实用主义 Pragmatism 112   3    为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的《拯救我的新 GRE Issue》一书样稿，无偿网络发布。 此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888james@tongji.edu.cn，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。 本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。 感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。 祝各位旧 G 新 G 网友考试顺利！   Reference 144 有关信仰 Belief Relevant GRE Issue 相关题库题目 【新 66 题】【新 141 题】 See Also 相关写作参考 【Ref-116 政治信仰】【Ref-147 挑战信仰】【Ref-145 信仰与质疑】【Ref-070 科学乌托邦】 【Ref-146 质疑与生活】 【什么是信仰】How you live is determined by your beliefs. A belief is an idea that you accept as true or factual. Your beliefs come from your own observation, experience, and reasoning, and from what you accept from reading or hearing the beliefs or teachings of other persons. The beliefs that influence how you live are ordinarily called a "philosophy of life" or "religion." 【信仰的重要性】Beliefs are important because behavior is important and your behavior depends on your beliefs. Everything you do can be traced back to beliefs you hold about the world — everything from brushing your teeth to your career. Beliefs also help determine your reactions to others' behavior — for example their refusal to brush their teeth or their own career choices. All this means that beliefs are not an entirely private matter. Even beliefs you try to keep to yourself may influence your actions enough to become a matter of legitimate concern of others. Believers certainly can't argue that their religions have no impact on their behavior; on the contrary, believers are frequently seen arguing that their religion is critical for the development of correct behavior. The more important the behavior in question is, the more important the underlying beliefs must be. The more important those beliefs are, the more important it is that they be open to examination, questioning, and challenges. 【信仰与行为】Brought together, beliefs and knowledge form a mental representation of the world around you — a belief about the world is the mental attitude that world is structured in some way rather than another. This means that beliefs are necessarily the foundation for action: whatever actions you take in the world around you, they are based on your mental representation of the world. In the case of theistic religions, this representation includes supernatural realms and entities. As a consequence, if you believe something is true, you must be willing to act as if it were true. If you are unwilling to act as thought it were true, you can't really claim to believe it. This is why actions can matter much more than words. We can't know the contents of a person's mind, but we can know if their actions are consistent with what they say they believe. A religious believer might claim that they love neighbors and sinners, for example, but does their behavior actually reflect such love? 【信仰指引人们的方向】Beliefs are remarkably powerful in that they are to our lives what a rudder is to a ship. That is, they control the direction and destiny of our lives. If I believe I am a failure, I will set myself up to fail. If I believe I am a successful person, I will succeed, and so on. An individual's self-concept [what he believes about himself] is the core of his personality. It affects every aspect of human behavior; the ability to learn, the capacity to grow and change, the choice of friends, mates and careers. It's no exaggeration to say that a strong positive self-image [self-belief] is the best possible preparation for success in life. 【 人 们 可 以 自 由 选 择 信 仰 】 Beliefs are also powerful because we can choose what we want to believe. This places us in charge of our own destiny. True, most of our beliefs about ourselves, life, God, and so on were learned from our parents or early caregivers. However, once we   4    为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的《拯救我的新 GRE Issue》一书样稿，无偿网络发布。 此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888james@tongji.edu.cn，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。 本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。 感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。 祝各位旧 G 新 G 网友考试顺利！   become of age, we can consciously choose to hold on to those beliefs that are valid and let go of the rest. One danger is to hold on to beliefs we like and let go of those we don't like more through convenience rather than thoughtful choice. That is, we choose those beliefs that don't threaten our lifestyle and, consequently, instead of our controlling our beliefs we allow them to control us. 【信仰是一种态度】A belief is the mental attitude that some proposition is true. For every given proposition, every person either has or lacks the mental attitude that it is true — there is no middle ground between the presence of absence of a belief. In the case of gods, everyone either has a belief that at least one god of some sort exists or they lack any such belief. 【信仰不同于判断】Belief is distinct from judgment, which is a conscious mental act that involves arriving at a conclusion about a proposition (and thus usually creating a belief). Whereas belief is the mental attitude that some proposition is true rather than false, judgment is the evaluation of a proposition as reasonable, fair, misleading, etc. 【信仰不同于知识】Although some people treat belief and knowledge as almost synonymous, belief and knowledge are very distinct. The most widely accepted definition of knowledge is that something is "known" only when it is a "justified, true belief." 【信仰有对错之分】Some beliefs are true and some beliefs are false. It is important for you to examine your beliefs to assess the validity or invalidity of the ideas represented in your beliefs. It is also important for you to know the source of your beliefs, and why you hold your beliefs. Beliefs, or ideas, may become part of a religious system that is passed down from generation to generation in a particular society or culture. The antiquity of a belief may give an idea the appearance of "authority" although the idea is actually erroneous. For centuries, it was believed that the sun circled the earth, but this was eventually proven to be a false idea. It can be personally dangerous for a person to challenge an ancient belief, as Copernicus and Galileo found out. It takes courage to do this. Quotations on Belief What matters is not the idea a man holds, but the depth at which he holds it. Ezra Pound (1885-1972, an American expatriate poet and critic, and known for his role in developing Imagism) This is how humans are: we question all our beliefs, except for the ones we really believe, and those we never think to question. Orson Scott Card (1951-, an American author, critic, public speaker and political activist, and primarily known for his science fiction) The eloquent man is he who is no beautiful speaker, but who is inwardly and desperately drunk with a certain belief. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882, an American lecturer, philosopher, essayist, and poet) It is easier to believe than to doubt. (Author Unknown) Man is a credulous animal, and must believe something; in the absence of good grounds for belief, he will be satisfied with bad ones. Bertrand Russell (1872-1970, a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic) Reference 145 信仰与质疑 Beliefs and Skepticism   5    为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的《拯救我的新 GRE Issue》一书样稿，无偿网络发布。 此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888james@tongji.edu.cn，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。 本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。 感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。 祝各位旧 G 新 G 网友考试顺利！   Relevant GRE Issue 相关题库题目 【新 18 题】【新 42 题】【新 66 题】【新 87 题】【新 108 题】【新 110 题】【新 141 题】 See Also 相关写作参考 【Ref-71 科学质疑】【Ref-145 信仰与质疑】【Ref-006 质疑能力培养】【Ref-146 质疑与生活】 【Ref-007 独立思考能力】【Ref-050 学习与提问】【Ref-002 批判性思维】【Ref-007 独立思 考能力】【Ref-116 政治信仰】【Ref-144 有关信仰】【Ref-147 挑战信仰】【Ref-070 科学乌托 邦】 【信仰的“帝国统治”】Unquestioning belief is pervading global culture, and that the most effective way of countering it is by an engaged skepticism, an open-minded and continually questioning and probing sense of doubt. Unless we can develop this, our democratic lifestyle is under severe threat from the narrow-minded purveyors of dogma. In the current world order we are confronted by an array of what can be called ‘empires’ of belief. These empires – dominant organizations or groups led by the powerful that exercise dominion over ordinary people – are investing an immense amount of time and effort in trying to dictate how we should think, consume, and behave. Like all empires run by the powerful they have expansionist ambitions and we are all their targets, not just the true believers who have already bought the message in question and can be relied on to do what they are told by their leaders without demur, only too eager to uphold the cause. The dramatic resurgence of religious fundamentalism on an international scale indicates that there is a significant constituency of people receptive to unquestioning belief of the kind that empires traditionally foster, as does the rise of various other kinds of fundamentalism – market, nationalistic, political, ecological, to name some of the most prominent. It is not the east of the ironies connected with such empires that everyone outside one’s own empire is to be treated as a non-believer, as if there was not enough, rather than a surfeit of, belief in the world. Political, economic, and scientific theories can command the same unquestioning support from the general public as do their religious counterparts. Sometimes this support is imposed on us, but more often than not the public has indeed, to repeat the phrase, bought the message – and of its own accord, because of the emotional security it can bring to individuals (illusory, but none the less potent). Systems of belief depend on such complicity. Neither organized religion, chauvinistic politicians, nor the multinationals like opposition; in fact, they do their very best to quash it and force conformity and obedience on the rest of us wherever possible. As one recent commentator has remarked, ‘globalization has declared war on other cultures’, and there are few empires of belief which do not aspire to such a condition. 【 什 么 是 质 疑 】 Skepticism is essentially an argument against authority, contesting the assumptions on which this is based and the power that flows from these. That is certainly how we want it to operate in the new century, causing institutional and governmental authority in particular to be extremely circumspect in its ways and constantly aware of the possibility of challenge from within its own domain. Unless it is kept under constant scrutiny, such authority has a distinct tendency to become authoritarian and to strive to maintain its power base at all costs: skepticism will form the basis of that scrutiny, the perpetual source of dissent. 【为什么要质疑信仰】Reasons to be skeptical include: 【宗教的影响无处不在】Religion is currently flexing its muscles worldwide, and trying to see just how far it can go in dictating the socio-political agenda of today’s culture. Religion constitutes the basis of all social existence. We now have faith-based politics entrenching itself in both the Western and Islamic worlds, bringing faith-based science in its wake. 【质疑让政治民主】Politics would certainly benefit from an injection of skepticism. Skepticism should be right at the heart of the political process; that this is the only way to ensure we can keep democratic traditions of pluralism alive. 【科学需要质疑】Science, too, provides reasons to develop a strong sense of mistrust of those in positions of power, especially when it is translated into the kind of advanced technology we are familiar with today. Artificial intelligence   6    为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的《拯救我的新 GRE Issue》一书样稿，无偿网络发布。 此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888james@tongji.edu.cn，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。 本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。 感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。 祝各位旧 G 新 G 网友考试顺利！   (AI), artificial life (AL), GM (genetically modified) crops, stem-cell research, and cloning, for example, all raise complex ethical issues which cannot be left to scientists and politicians alone, and demand at the very least that a skeptical eye is turned on them to monitor their progress. Faith-based science can be an even more sinister opponent, since its founding premises lie outside the field of science proper, thus rendering them oblivious to counter-evidence reached through empirical scientific enquiry. 【信仰的“反抗”】Skeptics are confronted by determined opposition from the many adherents to the empires of belief we shall be examining, however, and those will not give up their power base lightly. Such adherents have extensive resources at their command, both financial and psychological, and they will use these to curb the spread of a skeptical outlook that is clearly inimical to their interests. The power-holders of these empires traditionally display a pathological hatred of opposition as an expression of their zeal, and our twenty-first-century adherents are no exception. It is up to skeptics collectively to make life as difficult as they can for these exponents of empire; to worry away at their authority, to question their ideas, to call attention to their totalitarian leanings, and to refuse to give up when they strike back with all their considerable power and support. Quotations on Skepticism The natural course of the human mind is certainly from credulity to skepticism. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826, the third President of the United States (1801–1809) and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776)) His mind must be strong indeed, if, rising above juvenile credulity, it can maintain a wise infidelity against the authority of his instructors, and the bewitching delusions of their theories. Thomas Jefferson It is undesirable to believe a proposition when there is no ground whatever for supposing it true. Bertrand Russell (1872-1970, a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic) How prone to doubt, how cautious are the wise! Alexander Pope (1688-1744, an English poet, best known for his satirical verse and for his translation of Homer) Doubt is a necessary precondition to meaningful action. Fear is the great mover in the end. Donald Barthelme (1931-1989, U.S. novelist and short story writer) Reference 146 质疑与生活 Skepticism and Life Relevant GRE Issue 相关题库题目 【新 18 题】【新 42 题】【新 87 题】【新 108 题】【新 110 题】 See Also 相关写作参考 【Ref-002 批判性思维】【Ref-071 科学与质疑】【Ref-145 信仰与质疑】【Ref-006 质疑能力 培养】【Ref-007 独立思考能力】   7    为满足 2011 年 6 G 网友需求，将小姜老师的《拯救我的新 GRE Issue》一书样稿，无偿网络发布。 此文档为校对稿，网友有任何建议，请电邮至 888james@tongji.edu.cn，欢迎大家来信，提前感谢各位。 本书定于 2011 年 7 月前面市，请勿将本书稿用于任何商业用途，否则追究法律责任。 感谢 iShare 爱问支持书稿发布。 祝各位旧 G 新 G 网友考试顺利！   【什么是质疑】Skepticism is simply an approach to things. The central idea is to search for truth. This is not limited to psychic phenomena or supernatural claims: it extends to all areas of life. Skepticism, as a way of thinking and gaining knowledge, helps us to make rational choices in life as well as being an intellectually stimulating experience along the way. Skeptics see evidence and plausibility as the best way to assure that ideas are reality-based, allowing one to come as close as possible to objective truth. Skepticism, a form of evidence-based reasoning, is a way of knowing that weighs evidence and prior plausibility in determining if a claim is true. It doesn't mean simply denying anything that goes against preconceived notions, as the popular usage suggests. A skeptic would happily change his/her mind on a subject if there is strong evidence to the contrary. Skeptics simply demand evidence for any claim, taking nothing at face value. Learning how to foster a skeptical outlook can make it less likely that a person will be scammed by fraudsters or fall for unproven or non-evidence-based pseudoscience, scientific or historical denialism, and supernaturalism. 【质疑与获得知识】Skepticism is not a religion or life philosophy. It tells a person not what to think, but how to know. Skepticism provides time-tested tools used long in science and academia that give the best possibility of finding the truth. As humans live in a materialist world, one of causes and effects governed by known processes and laws, skepticism is using what people know factually about the material world for analysis in the attempt to make up for natural human sensory and interpretive faults. 【 质 疑 不 同 于 玩 世 不 恭 】 Skepticism is often wrongly equated with cynicism, being defined as dismissive of new ideas due to arrogance that one knows everything or other ideas aren't worth one's time. A skeptic is not a cynic. It is a skeptic's view that highly implausible claims deserves less time than the plausible, though. Skeptics require evidence for any claim, taking nothing at face value. Every claim needs to prove itself so that those analyzing the claim can make sure it is accurate and therefore a worthwhile idea to hold. Skeptics hold that evidence and plausibility are not too much to ask, and are the best ways to evaluate claims. 【人类并非完美】Humans are by nature imperfect, and therefore have imperfect brains/minds. It is human nature to try to fit new information to preconceived notions, which can damage the ability to truthfully evaluate claims. Skepticism gives tools anyone can use to know that one's ideas, beliefs, worldviews, etc. are based on reality and not simply what one wants to believe. It is easy to fall into the trap of denying reality when it doesn't fit prior beliefs. 【质疑的重要性】This is only a basic overview of a few important aspects of skepticism, but it gives a budding skeptic a place to start learning how to be a skeptical critical thinker. Human conceptual abilities are very good, but far from perfect. Skeptics believe that understanding the limitations and how to turn subjectivity into objectivity is the only and best way to come as close as possible to objective truth. 【质疑的好处】The benefits of skepticism: „ It is intellectually rewarding. Increasing one's awareness of reality by actively attaining knowledge is intellectually satisfying. To gain a real understanding of how things are is more rewarding than blindly accepting dogmas, or having a tendency to believe anything. Skepticism is about attaining knowledge; accepting claims without question is a passive, non-thinking appr