2013年11月2日托福阅读真题解析

2013年11月2日托福阅读真题解析 2013年11月2日托福阅读真题解析 第一篇 TOPIC The Disappearance Of D People 第一段讲因为a cool trend,该地能够适应寒冷的人留下来,演变成了D人。 第二段讲然后拿他们和pre-D的人做了比较。有一题问的是哪些不是pre-D的characteristic。 第三段讲有两个原因导致了D人的disappearance。一个是climate change。因为Arctic气候变暖,然后冰川融化,一部分，Dozen，人原来已经adapt to climate,并且有了在寒冷气候下的生存方式,现在不能适应这种气候,然后就搬走了,另一部分人为了适应这种气候,抛弃tundra,而他们的祖先留下来的以前的捕猎技巧等绝大多数适用于陆地上捕猎,而天气便暖导致冰川暖化,他们也不得不放弃这些技巧,转而去适应捕猎海中的mammals。 第四段讲又有一个人种T,起源于Greenland的某个地方,然后气温升高导致冰川融化,他们也捕猎海中大型mammal,但以前捕猎范围有限,因为被冰限制住了,后来冰川融化,圈子open,然后他们就追赶这些动物到加拿大北极圈的那些居民住的地方,后来又把那里的原著居民赶走了。然后在这个文化逐渐消亡,但还有些残存。 解析:本文属历史类话题,讲述北美大陆早期居民历史,原文中两个民族经分析,应为Dorset多西特族和Thule图勒族。本文结构应属于描述类和因果类结合,开篇介绍Dorset族,后文重点谈及Dorset族消失的原因,主要原因为气候变化。气候变化在托福阅读文章当中出现的次数不胜枚举,几乎所有历史现象、生物特征等分析原因时,都会从气候变化出发。下文为关于Dorset民族的介绍。 www.smartstudy.com Dorset culture The Dorset culture (also called the Dorset Tradition) was a Paleo-Eskimo culture (500 BCE–1500 CE) that preceded the Inuit culture in Arctic North America. It is named after Cape Dorset in Nunavut, Canada where the first the evidence of its existence was found. The culture has been defined as having four phases due to the distinct differences in the technologies relating to hunting and tool making. Artefacts include distinctive triangular end-blades, soapstone lamps, and burins. The Dorset were first identified as a separate culture in 1925. Archaeology has been critical to adding to knowledge about them because the Dorset were essentially extinct by 1500 due to difficulties in adapting to the Medieval Warm Period. The Thule, who began migrating east from Alaska in the 1000s, began the displacement of the Dorset. However a small, isolated community of people known as the Sadlermiut survived until 1902-1903 at Hudson Bay on Coats, Walrus, and Southampton islands. DNA testing has confirmed these people were directly related to the Dorset culture. Dorset culture and history is divided into four periods: the Early (which began around 500 BCE), Middle, Late (starting around CE 800), and Terminal (CE 1000 to 1500) phases. The Terminal phase was already in progress when the Thule entered the Canadian Arctic, migrating east from Alaska. It is probably closely related to the www.smartstudy.com onset of the Medieval Warm Period, which started to warm the Arctic considerably around AD 800. With the warmer climates, the sea ice became less predictable and was isolated from the High Arctic. The Dorset were highly adapted to living in a very cold climate, and much of their food came from hunting sea mammals through holes in the ice. The massive decline in sea-ice which the Medieval Warm Period produced would have had a devastating impact upon their way of life. They seem to have had great difficulty adapting to this change. They apparently followed the ice north. During the Late and Terminal periods, they concentrated their settlements in the High Arctic.[citation needed] As mentioned below, an isolated remnant of the Dorset may have survived on a few small Hudson Bay islands until 1902. Most of the evidence demonstrates that by 1500 they had essentially disappeared. There appears to have been minimal (if any) genetic connection between the Dorset and the Thule.[citation needed] Archaeological, cultural and legendary evidence supports Thule-Dorset interaction. For instance, the Thule engaged in seal-hole hunting, which was not known from their culture in Alaska. The Dorset extensively used this hunting technique, likely a form of technology that they could teach the Thule. Further, the speed and direction of the Thule migration may imply Dorset-Thule www.smartstudy.com connections. The Thule made an almost direct migration from Alaska, across the continent through foreign lands all the way to Greenland, in the span of a few centuries. For the Thule to have accomplished this, they likely required directions and assistance, which the Dorset may have provided. The details of Thule/Dorset interactions are mostly unknown and generate questions: did the Thule carry new diseases, how much direct conflict was there between the two peoples, and what was the nature of their social interactions? Much can be inferred from Inuit legends, archaeology and the genetic studies mentioned above. The Thule were a strong people with a history of warfare, and they had better weapons than the Dorset. The process of "driving off" the Dorset, which is recounted in their legends, would likely have involved direct conflict. As there was almost no interbreeding between them, social interactions did not appear to go much beyond trading. Although archaeological evidence indicates that the Dorset were in steep decline when the Thule arrived,[citation needed] conflicts with the Inuit would have hastened that decline. www.smartstudy.com 第二篇 TOPIC Overhunting对Large mammal灭绝影响 开始讲虽然climate change对动物灭绝有影响,但是human act也有很大关系,然后下面开始讲人类活动的影响。举了个例子,在Maori的某一个岛上,然后这里的鸟儿没有天敌,然后好happy的进化到不会飞了,这些鸟从小的turkey到大的ostrich大概有十几种，有考题，。结果后来有一天人类登岛了,这些鸟儿就糟糕了。然后人类开始开垦森林,抓捕这些鸟,导致他们的数量极具下降,然后说岛的另外一些地方人类活动相对较少,那里的不会飞的鸟儿依旧很好,数量没怎么受到影响。后来又说海里人类的overexploitation行为更加恶劣,但人们都不在乎,还以为什么都没发生。 解析:本文属生物学话题,重点谈到人类活动和生物之间的关系,在托福文章中几乎只要涉及到人类活动,就是对自然环境造成负面影响。本文整体结构应属于因果类,但主要是阐释人类活动造成的恶劣结果。 Moa The moa were nine species (in six genera) of flightless birds endemic to New Zealand. The two largest species, Dinornis robustus and Dinornis novaezelandiae, reached about 3.6 m (12 ft) in height with neck outstretched, and weighed about 230 kg (510 lb). Moa belong to the ratite group in the order Dinornithiformes. The nine species of www.smartstudy.com moa were the only wingless birds, lacking even the vestigial wings which all other ratites have. They were the dominant herbivores in New Zealand's forest, shrubland and subalpine ecosystems for thousands of years, and until the arrival of the Māori were hunted only by the Haast's Eagle. It is generally considered that most, if not all, species of moa died out by A.D. 1400 due to overhunting by the Māori and habitat decline. Before the arrival of human settlers, the moa's only predator was the massive Haast's Eagle.The Māori arrived sometime before A.D. 1300, and all moa genera were soon driven to extinction by hunting and, to a lesser extent, by habitat reduction due to forest clearance. By about A.D. 1400, almost all moa are generally thought to have become extinct, along with the Haast's Eagle which had relied on them for food. Recent research using carbon-14 dating of middens strongly suggests that the events leading to extinction took less than a hundred years,[34] rather than a period of exploitation lasting several hundred years, which is what had previously been hypothesized. Dodo Like many animals that evolved in isolation from significant predators, the Dodo was entirely fearless of humans. This fearlessness and its inability to fly made the Dodo easy prey for sailors. Although some scattered reports describe mass killings of Dodos for ships' provisions, archaeological investigations have found scant www.smartstudy.com evidence of human predation. Bones of at least two Dodos were found in caves at Baie du Cap that sheltered fugitive slaves and convicts in the 17th century and would not have been easily accessible to Dodos because of the high, broken terrain. The human population on Mauritius (an area of 1,860 km2 or 720 sq mi) never exceeded 50 people in the 17th century, but they introduced other animals, including dogs, pigs, cats, rats, and crab-eating macaques, which plundered Dodo nests and competed for the limited food resources. At the same time, humans destroyed the Dodo's forest habitat. The impact of these introduced animals, especially the pigs and macaques, on the Dodo population is currently considered more severe than that of hunting. Rats were perhaps not much of a threat to the nests, since Dodos would have been used to dealing with local land crabs. It has been suggested that the Dodo may already have been rare or localised before the arrival of humans on Mauritius, since it would have been unlikely to become extinct so rapidly if it had occupied all the remote areas of the island. A 2005 expedition found subfossil remains of Dodos and other animals killed by a flash flood. Such mass mortalities would have further jeopardised a species already in danger of becoming extinct. Overexploitation Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Sustained overexploitation can lead to www.smartstudy.com the destruction of the resource. The term applies to natural resources such as: wild medicinal plants, grazing pastures, game animals, fish stocks, forests, and water aquifers. In ecology, overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening global biodiversity. Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at a rate that is unsustainable, given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This can result in extinction at the population level and even extinction of whole species. In conservation biology the term is usually used in the context of human economic activity that involves the taking of biological resources, or organisms, in larger numbers than their populations can withstand. The term is also used and defined somewhat differently in fisheries, hydrology and natural resource management. Overexploitation can lead to resource destruction, including extinctions. However it is also possible for overexploitation to be sustainable, as discussed below in the section on fisheries. In the context of fishing, the term overfishing can be used instead of overexploitation, as can overgrazing in stock management, overlogging in forest management, overdrafting in aquifer management, and endangered species in species monitoring. Overexploitation is not an activity limited to humans. Introduced predators and herbivores, for example, can overexploit native flora and fauna. www.smartstudy.com www.smartstudy.com 第三篇 TOPIC Archaeological Evidence 上来介绍有两种考古证据的formation process,第一种是natural，和人无关，,第二种是cultural，和人有关，。然后说cultural的有两种情况,一种是埋下去之前和人有关,一种是埋下去之后还和人有关。第二段开始举例,包括tool, food, plants, crops,说tool比较容易还原年代,但是food就比较难。这两种东西都有4个stages。，6选3有 题,说tool可以准确地定位时间,不选,只是比food好一点而已，又讲有时候有些人有意无意地会destroy考古证据。在某些战场上,有些战利品和尸体不得不烧掉,具体原因是战利品不好带等。又讲到一个文明,新国王一上来就烧东西,为了抹去祖先的印记,然后 总结 初级经济法重点总结下载党员个人总结TXt高中句型全总结.doc高中句型全总结.doc理论力学知识点总结pdf 说人类烧东西有两种原因,一种是为了毁坏东西,另一种是为了加固。举了一个建筑的例子,土质建筑,烧一下会加固。 解析:本文属考古学文章,主要介绍考古证据的形成过程。本文结构属分类,分别谈 到两种不同的形成过程,并且分别进行了举例,并重点介绍了不人有关的考古证据 的内容。 Archeology Archeology is the scientific study of past human culture and behavior, from the origins of humans to the present. Archaeology studies past human behavior through the examination of material remains of previous human societies. These remains include the fossils (preserved bones) of humans, food remains, the ruins of www.smartstudy.com buildings, and human artifacts—items such as tools, pottery, and jewelry. From their studies, archaeologists attempt to reconstruct past ways of life. Archaeology is an important field of anthropology, which is the broad study of human culture and biology. Archaeologists concentrate their studies on past societies and changes in those societies over extremely long periods of time. With its focus on the ancient past, archaeology somewhat resembles paleontology—the study of fossils of long-extinct animals, such as dinosaurs. However, archaeology is distinct from paleontology and studies only past human life. Archaeology also examines many of the same topics explored by historians. But unlike history—the study of written records such as government archives, personal correspondence, and business documents—most of the information gathered in archaeology comes from the study of objects lying on or under the ground Archaeologists refer to the vast store of information about the human past as the archaeological record. The archeological record encompasses every area of the world that has ever been occupied by humans, as well as all of the material remains contained in those areas. Archaeologists study the archaeological record through field surveys and excavations and through the laboratory study of collected materials. Many of the objects left behind by past human societies are not present in the www.smartstudy.com archaeological record because they have disintegrated over time. The material remains that still exist after hundreds, thousands, or millions of years have survived because of favorable preservation conditions in the soil or atmosphere. For the most part, the only things that survive are durable items such as potsherds (small fragments of pottery), tools or buildings of stone, bones, and teeth (which survive because they are covered with hard enamel). Because many items disintegrate over time, archaeologists get an incomplete view of the past that they must fill in with other kinds of information and educated reasoning. On rare occasions, however, delicate objects have been preserved. For example, fabrics and flowers were found in the celebrated tomb of Tutankhamun, an Egyptian pharaoh who was buried in 1323 BC. Archaeological record The archaeological record is the body of physical (i.e. not written) evidence about the past. It is one of the most basic concepts in archaeology, the academic discipline concerned with documenting and interpreting the archaeological record. The archaeological record consists of the material culture found at an archaeological site. Material culture in terms of archaeology can consist of artifacts, built structures, human impact on the environment, garbage, stratigraphy, mortuary practices, plant remains, animal remains. Archaeological theory is used to interpret the archaeological record for a better understanding of human cultures. The archaeological record can consist of the earliest ancient findings as well as www.smartstudy.com contemporary artifacts. Human activity has had a large impact on the archaeological record. Destructive human processes such as agriculture and land development may damage or destroy potential archaeological sites. Other threats to the archaeological record include natural phenomena and scavenging. Archaeology is a destructive science and can take away from the finite resources of the archaeological record. It is for this reason that archaeologists limit the amount of excavation that they do at each site and meticulous records are kept of what is found. 词汇题:annihilate = destroy, inadvertently = accidently, viability=the possible to exist, abundant, allow= make possible,prime = essential www.smartstudy.com