温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文

温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 1. Introduction It is well recognized that language and culture are inseparable. On the one hand, language plays a very important role in reflecting and expressing culture. A language is an essential part of the culture of a people and through it the other parts of culture are expressed. So to speak, without language there would be no culture descending from ancient times. On the other hand, since culture is defined succinctly as “the 1totality of beliefs and practices of a society”, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Changes in culture often give rise to new characteristics of language. Both English and Chinese are the languages in the world enjoying the longest history. During the long-term development, they have accumulated a large number of idioms, including the idioms containing figures, which refer to the idioms containing cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers. As an indispensable part of idioms, Chinese and English idioms containing figures are closely related to their own cultures, conveying different cultural features and messages of their own nations. Usually, idioms containing figures reflect their cultural background knowledge with figure connotations. As we all know, figures are typical of the culturally loaded words. Not only do they belong to the digital realm, they are also used in idioms and phrases with cultural connotations. The Chinese and English peoples may have the same or similar concepts for figures, but because of their cultural diversities, they use figures in different ways with connotative meanings. stIn the 21 century, with the rapid development of economic globalization, cultural communication and cooperation between nations become more frequent, the research field of Chinese and English idioms correspondingly presents a new tendency. The idioms containing figures, as a crucial part of idioms, have become the main object for Chinese and other nations? scholars to study earnestly. However, since the idioms containing figures are characterized by their concise expressions, rich and vivid meanings, and are often culturally loaded, translators find it a great challenge to 1 Eugene A. Nida, Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating (Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001), 78. - 1 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 translate them between Chinese and English for every figure has its specific connotations in different cultural backgrounds. This thesis attempts to solve the problem of how to translate Chinese and English idioms containing figures appropriately. It consists of 6 chapters. Apart from Introduction and Conclusion, it contains an overview of idioms, the definition of idioms containing figures, comparison and analysis of Chinese and English idioms containing figures, and translation strategies of Chinese and English idioms containing figures. Through an overview of idioms, the author makes clear some basic concepts of idioms and also attaches importance to this subject research. Then in the part of explaining the definition of idioms containing figures, the author introduces the relationship between figures and idioms containing figures and also gives a definition of idioms containing figures by researching and discussing the definitions that other scholars have put forward. The following part is the comparison and analysis of Chinese and English idioms containing figures. The author mainly analyses the figures? connotative meaning both in Chinese and Western cultures, which aims to find out the cultural differences and make a comparison between Chinese and English idioms containing figures. The analysis and comparison will be helpful to explore the translation strategies of Chinese and English idioms containing figures. Fortunately, the author figures out some strategies as the theoretical basis of problem solving. The author lists some strategies and applies them to the concrete terms according to their features. Finally, by comparing the different translation strategies, the author presents his own view on the translation of Chinese and English idioms containing figures and offers some advice to the language learners. With the guidance of the principle of “functional equivalence, textual correspondence”, and the author-and-reader-oriented principle, the translation of Chinese and English idioms containing figures will take on a new appearance. - 2 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 2. An Overview of Idiom “Idiom is a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words”, according to the New Oxford Dictionary of English. As part of culture, idioms play an important role in the development of language. They carry cultural feature and information of different nations. Being characterized by their concise expressions and significant meanings, all idioms derive from their historical origins with distinct national features and are closely related to geographical environment, historical background, religious beliefs, social customs and living conventions. So translators should take their cultural connotations and national characteristics into consideration when translating idioms. 2.1. The Historical Study of Idiom Generally speaking, the study of idiom can be divided into three stages. As early as in 1925, L. P. Smith published the book named Words and Idioms, which is regarded as the beginning of idioms research. In this book, Smith discussed the sources and structures of idioms, and pointed out the basic characteristics of idioms: an idiom can be defined as a group of words with a meaning of its own that is different from the meanings of each separate words put together. He wrote, “The meaning of an idiom is non-literal; many English idioms are used as „expressions of determination, of exasperation, and vituperation?, which contributes to vocabulary studies as being a description of how the peculiar genius of English shows itself in its 1idioms”. Besides, a good part of Smith?s account of idioms is devoted to their classification on the basis of their imagery. From the 1930s to 1950s, on the basis of Structuralism Theory, C. F. Hockett emphasized the importance of context understanding in the idioms? identification and interpretation, and explained the underlying structure and semantic features of idioms, which began to standardize the 2definition of idioms. In 1960s, influenced by the Generative Grammar Theory of Chomsky, the study of idioms reached an impasse, but never stopped. Not until B. 1 Chitra Fernando, Idioms and Idiomaticity (Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2000), 20-22. 2 骆世平，《英语习语研究》前言，骆世平 著(上海:上海外语教育出版社，2005)，?-?。 - 3 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 Fraser, a representative linguists, put forward the Frozenness Hierarchy Theory, in which he admitted that idioms are in fixed expression did this tendency find its outlet, 1but B. Fraser thought there still exists transformational potential. Thus, the study of idioms came into public notice again. Since the 1980s, the study of idioms has entered a new stage. Linguists begin to open up the functional approach of idioms in relations environment, exploring the role that idioms play in communication activities, which makes the study of idioms more practical. Among all the achievements, the most prominent one belongs to C. Fernando?s, an Australian linguist, who wrote the book named Idioms and Idiomaticity. In recent years, a growing number of scholars have begun to study the formation of idioms from the perspective of cultural backgrounds. Nida(1993)ever wrote, “Culture knowledge has a far-reaching impact on the study of idioms and their meanings. We will fail to understand the profound meaning of idioms 2if we don?t take the cultural backgrounds seriously”. Therefore, we must focus on its cultural connotations while learning a language. 2.2. The Structure and Features of Idiom Idioms are of special language forms. They have a single semantic unit, structural institutionalization and irreplaceability. More specifically elaborated by McMordie, “Generally, the idiom cannot be changed at will; any word in the idiom can not be replaced by its synonyms, and little does the word order can be changed; any change in the wording and collocation will destroy the idiom, or may make it no 3sense”. From McMordie?s point of view, we can see that an idiom has its own structural and semantic features. Idioms are characterized by their structural stability. An idiom, composed of a group of words, is a set phrase. The structure of an idiom is always fixed, and the words in it can not be departed or separated at will. Because of its structural invariability, an idiom allows no variation in form under normal circumstances. A speaker or writer cannot normally do any of the following with an idiom: 1. change 1 骆世平，?-?。 2 骆世平，25。 3 McMordie W., English Idioms and How to Use Them (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954), 6. - 4 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 the order of the words in it, (e.g. * „the short and the long of it?); 2. delete a word from it (e.g. * „spill beans?); 3. add a word to it (e.g. * „the very long and short of it?; * „face the classical music?); 4. replace a word with another (e.g. * „the tall and the short of it?; * „bury a hatchet?); 5. change its grammatical structure (e.g. * „the music 12was faced?). All idioms are not grammatically regular. Therefore, the idiom “face the music” cannot be changed into “the music was faced”, which has changed its grammatical structure. Semantic unity is another feature of idioms. The meaning of an idiom is a complete and inseparable unit, which should be learned as a whole. That is to say, an idiom can be defined as a group of words with a meaning of its own that is different from the meanings of each separate words put together. The semantic unity of an idiom derives from the transferred meaning, which refers to the figurative meaning and associative meaning. Now that most figurative meaning and associative meaning of an idiom are not transparent, and some even lose the initial meaning of the words, a speaker or writer cannot get the meaning of an idiom just from the meaning of each 3word in it. The structural stability and semantic unity are the most important features of idioms, both of which can be taken as idiomaticity. This is the basic difference between idioms and other words and phrases. 2.3. The Classification of Idioms In a broad sense, idioms include colloquialisms, proverbs, allusions and slang expressions, etc. According to different group standards, idioms can be divided into many classifications. And each classification has its own merits and demerits, showing some of its characteristics in specific aspects. Generally, the methods of idioms classification can be divided into three kinds: classification by origins, 4classification by structure and classification by function. Idioms containing figures 1 Mona Baker, In Other Words: A Course Book on Translation (Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000), 63. 2 Chitra Fernando, 30. 3 彭庆华，《英语习语研究:语用学视角》(北京:社会科学文献出版社，2007)，32-33。 4 骆世平，23-24。 - 5 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 are just one kind of idioms, which are classified according to their structures. 3. The Study of Idioms Containing Figures Idioms containing figures refer to those idioms have cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers in them. As a crucial part of idioms, they have become the main object for Chinese and overseas scholars to study earnestly. In recent decades, an increasing number of scholars have begun to study the translation of idioms containing figures, which presents a bright prospect for development of this field. Yet, in order to learn idioms containing figures well, we should firstly focus on the figures and explore what role they play in idioms. 3.1. Relationship between Figures and Idioms Containing Figures Figures are often used as calculate symbols in the world. Every country has the need for figures in its counting system. Figures are often used to represent the quantity of things, express the sequence of actions and the scope of size. Rigorous, precise and accurate, figures are widely used in the world of science. However, figures not only belong to the digital realm, they are also used in idioms and phrases with cultural connotations. Influenced by the factors of different nationalities, religions, history and 1social customs, figures have special associative meaning. Apart from the fact that figures are regarded as basic tools used in math and scientific experiments, scholars also take them as a kind of culture in the social society, human communication, literary works, customs and conventions. For example, a Chinese copybook for children in old days read: “一二三四五，金木水火土。天地分上下，日月同今古。” Although this old saying was composed of four short verses, amounting to twenty words only, it typically reflected the important role that quantity and figures had 2played in the social life rather than in the mathematical field. So to speak, with the development of human society, figures are no longer just applied in the scientific and mathematical field; they correspondingly well develop themselves too in languages. 1 刘明阁，《跨文化交际中汉英语言文化比较研究》(开封:河南大学出版社，2009)，245-246。 2 吴慧颖，《中国数文化》代序，吴慧颖 著(长沙:岳麓 书 关于书的成语关于读书的排比句社区图书漂流公约怎么写关于读书的小报汉书pdf 社，1995)，2。 - 6 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 Figures, as an important part of language and culture, are embodied with different connotations under different cultural backgrounds. Idioms containing figures are the essence of language, and they reflect the rich cultural deposits and human intelligence. As the combination of idioms and figures, idioms containing figures have their own features. Their cultural connotations are mostly influenced by the implications of figures. People from different cultures may have the same or similar concepts for figures, but because of their cultural diversities, different peoples may attach different connotative meanings to the same figure. Thus, different nations may have a different understanding of the idioms containing the same figure. In some sense, figures play a role of cornerstone in idioms containing figures, so only by having a good knowledge of figure connotations can we know them well. 3.2. The Definition of Idioms Containing Figures As an indispensable part of idioms, idioms containing figures have been used frequently both in the Chinese and English languages. People may run into them when reading articles, listening to speeches, writing an essay or translating passages. As idioms containing figures are so important, it?s necessary for us to have an idea of what idioms containing figures are. First of all, let?s review the definitions that have been put forward by previous scholars. According to the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), a number of theses on both English and Chinese numerical idioms have been published. There are many definitions of idioms containing figures: Numerical idioms are idioms formed with cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers and other words which have the meaning of number. There are set phrases, colloquialisms, proverbs and slang expressions in English numerical idioms, while there are four-character set phrases, 1colloquialisms, proverbs and slang expressions in Chinese numerical idioms. Numerical idioms refer to those idiomatic phrases with numbers. They are not just the simple expressions by numbers, and they possess the specific and profound roots and heritage of their national culture as well. Numerical idioms are the central core and 1 安美华，“英汉数字习语对比”(延边大学硕士学位论文，2008)，?。 - 7 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 1cream of ethnic culture, and the embodiment of practice of language. English numerical idioms are set phrases or phrases composed of numeral and other words. They have been used frequently with their original meanings, extended meanings or rhetorical meanings, which makes language performance more rich, vivid and 2meaningful. Numerical idioms are an important part of the English and Chinese languages because their concise form and vividness. Like any other kinds of idioms, numerical idioms are usually important components of a sentence, through which the 3syntactic function can be achieved. According to the above definitions of idioms containing figures, we can draw a conclusion: as its name suggests, an idiom containing figures is an idiom having cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers and other words which have the meaning of number in it. It is just one kind of idioms, reflecting strong cultural characteristics with figure connotations. The proverbs, allusions, slang expressions, especially the unique four-character idioms, allegorical sayings and antithetical couplets in the Chinese language, which are all concise and comprehensive, humorous and witty, are good examples of idioms containing figures. 4. Analysis and Comparison of the Chinese and English Idioms Containing Figures Idioms are conventionalized or institutionalized expressions which are embedded with much cultural information peculiar to the languages they are in. Figures may carry different connotations in different languages. Therefore, as the combination of idioms and figures, idioms containing figures are highly culturally loaded. We can say that much more cultural information is included in such idioms. However, since Chinese and English are two different languages, such idioms are featured with different cultural connotations. Thus, we may firstly analyze the implications of figures in different cultural backgrounds, and then compare such kind of idioms in the 1 池玫，“英汉数字习语的文化心理差异与渊源及其翻译”，《福建农林大学学报》12,(2009):109。 2 徐畅贤，“英语数词习语的特点”，《益阳师专学报》3,(1999):111。 3 胡小礼，“英汉数字习语的句法功能及其译法初探”《常州信息职业技术学院学报》10,(2008):53。 - 8 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 two languages and find their similarities as well as their differences. 4.1. Cultural Connotations of Figures in Chinese When figures are used in languages, they have an informative function. They carry cultural connotations peculiar to the languages they are in. As Wu Huiying points out, “Chinese literature has countless ties to the figures; the large and wonderful use of figures in literature has become the distinctive feature of certain 1works”. Moreover, he regards figures as the miracle of the art garden. In Chinese, the Arabic numbers are widely used. They serve for calculating as well as being a part of language. Here, we mainly probe into the figures used in language and their cultural connotations. 4.1.1. Cultural Connotations of Figures Related to Their Pronunciation The Chinese language abounds with rich phonograms, among which figures can be the fullest and the most vivid representative. That the Chinese people have a eference for a certain figure usually depends on its pronunciation. For example, the pr figures “six”, “eight”, “nine” and “four” are closely related to their pronunciation in the Chinese language and culture, and the Chinese people prefer the first three figures to the last one. In the following the author of this paper will approach them in details. The figure “six”, due to its pronunciation being similar to that of the character“禄”, which means finance and salary, is considered as a lucky figure. 2Therefore, with “six”, such as “六六顺” in Chinese, everything would go well. Besides, “溜” is a homonym for “six” for both of them are pronounced liu in Chinese. “溜” has the meaning of doing things smoothly, without a hitch, so many Chinese people turn to “six” when they choose a date for joyous occasion or as a car or phone 3number. In some dialects, “six” is associated with the word “路”, such as 168,668-一 4路发,路路发(One way money-making to make money all the way). Although the 1 吴慧颖，319。 2 刘明阁，253。 3 成昭伟，周丽红，《英语语言文化导论》(北京:国防工业出版社，2011)，89。 4 安美华，15。 - 9 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 figure “six” also has a derogatory sense, such as 六亲不认(to refuse to have anything to do with all relatives and friends), 六神无主(in a state of utter stupefaction), most of the cultural connotations of “six” are commendatory. It is a lucky figure in the Chinese people?s eyes. Chinese people show special preference to the figure “eight” for its pronunciation. In most Chinese dialects and especially in Cantonese, it is pronounced as “发(fa)”, which means “make a fortune; get rich”. In North China, a saying goes like this “If you want to succeed, don?t stray from eight”. Just like “six”, the figure “eight” has become the top choice for many affairs, because businessmen are obsessed with successful or failure. For example, some stores and restaurants are named “518”-我要发 (I will be rich); some companies select the date with “eight” for 1their opening ceremony, and the opening time will be 8:18 for it sounds 发一发. It can be seen that the figure “eight” is a good expression for fortune, and it is widely used by the Chinese people. Another homophonic figure is “nine” which symbolizes smoothness and (jiu)”. The Chinese emperors of ancient times usually endurance for it sounds like “久 took the figure “nine” as the symbol of their unchanged and everlasting rule, which is obviously embodied in the building of their palaces. For instance, the Forbidden City in Beijing has the Nine Dragon Wall and 9999 rooms as well. Besides, the quantity of 2the steps inside the Forbidden City Palace is nine or the multiple of nine. Apart from its pronunciation, the figure “nine” is endowed with other cultural connotations, such as 九五之尊, which means an emperor belongs to the upper class; Old People?s Day (the ninth day of the ninth lunar month). These two usages show that “nine” is used to express the high status in society. Unlike the above three figures, “four” is viewed as an unlucky one by most Chinese, because its pronunciation in Chinese is si, which is similar to the pronunciation of the character “死” meaning “death”. So “four” is not especially well looked upon in China. On campus, no room will be named as Room 214 in most 1 刘明阁，253。 2 成昭伟，周丽红，92。 - 10 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 Chinese students? dormitories. and the room number in the second floor just skips right from 213 to 215. Also, the price of an apartment on the fourth floor is usually much cheaper. However, the figure “four” belongs to even numbers, and in this point, “four” can be regarded as a lucky figure. Such as四平八稳(very steady; lacking initiative and overcautiousness), 四通八达(extending in all directions), 四世同堂 (four generations under one roof), 四海财源滚滚来(wealth flowing across the four seas).All of these idioms are commendatory. We can see that the figure “four” in Chinese have contradictory cultural connotations. 4.1.2. Cultural Connotations of Figures Related to Philosophy and Religions From the view of cultural history, religions are often considered to be the core source of a culture. They play a dominant role in the social life and have an invisible impact on the people?s way of thinking. The Chinese culture is greatly influenced by the philosophical Confucianism, Taosim and Buddhism, so are the cultural connotations of figures. Among all the basic figures, “one”, “two”, “three”, “five” and “seven” are the good examples. In the traditional Chinese culture, “one” is often taken as the symbol of “unity”, “start”, “concise” and “perfect”, and these meanings derive from the Taoism whose founder Laozi expressed in Laotzu, “Tao gives birth to one, one gives birth two, two 1gives birth to three, and three gives birth to ten thousand things”. From nothing to something, and something to infinity, the figure “one” plays an important role. In such four-character idioms “一如既往(the same as usual)”, “一心一意(of a mind)”, “言行 不一(one?s words are not matched by deeds)”, “一应俱全(all kinds kept in stock)”, the figure “一” has the meaning of “single-mindedness” and “unity”. According to Taosim, everything is composed of two sides: 阴(Yin) and 阳 (Yang). 阴(Yin) is dark, female and negative; while阳(Yang) is light, male and positive. The two forces, Yin and Yang being combined produce all things. The Chinese people believe everything can be divided into two opposite sides: good and 1 成昭伟，周丽红，86。 - 11 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 1bad, right and wrong, long and short, bright and dark, etc. That comes to a notion that the figure “two” and even all even numbers are linked to good luck. Therefore, people always pursue “两全其美(make the best of both worlds)”, or long for “好事成双 (good things should be in pairs)”. The Chinese people are inclined to the figure “three”. It is a lucky odd number and widely used in Buddhism. Some Chinese idioms with it originated from the creed of Buddhism, such as 三生有幸(transmigration of death and living). 三生refers to the previous, present and future lives. According to Buddhism, anyone can be 2reincarnated in a new body. The term means that a person is quite lucky in all his life. Besides, “three” is used in Buddhism scriptures for generic words, like 三戒(three abstentions), and 三佛(three Buddhas). The figure “Five” is related to Buddhism as well. 五体投地(five body parts cast to the ground) is just a good example. 五体 refers to two hands, two knees and a head. This term indicates that pilgrims show the utmost sincerity to their religion. In addition, “five” has the basic symbolic meaning for 五行(five elements: metal, wood, water, fire, and earth) provided a framework for people in ancient times to classify natural phenomena. Confucianism preaches that “five” implies the concept of “the mean” for it is very close to the path of the golden means of “adopting the middle 3between two extremes”. “Seven” is a mysterious figure in the Chinese culture. It is said that Sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, sits silently under the tree of Buddha for forty-nine (seven plus seven) days, and then gains an achievement. Buddhism holds that everything originates from seven primitive elements of nature. In some areas of China, when someone dies, the mourning period should be seven days for “doing the sevens” is the custom at funerals. From the first seven days after someone passes away to the seventh seven days, there are appropriate rituals for each. This kind of custom is 4related to Buddhism. Some people don?t like the figure seven because it is associative 1 安美华，14,18。 2 安美华，19。 3 刘乃银，《英语泛读教程》(北京:高等教育出版社，2006)，106。 4 刘明阁，257。 - 12 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 with “doing the sevens” plus the fact that the seventh month of the lunar year is “ghost month”. 4.1.3. Cultural Connotations of Figures Related to Social Customs Social custom is another factor affecting the cultural connotations of figures. In general, the Chinese people prefer even numbers to odd numbers. Because even numbers symbolize “fortune comes in pairs” while the character for “odd” in Chinese dan always means “alone”. Take the even number “ten” for example. The Chinese people are fond of taking it to express satisfaction. The term 十全十美(to be perfect in everyway) is always used to describe the pursuit in Chinese. The figure “ten” also appears in the Chinese medicine, cuisine and music, such as 十问(inquire about ten aspects of the patient), 十剂(ten kinds of prescription), 什锦菜(olio), and 十番锣鼓 1(a kind of folk music). The figure “two” is not only associated with the religions mentioned above, but also related to social customs. When Chinese get married, the quantity of betrothal gifts would be a pair or an even number. For example, chickens or ducks would be written as “four wings of poultry”; gold bracelets would be written “Gold bracelets becoming a pair”; Candles would be written as “Festive candles with double glow”. 2No place would allow odd numbers. 4.2. Cultural Connotations of Figures in English Due to cultural diversity, the same figure may have different cultural connotations between the Chinese and English languages. In English, the implications of figures are closely related to psychology, religions and historical allusions. 4.2.1. Cultural Connotations of Figures Related to Psychology From ancient times on, there has been a fetishism that influences the British people?s sub-consciousness. They believe that certain figures have mysterious or magic power that may bring them luck or evil. Generally, odd numbers are considered to be lucky in English-related cultures. 1 刘明阁，260。 2 刘乃银，105-106。 - 13 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 English-speaking people believe that “one” is a lucky odd number, and they often put it after hundreds or thousands to emphasize, such as “one hundred and one thanks”; “have one thousand and one things to do”; “different in a thousand and one 1ways”; “a thousand and one”. Besides, “one” in English can be pronoun. For example, “the Holy One” and “the Evil One”, from which we can see that “one” is endowed with rich cultural connotations. Generally, “two” is an unlucky figure in English. Pythagoras believe that “two” means “disorder; disunite; evil”. A lot of English idioms have the number two in them, 2such as “Two of a trade never agree.” and “When two Fridays come together”. While here is an exception, “Two?s company, three is alone.” So the cultural connotation of the figure “two” is not unchanged, mostly it may depend on what opinion that the speaker wants to express. Although the figure “nine” in English is not endowed with as many cultural connotations as that in Chinese, there are a large number of idioms related to it. Here are the examples: A stitch in time saves nine; crack up (flatter/ honor/ praise) to the nine; A cat has nine lives; be dressed up to the nines; on cloud nine. From the idioms, we can guess that the figure “nine” in English may have the meaning of “much or many”. 4.2.2. Cultural Connotations of Figures Related to Religions The cultural connotations of most figures in English are associated with religions, especially with Christianity and the Bible. According to the Bible, Judas is the thirteenth disciple of Jesus and he betrays Jesus in the Last Supper. As a result, Jesus is handcuffed and later nailed to death on the Cross for the betrayal of Judas. It is the 3story that causes the evil and unlucky indication of “thirteen” in the English culture. Just as the Chinese people fear the figure “four”, the English people always avoid the figure thirteenth in their daily lives. For instance, there is no thirteenth floor in a building. Every month, common people don?t like to arrange important affairs on the 1 池玫，111。 2 成昭伟，周丽红，86。 3 安美华，20。 - 14 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 thirteenth day. Other examples are about the figure “three” and “seven”. The mysterious cultural connotations of “three” in English are related to the religious tradition of the Christian Trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit). Because of this theory, Westerners are fond of the figure “three”. They are used to dividing the quantity or the development process of things into three parts so as to be propitious. They believe that the world is composed of earth, ocean and heaven. It is often said, “The third time?s the charm”. 1“All good things go by threes” is a saying in the drama of William Shakespeare. The figure “seven” is used to express happy implications originating from Christianity. According to the accounts in “the Creation”, Jehovah spends seven days creating 2things. There are many other expressions with “seven” related to Christianity: seven virtues; seven deadly sins; the seven sacraments; the seven spiritual works of mercy, etc. Besides, the figure “seven” is similar to “heaven” both in handwriting and pronunciation, which is another reason that Westerners are fond of it. For example, “In one?s seventh heaven” means “one is very happy”. The early Christian symbolists think that the figure “four” is the symbol of evangelist, symbolizing “unity, toughness and stability”. “Four horsemen” originating from New Testament of the Bible, and Revelationre refers to war, death, dearth and plague. Recorded in the Bible, New Testament, Matthew, the story of Noah?s ark tells 3that only eight people survive by the magic ship, so the figure “eight” means luck. The figure “six” and “five” do not seem very welcome to English-speaking people. According to the Bible, “six” is a terrible figure and it is a symbol of demon. Idioms with it are always derogatory. For example, at sixes and sevens; hit sb. for six; 4six to one; six of the best; six penny; six of one and half a dozen of the other, etc. It records in the Bible that human ancestors, Adam and Eve, are banished from the Garden of Eden on Friday, so people call it Black Friday. People fear that unfortunate things will happen on Fridays. Hence, they regard “five” as an unlucky number. 1 迪力夏提?艾尔肯，“英语数字习语的文化内涵”，《才智》4,(2010):74。 2 安美华，20。 3 成昭伟，周丽红，88, 91。 4 熊宜春，桂君萍，“英语数字习语中的西方民族文化心理”，《中国科技信息》1，(2007):218。 - 15 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 4.2.3. Cultural Connotations of Figures Related to Historical Allusions Due to the influence of some historical events, a certain figures are endowed with special cultural connotations. For example, “five it” means “to refuse to answer”. Here the usage and meaning of “five” come from the rule “no person shall be compelled self-incrimination in criminal cases” provided by the Fifth Amendment of the Constitution of the USA. Another example “the Fifth Column” originates from the Spanish Civil War. Besides; the idiom “hit sb. for six” mentioned above actually comes from cricket sports. When the hitter hits the ball to sideline but the ball is not 1landed, he can get six points, which the opponent can never reach. In short, the cultural connotations of figures in English are closely related to psychology, religions and historical allusions. No matter from what perspective they are analyzed, positive or negative implications of figures certainly influence peoples? spiritual world. 4.3. Comparison of the Chinese and English Idioms Containing Figures Since idioms containing figures have their own forms and implications in the Chinese and English languages, the author will compare such idioms from four aspects: (1) idioms containing figures are identical both in form and meaning; (2) idioms containing figures are identical in form and non-identical in meaning; (3) idioms containing figures are identical in meaning and non-identical in form; and (4) idioms containing figures lack identical ones in another language. 4.3.1. Idioms Containing Figures Identical both in Form and Meaning Due to the common shares of human experiences, certain idioms containing figures may be identical both in form and meaning in the Chinese and English languages. For example: 1 刘明阁，261。 - 16 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 “一只耳朵进，一只耳朵出” VS “Go in (at) one ear and out (at) the other.” Of the Chinese idiom, “进” means “enter”, corresponding to “go in (at)”; “出” means “out”. These two Chinese and English idioms are identical in meaning as well as in form. Actually both of them convey the same transferred meaning “The hearer doesn?t listen to the speaker seriously or understand the contents thoroughly”. Other similar idioms containing figures of this type are: “一着不慎，满盘皆输” and “A false step may lose the whole game.”; “一心不能二用” and “No man can do two things at once.”; “吃一堑，长一智” and “a fall into a pit, a gain in your wit”; “一 见钟情” and “fall in love at first sight”, etc. Compared with the other three ones, idioms containing figures which are identical in both form and meaning between Chinese and English are easier for us to understand and master. 4.3.2. Idioms Containing Figures Identical in Form and Non-identical in Meaning When comparing Chinese and English idioms containing figures, we may find some of them are identical in form but not in meaning. Such kinds of idioms usually seem alike in their literal meaning for they contain the same figure and concern about the same images. But if we don?t know well about their cultural backgrounds and original sources, we may misunderstand their meanings. For instance: “第三者” VS “the Third Party” In the Chinese language, “第三者”, literally means “the third party”, referring to “a person gets involved in other people?s family and intervenes in a married couple”. Yet, in the English language, the idiom “the third party” is used to refer to “someone or something spoken of”. Both of these two idioms are in the same form but with different referential meaning. Other similar examples are: “三等” and “the Third Degree”; “七仙女” and “the Seven Sisters”; “四海之内皆兄弟” and “ All men from Four Seas are brothers”. Idioms containing figures identical in form and non-identical in meaning in two languages are comparatively slim. But they indeed are one kind of difficult idioms for - 17 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 language learners to understand. 4.3.3. Idioms Containing Figures Identical in Meaning and Non-identical in Form Most idioms containing figures in two languages convey the same meaning but have different forms. Here the “form” refers to both “figure” included and “image” concerned. So idioms containing figures non-identical in form may differ in figures, images, or both figures and images. The following are the examples: (1) “三心二意” VS “in two minds” Both the two idioms mean “to be half-hearted to do something”. “三心二意” literally means “three hearts and two minds”. Compared with the idiom “in two mind”, the figures included are not identical while the meaning and images are corresponding. Other similar examples are: “乱七八糟” and “at sixes and sevens”; “三五成群” and “in threes and fours”; “二八年华” and “sweet seventeen”; “千千万万” and “thousands upon thousands”, etc. (2) “一箭双雕” VS “to kill two birds with one stone” In the Chinese language, the idiom “一箭双雕” literally means “to kill two hawks with one arrow”, the counterpart of which in English is “to kill two birds with one stone”. These two idioms are identical both in meaning and figure but concern different images. Some other similar examples are: “一叶知秋” and “A straw shows which way the wind blows.”; “一山容不了二虎。” and “Two sparrows on one ear of corn make an ill agreement.”; “沧海一粟” and “a drop in the bucket”, etc. (3) “三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。” VS “Two heads are better than one.” Of the Chinese idiom, “三个臭皮匠” means “three clumsy cobblers”, and “诸葛 亮” is a very witty statesman in the Three King Period. So the literal meaning of it is “three clumsy cobblers with their wits combined can equal Zhuge Liang, the master mind”. And the English idiom “two heads are better than one” has the same meaning to that of this Chinese idiom, but “two heads” does not correspond with “三个臭皮 - 18 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 匠” both in image and figure. So the two idioms are different in form, though they have the same meaning. Other similar examples are: “孤掌难鸣” and “Two can play the game.”; “一着被 蛇咬，十年怕井绳。” and “Once bitten, twice shy.”; “一模一样” and “as like as two peas”, etc. 4.3.4. Idioms Containing Figures Lacking Identical Ones in another Language both in Form and Meaning Because of different cultural backgrounds, some idioms containing figures in one language may not have corresponding idioms in another language. Take Chinese idiom “三顾茅庐” for example. This idiom is closely related to a Chinese historical event. During the Three King Period of Chinese history, Liu Bei, an emperor, paid his three personal visits to Zhuge Liang whom we have mentioned above, asking Zhuge Liang to help conquer the country. The first two visits came to no result, and at the third time, Liu succeeded. This idiom is used to mean metaphorically “to request someone repeatedly to take up a responsible post”. We cannot find an identical idiom in English of “三顾茅庐” for it is a unique one in Chinese. Other similar examples are: “无事不登三宝殿” means “never come to visit someone without a reason”; “八字还没有一撇” means “nothing has been done so far”; “three sheets in the wind” means “to be very drunk”; “hit sb. on six” means “doing well, presenting a perfect performance”, etc. 5. Translation Strategies of Chinese and English Idioms Containing Figures Translating is a complex and arduous task, in which the idiom translating is the most difficult. It is necessary for a translator to master some translation strategies and techniques between Chinese and English idioms containing figures. 5.1. Concept and Principles of Translation Translation is ubiquitous and useful, so it is necessary to make clear what - 19 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 translation is. Countless definitions of translation have been put forward in the history of translation studies. As the famous translation theorist Peter Newmark points out, “Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another 1language”. In recent years, with the development of social communication, translation has been a cross-cultural activity. E. A. Nida, another outstanding translation theorist, writes, “Is translating simply the act of transferring the meaning of a text from one language into another? In the first place, knowing two languages is 2not enough. It is essential to be acquainted with the respective cultures”. It follows the fact that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also an intercultural communication. With regard to the principles of translation, scholars, at home and abroad, have come up with various ideas. From Yan Fu?s principle of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” to Alexander Fraser Tyler?s famous “three principles” (1. That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; 2. That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the 3original; 3. That the translation should have all the ease of the original text.); from Zhang Peiji?s principle of “faithfulness and smoothness” to Eugene A?Nida?s functional equivalence or dynamic equivalence. All those ideas are influenced and completed by each other. As a translator, one should know them well and apply them into practice. 5.2. Translation Techniques in Chinese and English Idioms Containing Figures We have known some general aspects of Chinese and English idioms containing figures in the previous parts, and on the basis of that knowledge, it is time for us to learn the main methods of their translation. 1 Peter Newmark, Approaches to Translation (Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001), 7. 2 Eugene A. Nida, 6, 127. 3 Alexander Fraser Tyler, Essay on the Principles of Translation (Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007), 9. - 20 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 5.2.1. Literal Translating Maintaining the Same Figures Due to the common shares of human experiences, certain idioms containing figures are identical both in form and meaning in the Chinese and English languages. The figures in such idioms have their real meaning. In translating, the figure in the source language can be directly translated into the target language, which can be fully accepted and understood by the target readers. The following are the examples: (1) Source Text: 十年树木，百年树人。 Translated Text: It takes ten years to grow a tree and a hundred years to bring up a generation of good man. (2) Source Text: 一着不慎，满盘皆输。 Translated Text: A false step may lose the whole game. (3) Source Text: 一日不见如隔三秋。 Translated Text: One day apart seems three autumns. (4) Source Text: kill two birds with one stone Translated Text: 一石二鸟 (5) Source Text: Two is company, three is none. Translated Text: 两人成伴，三人不欢。 (6) Source Text: have two strings to one's bow Translated Text: 一弓应备二弦 The above are C-E and E-C translations done through literal translating. Such a translating method has its own merits and demerits. On the one hand, it preserves the style, images and the national characteristics of the original text to some extent. Readers can feel the cultural features of the source language literally. On the other hand, literal translating can be employed to translate idioms containing figures only on the condition that idioms containing figures are identical both in form and meaning in Chinese and English languages and people are able to understand them without explanations can such translation method be used. 5.2.2. Free Translating Maintaining Different Figures Both in Chinese and English, some idioms containing figures are identical in - 21 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 meaning but non-identical in figures. Dealing with such idioms, the translator is suggested to use free translating, which changes figures of the source language into different ones in the target language. Here are some examples: (1) Source Text: 乱七八糟 Translated Text: at sixes and sevens Both these two idioms are used to describe the situation that is out of order, being in a mess. However, their figures are not identical with each other. Of course, the Chinese idiom “乱七八糟” can be literally translated into “at sevens and eights”. But the latter does not accord with the idiomatic expression in English. Actually, the only difference between the two idioms is the different use of figures. (2) Source Text: sweet seventeen Translated Text: 二八年华 Both of the two idioms are used to describe a girl in her sweet youth. However, their figures are not identical with each other. In English the idiom is “sweet seventeen”. Of course, it can be translated into Chinese“甜蜜的十七岁” literally. Yet, by doing so, the meaning of this idiom is changed to some extent. While it is translated into “二八年华”, which sounds more elegant and beautiful in Chinese, and the essence of the source idiom can be fully conveyed, which will maintain the similar effect on the readers. Other similar idioms are: “一目了然” and “see with half an eye”; “三五成群” and “in threes and fours”; “six of one and half a dozen of the other” and “半斤八两”; “once bitten, twice shy” and “一着被蛇咬，十年怕井绳”; “as like as two peas” and “一模一样”, etc. There is a huge difference between the use of figures in the Chinese and English languages, so we apply free translating with different figures in such idioms. Free translating can make the translated idioms more comply with the expressing habit of the target language, while it will not be as accessible as literal translating with the same figures. - 22 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 5.2.3. Free Translating without Figures Maintained Because of different cultural backgrounds of Chinese and English, there exist a lot of idioms containing figures that cannot be translated word for word wholly. Such idioms are often associated with historical events, religions, legends or games, which is quite difficult for readers to understand. Therefore, in most cases, we adopt free translating without figures maintained in the target language. Here are the examples: Of the Chinese idiom “无事不登三宝殿”, “三宝” is a Buddhist term for the Buddhist Trinity: Buddha, the law and the priesthood. “三宝殿” is “the hall of 1Buddha in a temple”. The whole idiom means “never come to see someone without a reason”. As we can see, there is no corresponding word to the figure “three” in the target language. Another Chinese idiom “七手八脚” cannot be literally translated as “seven hands and eight feet”. This idiom just describes a situation in which all the people are busy with something. Other similar Chinese idioms are as follow: “不管三七二十一” means “doing something at will regardless of the consequences”; “不三不四” means “neither fish, flesh nor fowl”; “三思而后行。” means “Think before you leap.”; “一目 十行” means “read rapidly”, etc. The English idiom “behind the eight ball” originates from a game of marbles named Kelly pool. There is a rule: all the marbles must be knocked down in order except the black one which represents eight points. If a player plays one of the other marbles but knocks down the black marble, he will be punished. So if the black marble stands in front of the marble to be played, the player must be in a dangerous 2position. As a result, “behind the eight ball” means “处于困境(be in a dangerous position)”, while there is no corresponding idiom in Chinese. Some other similar English idioms are: “second nature” which can be translated into“轻松自然” meaning “easy and natural”; “seventy times seven” can be translated into “很大的数目，无数次(a large quantity)”; “dressed up to the nines” can be translated into “衣冠楚楚;打扮得极为华丽” meaning “well dressed”, etc. 1 安美华，56。 2 李润润，“从数字习语看中西文化差异”，《十堰职业技术学院学报》6，(2006):70。 - 23 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 5.3. Advice for Idioms Containing Figures Translating It is no easy job for us to translate idioms containing figures from one language into another. As is known, every culture is peculiar to its language and cannot be changed at will or replaced by something foreign one. In translating, the figures in some idioms cannot be just translated literally; besides, the context and rhetorical features should be taken into consideration. Therefore, the following advice may be of help in translating idioms containing figures from one language into another effectively. Firstly, the translator should know a great many Chinese and English idioms containing figures. To achieve that, he or she should memorize idioms whenever he or she comes across them. If one does not understand an idiom, one should try to look up it in the dictionary and remember it at once. To remember a lot of idioms and use them often can improve one?s language competence, and also may contribute to his or her translating competence. Secondly, the translator should be acquainted with both the Chinese and English idioms. When running into an idiom containing figures, he or she should figure out what kind of idioms containing figures it is. There are four cases of idioms containing figures that differ in Chinese and English: (1) idioms containing figures are identical both in form and meaning; (2) idioms containing figures are identical in form and non-identical in meaning; (3) idioms containing figures are identical in meaning and non-identical in form; (4) idioms containing figures lack identical ones in another language, so we should identify the idiom first and then find the corresponding translation methods from the illustrated three ones: (1) literal translating maintaining the same figures; (2) free translating maintaining different figures; (3) free translating without figures maintained. Translators must be well acquainted with the source language and the target language and deal with the idioms case by case. Thirdly, the translator should practice translating the idioms containing figures a lot. As the old saying goes, “Practice makes perfect.” Only in this way can he or she remember them more firmly and know them better. He or she can apply them when - 24 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 keeping a dairy and writing an article, or when talking with someone or making a speech. 6. Conclusion Translation is a bridge between two languages. On account of the close relationship between language and culture, translation is also closely associated with culture and usually cultural factors in translation seem more important than pure linguistic elements. Idioms containing figures, the combination of idioms and figures, are dual culturally loaded, and their translating can be one of the hard nuts to crack in the translation field. In order to solve the problem of how to translate Chinese and English idioms containing figures appropriately, the translator firstly needs to study the basic knowledge of idioms and analyze the cultural connotations of figures both in Chinese and English from the perspectives of pronunciation, psychology, religions and historical allusions. Then he or she should make a comparison of form and meaning between idioms containing figures in the Chinese and English languages, which help him or her to understand them better and find the appropriate translation strategies. The translation of idioms containing figures is indeed a tough and complicated job. It may look simple, but is truly of great difficulty, for the reason that the most difficult task for a translator is to understand thoroughly the designative and associative meanings of the text to be translated. So in the translating idioms containing figures, the translator has to know their implications in the specific language. With the above discussion, the author hopes that more deep and comprehensive studies will be made in this field. - 25 - 温州大学瓯江学院本科毕业论文 Bibliography Baker Mona, In Other Words: A Course Book on Translation. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. Fernando Chitra, Idioms and Idiomaticity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2000. Nida Eugene A., Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001. Newmark Peter, Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001. Tytler Alexander, Essay on the Principles of Translation. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2007. W. McMordie, English Idioms and How to Use Them. 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