PHILOSOPHY OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION

PHILOSOPHY OF WESTERN CIVILIZATIONPHILOSOPHY OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION -------------------------------------------written by [American]C.W.Pollard June Almes Preface ---Yang Zhizhong A Survey of the United Kingdom and the United States of America is a collection of articles written by Amer...

PHILOSOPHY OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION -------------------------------------------written by [American]C.W.Pollard June Almes Preface ---Yang Zhizhong A Survey of the United Kingdom and the United States of America is a collection of articles written by American,British and Chinese professors in the related fields. It covers many topics including philosophy, history, geography, politics, economy, education, culture and society. While the information is authentic and up-to-date, the language,being tailored to the needs of learners of English, is easy to read, and even to remember.At the end of each chapter, there are question offered for reflection ordiscussion, and notes provided for better understanding. When reading the chapters, learners can not only gain knowledge but improve their English proficiency. I was privileged to be the first reader of the manuscripts, and in the course of reading them, I found muself benefiting from it. Therefore, I recommend without slightest hesitation or reservation this collection to lovers of English, learners of English and all those who wish to know more about the USA and Great Britain. CHAPTER 1 PHILOSOPHY OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION ?. Introduction The word "philosophy" is Greek for "love of wisdom" and has come to mean a systematic search for answers to life's great questions. Universal questions were asked independently by great thinkers in all civilizations:"What is man?""Why are we here?""What is truth?" To simplify the contrastsbetweeneastern and western philosophical traditions, three characteristics can be identified. In the East,philosophy has had a longer history ; it was founded on the oral tradition; and it contained principles to live by. In the West, philosophy is "younger"; it was recorded in written form; and it made claims supported by logical or empirical[经验主义的] arguments. Early western philosophers living nearthe eastern Mediterranean Sea, including the ancient kingdoms of "Sumeria[西南亚一地区，在现今伊拉克境内],Mesopotamia[美索不达米亚，西南亚一地区，底格里斯河和幼发拉底河之间，曾为阿卡拉,亚述，巴比伦等文明所在地],Syria, Persia and Phoenicia[地中海东岸一古国，相当于现今的黎巴嫩及叙利亚地区], made valuable contributions. However, it was the early Greeks who changed the history of philosophy in the west. Beginning with some of the major contributions of these Greeks, this chapter summarizes several important philosophical questions and arguments to the end of the 20th century. The primaty purpose of this chapter is to provide a foundation for understanding the other chapters in this book. ?. Greek Rationalism[唯理论，理性主义] Not only did the ancient Greeks ask universal questions, but they also made important aassumptions. One major assumption was that something has always existed. They also believed that a unity underlies the diversity of people, animals, plants and inanimate objects. Today, this search for a unifying, unchanging theory of the universe continues through the work of modern physicists, including the German-Swiss-American,Albert Einstein(1879-1955) and British's Stephen Hawkings(1942-). Equally important, the Greeks theorized about this unity. In other words, they made reasonable guesses about natural causes, based on their studies of Nature itself. This combination of assumptions and theories dramatically differed from previous philosophical approaches which relied on muthology and divine beings to describe the world. The end result was that early Greeks defined the true task of philosophy as sustem building: How does the "whole of things" emerge from this "tiny seed of self"? The first major Greek philosopher was "Thales[古希腊哲学家，数学家，天文学家，] （624-550 B.C.). Thales claimed that Nature is rational; therefore, human beings could use their reasoning abilities to understand Nature. He asked, "From what do all things come and to what do all things return?" Once Thales asked this question, Greek thinkers wondered if our changing world was baled on something unchanging? To answer this riddle,they were challenged to discover answers which avoided mythology. Furthermore, this was the origin of metaphysics[形而上学],the philosophical study which probes the nature of reality itself. Thales reasoned that water is the basis of everything. Like the philosophers who followed Thales, what was important was not his answers, but the questions be asked.Thales'student, Anaximander(611-547 B.C) disagreed that water or any single substance could explain everything. Instead, he viewed the world in terms of[用„ 来说明，以„观点来考虑] opposites: hot and cold; dry and light and dark. As part of his search for simple concepts that explained the entire universe, he incorporated mathematical ideas to describe the rational world. Convinced that mathematical truths do not depend on day-to-day contingencies, Pythagoras[毕达哥拉斯](570-500 B.C.)explained the entire natural world with numbers. His "Pythagorean Theory"[勾股定理] which demonstrates the relationships among the sides of a triangle is studied in modern geometry. Today, using mathematics as a method to describe the universe is prevalent. Heraclitus[赫拉克利特，古希腊哲学家，认为宇宙处于不断的对立统一的变化之中，相信火是万物之源](535-475B.C.) is remembered because he introduced the concept of change as the only unchanging reality in the universe. He compared life to a flowing river: A person cannot step into the same river twice. As a part of his universal theory of change, Heraclitus claimed that opposites are inherently connected. Heat cannot exist without cold; night cannot exist without day . The tension created by "Unity in opposition" is the principle which accounts for perpetual change. Therefore, the physical world is not what it seems to be; static[静态的] appearance is not the same as reality(change). Parmenides[巴门尼德，古希腊哲学家，著有诗体哲学著作《论自然》]（460-390 B.C.) disagreed. He argued that change was an illusion. The world may appear to change, but actually everything was the same. To parmenides, human reasoning could discover the hidden universal truth(s) which was disguised by the facade of change. Like Heraclitus and Parmenides, Democritus[德谟克利特，古希腊哲学家，原子论创始者]（460-390 B.C.) was intrigued by the phenomenon of change.He argued that everything in the universe obeys the laws of necessity. Events are not random; they are the result of mechanical laws. Like Parmenides, he believed that nothing actually changes. To explain this, he and his colleagues developed the atomic theory: the building blocks[材料] of physical objects are collections of indestructible and invisible particles of matter called atoms. Nature consisted of an unlimited number and bariety of atoms. When a plant or animal died, its atoms disperse and could be used again in new bodies. In english translation, the Greek word, "Atom" means "uncuttable", even though modern scientists have "cut" the atom into smaller particles: electrons, protons[质子] and neutrons. Ironically, Democritus'mechanistic view of the world was accepted by western thinkers as early as the 16th century, but his modified atomic theory was not adopted until the 20th century. At the time when Chinese scholars, Confucians and Taoists, were concerned with social relationships and human harmony with the natural world, Greek philosophers were arguing about what Nature itself was. By the 5th century B.C. ,certain concepts were familiar to most Greek thinkers. The world of human experience differed somehow from ultimate reality. Rationalism, the belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge, was firmly entrenched. Human beings could understand Nature through reasoning, because Nature followed rational laws. Not all Greek philosophers agreed with the Rationalists. One major group who doubted that human reason could understand Nature were called Skeptics[怀疑论者，不可知论者].Their question,"What is Knowledge?" led to the development of epistemology[认识论]， the philosophical study of knowledge itself. One group of Skeptics were the Sophists[智者派，诡辩派，通常教授辩论术，修辞等知识；他们的论点影响后来的道德相对论，因而常常不被人们赞同], wandering teachers who would teach anyone willing to pay for their services. Like other Skeptics, the Sophists did not believe that reasoning could solve the riddles of Nature. Unlike other skeptics, the Sophists concentrated on the individual and the individual's relationship to society. Their debates about what ws socislly induced and what was naturally induced led them to the concludion that there were no absolute norms for right or wrong actions. The individual had to decide. The importance of the individual dramatically shaped future philosophical discourse in the West. The Sophists and other thinkers gravitated to the Greek city-state of Athens, a city which dominated western civilization for nearly 250 years(594-338 B.C.). Athens was famous for its writers, architects, sculptors, thinkers and sports contests, including the origins of the modern-day Olympic Games. When Athens was conquered by the Italian Romans, many of its contrubutions were incorporated into the Roman Empire[27 B.C. -476]. In turn, the Roman Empire laid the political and cultural foundations of Western Europe. The influence of this small city went far beyond its physical size. 1.SOCRATES(470-399 B.C.) Socrates, one of the three great ancient Greek philosophers, also lived in Athens. Today, we know Socrates primarily through the writings of his famous student and the second of the great Greek philosophers, Plato. Therefore it is not easy to distingguish Socrates' philosophy from Plato's ideas. Socrates strongly disagreed with the Sophists. He argued that some norms are universally valid and absolute. He did not teach for money, and he did not believe that he was a wise person. He knew that he knew nothing about life and the world. It troubled him that he knew so little. According to Plato, Socrates once said , "One thing only I know ,and that is that I know nothing." He was also a rationalist who had unshakable faith in human reason. He distinguished between two types of knowledge: innate or a priori knowledge and empirical or a posteriori[实证主义] knowsedge. A priori, or prior to birth, each person has Virtue which is not learned through the physical senses. Virtue transcends both the individual and time and is the same for all people and all time. Paradoxically, Virtue cannot be taught and is lost at birth. Empirical or a posteriori knowledge is learned through the physical senses. Empirical knowledge includes virtues in the ordinarymeaning, such as helping a sick friend. This distinction between the abstract concept of Virtue and the everyday concept of virtues is important because Socrates' theory generated a thousand-year controversy about the nature of scientific knowledge. Today, there is general agreement that scientific knowledge is always based on first principles (Virtue) which are not subject to change. Human beings may make mistakes, but once a scientific truth has been discovered, it does not change. Another major contribution was his question-and -answer technique, called the Socratic method, which is still used today. Instead of telling the student the answer, Socrates engaged his student in a dialogue. He never criticized the student, but led the student to understand his own self-contradictions and to a better understanding of himself and his values. He believed that everyone could understand philosophy if a person used common sense. Right insights lead to right action. Socrates said, "He who knows what good is, will do good." Only a person who does right can be virtuous and happy. We do wrong because we do not know better; that is why it is important to continue to learn. The Socratic question-and-answer method angered people who did not understand its purpose. When his enemies had him condemned to death for his beliefs, Socrates could have escaped from Athens. Valuing truth more than his life, he remained and was forced to drink poison. 2. PLATO (428-347 B.C.) Plato considered (that) the death of his beloved teacher, Socrates, marked the difference between actual human society and the ideal society. He sought the ideal, the reality which is eternal and unchanging for both societuy and Nature. The earlier natural philosophers asked,"What allows our changing world to be based on something that is unchanging?" Plato now asked, "What is eternally true", "eternally beautiful" and "eternally good"? Like Democritus, Plato believed that everything in the material world dies, decomposes and disintergrates. Unlike Democritus, Plato observed that many animate and inanimate objects in the material world are very similar. He reasoned that there were a limited number of forms (ideas), transcending the sensory world. For example, a particular chair can be destroyed, but the idea of a chair cannot destroyed. since empirical knowledge of physical things is knowledge of unreliable objects, which change and decay, empirical knowledge is not the road to true knowledge. Therefore true, absoluter and eternal knnowledge must be a priori, or innate within human beings. This amazing biew is the basis of Plato' theory of ideas. Plato's theory, called Idealism [理念论], was that human senses provide inexact concepts of things; only human reason can give us true knowledge about the world. To clarify his Idealism, Plato told a story about prisoners in a dark cave. This story is often called the Allegory [寓言] of the Cave. Plato asked his listeners to imagine that the prisoners in the cave spent their entire lives facing the back wall of the cave. Behind them was a path where people walked, talked and carried objects. Behind the path was a fire, which cast the people' shadows on the back wall of the cave. The prisoners could see the shadows, but not the people. They believed that the shadows were real people walking, talking and carrying real objects. Then, Plato asked his listeners to imagine that one of the prisoners managed to look at the path behind him. At first, the prisoner would be blinded by the light from the fire. Gradually, he would see the real people and the real objects, not the shadows. Eventually, he would understand that the shadows were not real. Finally, Plato asked his listeners to imagine that the prisoner went outside the cave. Again, the prisoner would be blinded by the light, but this time it would be the light of the sun. There he would see shadows and real people and objects. In time, he would look beyond this scence and realize that there are causes for events, even in caves. In Plato's story, human beings are the prisoners trapped in the cave of their physical senses, which shows them only shadows of reality. The brighter, outside world is the true world, the world of ideas which are absolute and eternal realities. Understanding the world of ideas leads to understanding the ultimate cause of the physical world. This dualistic[二元论] view of reality is sometimes called "Mind over Matter". Plato advocated an ideal society which he described in his work, The republic. Ideally, every person could reach the highest level of wisdom and virtue possible in his society. He believed such people would be led by "philosopher kings" who would serve their fellow citizens unselfishly because they would be the people with the most wisdom. Today, this concept of an ideal republic is unique, but it was even more amazing that it appeared in the Athenian society of Plato's day. In summary, Plato used earlier philosophical contributions to develop his Idealism into a comprehensive system which became a pillar of western thinking. Alfred North Whitehead[1861-1947 怀特海，英国哲学家数学家], a 20th-century British philosopher, wrote, "The safest general characterization of the European tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." 3. ARISTOTLE (385-323 B.C.) As differing Confucian and Taoist views affected feudal China, so the views of Plato and Aristotle, Plato's most famous student and the third great Greek philosopher, affected feudal Europe. Although Aristotle accepted the division of human thought into the empirical world of the senses and the ideal world of thought, he believed that Plato had turned reality upside down. To Plato, the highest reality was gained through reason. To Aristotle, the highest reality was gained through the physical senses. Unlike Plato who described the natural world as a poor imitation of the world of ideas, Aristotle believed that nothing exists in consciousness that has not first been experienced through the senses. For Plato, our senses lead us to understand the eternal ideal forms in our mind which exist without any physical object. Even if there were no chairs in the world, the eternal, ideal form of a chair would exist, awaiting the mind that could think of it. Aristotle agreed that specific objects represented an ideal form, but he disagreed that an ideal form could exist without a specific form. At least one chair had to exist in the world. If Plato's motto was "Mind over Matter", then Aristotle's motto was "Matter over Mind". Aristotle acknowledged that man has the innate ability to reason, his most distinguishing characteristic, but reason depended on the senses. Since man had reasoning ability, he could organize physical experiences into categories. Aristotle categorized all known living and non-living objects, as well as the fields of knowledge of his time. Although categories have changed since Aristotle's day, his major contribution was his articulation of criteria for his categories. Reality consisted of "substance", what objects are made of, and "form", each object's specific characteristic or what it can do. For example, a hen's "form" is that it lays eggs, cackles and flutters. When the chicken dies, it cannot lay eggs, cackle or flutter. All that remains is the hen's "substance", but then it is no longer a chicken. As result of Aristotle's search for causes of events, he created a pattern which continues to be debated today. He developed four causes for why events occur in the natural world. To answer the question, "Why does it rain?", Aristotle would agree with the modern explanation that moisture in the clouds cool and condense into raindrops which fall to the earth by the force of gravity. However, only three of Aristotle' causes were included in the answer. The "material" cause is the clouds; the "efficient" cause is the cooling of the cloud's moisture; the "formal" cause is the form of water which falls as raindrops. Aristotle added a fourth and "final" cause, which is the purpose of the the rain; namely that plants grow so people can eat them. Today, people who believe in a final cause or a benign purpose for the universe argue with those who believe that only the material, efficient and formal causes can be scientifically analyzed. By defining a structure which validated or invalidated deductive reasoning, Aristotle founded the science of logic. His method is called a syllogism[三段论证法] which argues from a general principle to a specific example: General Principle: All men are mortal. Connection: I am a man. Deductive Conclusion: I am mortal. Aristotle's theories dominated Western philosophy for more than a millennium[千年]. Some of his ideas, such as the belief that women were "incomplete" men and that the earth was the center of the universe (geocentric theory), held western thinking back for a very long time. Despite contemporary criticism of Aristotle's theories, his influence was enormous. Modern science is richer for overcoming his arguments. He was a seminal[开创性的；有重大影响的] thinker, and his consistent, systematic approach to the philosophical problems he faced serves as a madel for all times. ?. The Middle Ages The Greeks were conquered by the Romans who adopted and modified much of the Greek culture. These two ancient civilizations are often studied together as the Greco-Roman Age[希腊和罗马时代]. After its first introduction to the Roman Empire, three or four hundred years passed bfore Christianity dominated western philosophy. The Christian dominated era in Western Europe is called "the Middle Ages"(ca 476A.D.-ca 1400 A.D.), or the Medieval Period, a thousand-year-feudal era which occurred between Antiquity[（尤指中世纪之前）古代] and the Modern Age. The Christian tradition generally assumed that Christianity, based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ, was true. During this era, non-Christian thinkers and their writings were often burned. Both Plato and Aristotle were born before Christ, and , therefore, were nor Christians. However, Christians did acceptearlier ideas which did not contradict Christian thought, such as the dual nature of the world; the separation of humans from the natural world; the need to promote virtue and goodness as human goals; and the importance of each human being. Ironically, much of the Greco-Roman heritage was lost until the Islamic scholars in the Near East, who had preserved many writings from Antiquity, reintroduced them to western Europe during the Renaissance[文艺复兴，14-17世纪]. Throughout the Middle Ages, most thinking was devoted to religious interpretation, or the study of theology[神学].Unlike philosophers, who are not restricted to thoughts based an a particular religious belief, theologians are more limited in their studies. Two medieval theologians have also been calledphilosophers. The major philosophical problem for them was thether a person should simply believe the Christian doctrines or whether these doctrines could also be analyzed through reason. One of these theollogian philoasophers was St. Aquinas(354-430)[圣奥古斯丁，著有《上帝之城》《忏悔录》等书，其思想主导后来的西方神学], who was influenced by Plato's Idealism. According to St. Augustine, man has a body and a soul; all human history is a struggle between the materialistic and the spiritual worlds. The other significant philosopher was St. Thomas Aquinas(1225-1247)[圣阿奎那，意大利哲学家神学家，经院哲学代表人物]. If St. Augustine christianized[使基督教化] Plato's philosophy, then St. Thomas christianized Aristotle's philosophy. Aquinas believed that he could demonstrate the existence of God(Aristotle's Final Cause[亚里士多德的生前讲稿，经后人整理出版的自然哲学和自然科学著作], based on both innate reason and faith. Despite the materialism and secular[世俗的],nature of most modern European and American culture, the medieval Christian millennium shaped western thinking. To some extent, contemporaty western philosophy is an attempt to refute or replace much of medieval religious thought. ?. The Renaissance The Middle Ages gradually ended with the Renaissance (ca 1400-1700), the precursor of the Modern Age. The French word "renaissance" means "rebirth" in English. It refers to the rebirth of knowledge in Europe, particularly the rediscovery of the Greco-Roman texts. This era was characterized by changes in all areas of human endeavor, based on a new humanism whixh focused on Man. However, Man was seen differently than the earlier views held by the Sophists and Socrates. Man became part of the natural world, an object of investigation as much as any other animal. Gradually observation and systematic experimentation expressed in mathematical terms replaced medieval scholasticism[经院哲学] and religious faith. Medieval philosophers, primarily church men, built on the traditions of previous generations. Starting with the Renaissance, the modern history of philosophy became a procession of outstanding individuals from the secular world, each with a personal style, each proud of marking an epoch. Three important scientists refuted Aristotle's geocentric universe by recording observations of the planets and stars. The Polish astronomer[天文学家], Nicholaus Copernicus （1473-1543）[哥白尼，波兰天文学家，日心说]; the Italian scientist and mathematician, Galileo Galilei （1564-1642）[伽利略，意大利天文，物理学家，现代科学奠基人之一]; and the German astronomer, Johann Kepler (1571-1630)[开普勒，德国天文学家，发现行星运动三大定律] demonstrated that the earth was only a small part of an infinite universe. Once they had established that there was no absolute center of the universe, a person could imagine that he was the center of his own universe. Isaac Newton (1642-1772)[英国数学家，物理学家，爱因斯坦之前对理论物理学最有影响的科学家]， a British mathematician, surpassed both Anaximander and Pythagoras in his use of mathematics to describe the universe. Newton's laws of motion explained all visible motions, from those of stars to those of tiny pebbles. Francis Bacon （1561-1626）[英国政治家和哲学家，其激进的哲学思想在其死后的一个世纪仍影响巨大]，a British statesman and writer, wrote the first description of the modern scientific method: constructing a hypothesis; conducting an experiment to test the hypothesis; and reaching conclusions based on the experiment. Unlike Aristotle who merely observed, Bacon and western scientists actively manipulated nature in order to understand and control it. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) [英国哲学家，唯物论者]，a British mathematician and political writer, described human society and hypothesized about its future. His harsh description of the materialistic, selfish society is very different from either Plato's Republic or Christianity's idealism. These thinkers adopted Democritus' mechanistic world view. They compared the universe to a huge machine which followed laws, with changes that could be measured accurately. The dramatic shift to the scientific method challenged the authority of both church and state. I parts of the contemporary western world, the scientific method is still regarded as inferior to religious authority as a source of knowledge. 1. RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650) There is a direct line from Socrates and Plato via St. Augustine to the French logician and mathematician, Rene Descartes. All of these men were Rationalists who claimed that reason was the only path to knowledge. Descartes applied reason to the question, "What can we know for certain?" Descartes insisted that a philosopher must begin by doubting all that can be doubted. At the same time, the philosopher must avoid skepticism when doubting doubt itself. Descartes agreed with earlier thinkers who relied on mathematics, rather than the evidence provided by our senses. He used mathematical logic toreason through complex problems in other fields of knowledge. By first dividing the problem into its smallest components, he moved progressively to more complex issues. Descartes did not believe that man knew nothing. This belief led him to ask another important question, "What is the relationship betweenthe body (matter) and the mind (spirit)?" According to Descartes, the human body is a perfect machine, following natural laws. But man also has a mind which interacts or operates independently from the body. Descartes' dualism separated mind and matter (body) into two great, mutually exclusive and mutually exhaustive divisions of the universe. In his search for the simplest component of truth, he said, "I think; therefore, I am." To the question, "What am I?" Descartes answered that I am a thinking, conscious being for as long as I am thinking. His epitaph[墓志铭]was a most Socratic motto: "No man is harmed by death, save he who is known too well by all the world, and has not yet learned to know himself." Throughout the West, Descartes' view of the nature of the mind is srill the most widespread view among educated people who are not philosophers. Descartes has also beencalled the father of modern Rationalism and the father of modern western philosophy. As Aristotle challenged some of Plato's Idealism, Descartes' contemporaries challenged his Rationalism. The major disagreement came from the 17th and 18th century Empiricists who concurred with Aristotle that all ideas are the result of sense experiences grounded in the physical world. John Locke[洛克（1632-1740），英国哲学家，经验论和政治自由主义奠基人。著有《政府论》，反对“天赋君权”；在《人类理解论》中提出所有知识由知觉经历而来], David Hume[休谟(1711-1776),苏格兰哲学家，经济学家，历史学家，不可知论代表人物] and George Berkeley [贝克莱（1685-1753），爱尔兰唯心主义哲学家，主教。否认物质的存在，认为存在即被感知] were the most influential Empiricists of their time. Because all three men were British, modern day Empiricism is sometimes called British Empiricism. 2. JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704) If Descartes, the mathematician, was the modern father of Rationalism, then Locke, once a medical student, was the modern father of Empiricism. Both men asked the same questions: "Are there innate ideas?" and "Is the world really the way we perceive it?" However, their answers to these questions radically differed. First and foremost, the Empiricist claims that man's physical senses are the only source of knowledge. Locke's empirical answer to the question, "Are there innate ideas?" was, "There is nothing in the mind. . .except what was first in the senses." At birth, the mind is a blank bablet, much like a classroom black board is blank until a person writes on it. Locke believed that ideas come from sense experiences and are processed in the mind through thinking. Locke combined thinking, reasoning, believing and doubting into a single concept which he named "reflection". Locke's concept of the blank mind represented ne side of a deep division in western social thought which is concerned with how much knowledge is given a priori(from the individual's reason) and how much is learned a posteriori (from the individual's sensory experience). If humans only derive ideas from their experiences, then a child's environment is responsible for shaping the child. On the other hand, if the Rationalists are correct about innate ideas and concepts, then the child is also responsible for his actions. This continuing debate is often summarized as "Nurture" versus "Nature". Then Locke asked his next question, "Is the world really the way a person perceives it?" His answer was both "Yes" and "No". "Yes",the world does consist of primary qualities, such

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