百年战争与玫瑰战争的异同(作文)

百年战争与玫瑰战争的异同(七年战争对英国的影响) Your feedback on this Article The Hundred Years War is the useful (if numerically inaccurate) label标签 given to the series of conflicts between England and France between 1337 and 1453 that had huge consequences at that time, and for the world-view of both peoples thereafter 此后后来. A century of battle, famine(饥荒), banditry盗匪活动 and disease cut the French population by around 60 per cent. But the weakening(削弱) of the nobility 贵族(regularly slaughtered屠杀 by English arrows) and the spectre鬼怪 of foreign intervention created a concept of France as a united kingdom rather than a collection of territories; just as their dominance统治支配 of the seas and expulsion驱逐开除 from France gave the English a sense of separation from continental Europe that endures持续 today. The causes of the war are various. Since William of Normandy seized the English throne in 1066 English kings had held large parts of France, creating tensions between the two kingdoms which regularly ripened into conflicts. Edward II was defeated in one such, subsequently deposed by the English nobility for his failure: thus a need to prosecute successful and lucrative wars in France or face the consequences overhung future kings. The English still clung to Gascony, desired by the French; the French had retaken Normandy, desired by the English. But most significant of all in sparking the war was the question which arose in the early 14th century over the rightful succession to the French crown. A concatenation of Capetian kings dying without heirs and a ruling that only males could inherit the French throne culminated in the situation where by one interpretation Edward III should have been named king of France. He was the senior male heir, but via his mother, which the French nobility decided disqualified him resulting in the coronation of Philip of Valois as Philip VI in 1328. After Edward III defeated French ally David II of Scotland in 1333 Philip had another justification for attacking his rival, though Gascony was his real goal. Philip and Edward had previously agreed to leave Gascony with Edward in return for the latter renouncing his claims to the French throne. Neither kept their word. It is convenient to divide the war into three phases. The first phase, the Edwardian War, lasted from 1337 to 1360, by which time England had made huge territorial gains. Initially campaigns in the Low Countries were costly and ineffective for Edward; the French ruled the waves too, until the Battle of Sluys in 1340, one of the turning points in our history – invasion of England by Philip had been probable before it. Instead it was Edward who invaded France in 1346. In August that year the English longbowmen won him the Battle of Crecy . The following year Calais fell, remaining in English hands until 1558. In 1356 Edward’s son, the Black Prince, scored an even more devastating victory at Poitiers: the French had not learned to respect the English bowmen (an error repeated at Agincourt in 1415); and Jean II of France was captured. By 1360 when the Treaty of Bretigny called a halt to the clash England had regained the economically vital Aquitaine, plus territory in Brittany, and various significant towns including Calais. After a mere nine years of peace, however, Charles V of France, in part prompted by success in Spain, restarted the war in a second phase. His tactics were different from those of his predecessors: set-piece battles were avoided; English-held towns were picked off piecemeal; and with victory at sea in the battle of La Rochelle in 1372 his naval forces threatened the coherence of Edward III’s ‘empire’. With the deaths of the Black Prince in 1376 and his father Edward III the following year, potential instability at home directed England’s gaze elsewhere. When Charles V died in 1380 a generational change was complete. With Charles VI 11 in 1380 and Richard II just a couple of years older, neither side was capable of decisive action, though the war dragged on in a desultory fashion until a truce was arranged in 1389. From 1389 until 1415 the peace held, largely because both sides were concerned with internal conflicts. In England Richard II was deposed and murdered; the usurper Henry IV dreamed of glory across the channel, but his premature death curbed his plans. Owain Glyndwr’s rebellion in Wales demanded attention; likewise Scottish incursions and the subsequent Percy uprising in Northumberland . In France the madness of Charles VI led to dynastic struggles that resulted in Henry V ’s support being sought in return for limited territorial gains; Henry in reply demanded the return of Aquitaine, Normandy, Anjou and all of Gascony, as once held by Henry II . Henry V thus invaded in 1414, albeit with modest forces, launching the war's third phase. After minor encounters his army, weakened by disease and reduced by guerrilla action, was chased down by the French when making for the safety of Calais. Thanks again to the English bowmen, and idiotic generalship by the French, Henry won the apparently decisive Battle of Agincourt in October 1415. In 1420 Charles VI agreed Henry would be his heir, disinheriting the Dauphin. But when in 1422 Henry V died, followed shortly by Charles VI, the French rallied round the Dauphin, not the English child-king Henry VI . In 1429 the tide turned for France with the emergence of Joan of Arc. Orleans was saved; a major French victory at Patay followed. Joan was betrayed by the Burgundians and executed in 1431 , but with English occupying forces stretched and French generalship improved, the slow but inevitable progress towards French victory continued town by town, the conflict interspersed with periods of truce until the English suffered defeat at Castillon in 1453, and effectively the Hundred Years War had been ended. Your feedback on this Article Those attempting to reach an understanding of the Wars of the Roses face a herculean task. Firstly, it is not even agreed by historians when they began and when they ended. Secondly, though it is relatively easy to grasp the outcomes of various battles, the machinations away from the battlefield are hazier. And lastly, we find it easier to comprehend a conflict if its cause is clear; but in the Wars of the Roses no such clarity exists. To deal with that last point first, there is no simple question of ideology or religion, no one wrong to be righted, at the heart of the conflict. It is easier to think in terms of the conditions for a conflict, and an enduring one at that, existing in the 15th century. Edward III in the previous century fathered many children, of whom nine lived to maturity, five of them sons. Though Edward himself faced no rebellions by these sons their descendants in future years through marriage into various noble families created a complex web of pseudo-royalty, people with ambitions to gain greater wealth and power. Ostensibly primogeniture determined succession to the throne, but among those in Edward III's line a more Darwinian logic obtained. When Henry VI came to the throne as a child, the demon of political instability was unleashed; when that child grew to a mentally unstable adult that demon was amply nourished. Henry is often written of as weak-willed, but he was a man of strong principles, almost saintly in outlook, and unwilling to fight for moral reasons, a man out of time. It was Edward's claims to the throne of France, and his and his successors fight to substantiate them, that created a further cause in the mid-15th century, when Henry VI's reign saw hopes there dashed, much to the discontent of the English nobility. That nobility had become skilled in fighting wars on French soil; wars that were to gain territory and wealth. It was easy to transfer such skills and goals to their home country. Though events from 1453 onwards constitute the central period of the Wars of the Roses, it is reasonable to regard Richard II , Edward III's successor and grandson, as their first victim. Richard, son of Edward's firstborn son, was murdered - starved to death - by Henry Bolingbroke. Bolingbroke, (eventually Henry IV ) his cousin, was the son of Edward's third surviving son, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster . The rival house to Lancaster was descended from Edward's fourth surviving son, Edmund Duke of York . In 1453 or 1454 Henry VI descended into mental illness, and Richard of York was manoeuvred into the position of Regent, much to the annoyance of Henry's Queen, Margaret of Anjou. The following year Henry recovered, and The Duke of Somerset's star rose as Richard of York's fell with the end of his regency. But York had a taste for power, and raised an army to march on London (as he had previously raised one in 1452), seemingly to demand the removal of Somerset from the King's circle. When Richard's army met Henry's at the battle of St Albans the Wars of the Roses truly began. In what became a street-to-street clash Somerset was killed, Henry captured (and wounded in the process), the victory down to the initiative of Warwick (the future Kingmaker). Richard at a stroke was again Protector. A central question of the post-St Albans England was who would succeed Henry? For Queen Margaret it must be her son Edward, born in 1453. Richard of York thought otherwise. When Henry was well again, York was eased out of power, sent to Ireland, but in 1459 he returned contrary to his orders. The Yorkist cause raised an army, and in September Lord Salisbury won a battle for the white rose at Blore Heath in Staffordshire , but both Warwick and Richard were forced out of the country by a subsequent defeat at Ludford Bridge in Shropshire . From their bolt-holes in Ireland (Richard) and Calais (Warwick, Richard's son Edward, and Lord Salisbury), they raided the English coast until they felt able to mount an invasion in 1460. In July that year Warwick defeated the King's army at Northampton , again capturing Henry. Richard landed and proceeded to London, abandoning all pretence when he openly tried to claim the throne. The country was not yet ready for this change. Instead a compromise was offered to and accepted by Richard, who was named Henry's heir. Queen Margaret, however, could not accept her son Edward being disinherited, so continued conflict was inevitable. At the battle of Wakefield in December 1460 the Lancastrians had their day at last: Richard stupidly failed to wait for support, impetuously attacking a stronger force. He died fighting; his second son Edmund along with Lord Salisbury was captured and executed, leaving Richard's 18-year-old son Edward to lead the Yorkist cause. This he soon did to good effect, winning a significant victory at Mortimer's Cross, though in the second battle of St Albans Margaret's force won out, freeing Henry in to the bargain. Among some historians the actual impact of the fighting in the Wars of the Roses on England has been down-played, the relatively short periods spent on campaigning cited for this conclusion. But at Towton in North Yorkshire the bloodiest battle ever fought on British soil took place on March 29 1461. Armies of perhaps 40,000 on each side fought for many hours, until the Lancastrians were routed, losing 20,000, the Yorkists half that number. Edward ordered the slaughter of most of the Lancastrian nobles captured that day, another massive blow to order in the land. The loss of great swathes of the ruling class at regular intervals cannot have been without effect. After Towton Henry fled to Scotland and exile. York was crowned Edward IV . Minor revolts in 1464 were easily put down, and in the following year Henry was captured (once more, he made a habit of it). What should have been a peaceful reign, with Henry in the Tower and the strong Edward on the throne in fact degenerated again into conflict: Warwick was hurt by Edward marrying Elizabeth Woodville, even while the Kingmaker was negotiating on his behalf to arrange a marriage in France, and as the Woodvilles displaced Warwick and his supporters in positions of power, his frustration grew. Warwick allied himself to George Duke of Clarence, Edward's brother, and defeated the King at Edgecote Moor , capturing him (a hazard of the trade it seems), but before George could replace Edward using the standard tactic of having him declared illegitimate another brother, Richard Duke of Gloucester (the future Richard III ) intervened, and Warwick and Clarence fled to safety in France. In France an unholy alliance of Warwick and Margaret of Anjou was arranged, leading to yet another invasion of England in late 1470, driving the unprepared Edward out and replacing him with Henry, albeit briefly. Edward soon returned to triumph at the Battle of Barnet , with his erstwhile ally Warwick dying as he fled. He then secured victory again at Tewkesbury , where Henry's only son and heir Edward was caught and killed. Within days Edward IV had taken the necessary but ruthless step of having Henry murdered in the Tower. Edward had no realistic rivals left. Such was the solidity of Edward IV's position post-Tewkesbury that the Wars of the Roses seemed to have ended for good: he had cleared the field of challengers; the country, in particular the increasingly powerful merchant class, demanded peace; he was still young and vigorous, just under 30 in 1471 when he regained the throne. Edward did indeed reign largely without incident for a further 13 years, but a life of at best indulgence, at worst debauchery, saw him die suddenly aged just 42. Edward left two young sons, the first succeeding him as Edward V , but Richard of Gloucester either through naked desire for the throne, or a wish to avoid the devastating power vacuum of Henry VI's reign, grabbed the crown for himself, sweeping aside the Woodville family of Edward's wife Elizabeth in the process. Richard's race from Middleham Castel in Yorkshire to intercept the young King at Northampton on his way from Ludlow to his coronation in London was the act of a desperate man. His execution without trial of Woodville supporters was that of a determined one. His (it is presumed) disposal of the child King and his younger brother the act of an utterly ruthless monster. The mystery of the Princes in the Tower remains a fascinating one, but the simple fact is that Richard could and did seize power. The last act of the drama was not long in coming. Richard was a decisive leader, but no politician, soon creating a climate of anger in the country and a desire for revenge on the part of many noble families. His answer to opposition was death, creating powerful vendettas in the process. Early in his reign the Duke of Buckingham , once an ally, raised a rebellion in favour of Henry Tudor, but poor organisation and ill-fortune saw it crushed swiftly, and Buckingham naturally executed. But on August 7 1485 Henry of Richmond, more readily identifiable as Henry Tudor, landed at Milford Haven with a force that grew on his progress through Wales and England. On August 22 Henry defeated Richard near Market Bosworth in Leicestershire , with Richard conveniently dying in the battle. England at last had a king of intelligence, energy and guile, the first since the death of Edward III in 1377. The Tudor dynasty is explored in depth in a separate article, but Henry VII 's reign was one dedicated to establishing his dynasty, and strengthening his kingdom. The foreign adventures that had bewitched his predecessors were largely avoided, Henry was content to maintain at Calais England's foothold in France; his marriage to Elizabeth of York united that house with Lancaster; he was that rare thing a monarch who took care of his finances, leaving his son ￡1.5 million on his death. Yet even with the accession of Henry VII the Roses conflict still had an episode or two left. The pretenders Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck had to be dealt with, and Henry's turncoat ally John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln (who had a claim to the throne easily as valid as Henry's) likewise. At the Battle of Stoke , near Newark , in 1487, the Simnel fiasco ended and Lincoln died. Warbeck was a thorn in Henry's side from 1491 until his capture and execution in 1499; and Edmund de la Pole, Lincoln's brother, was a potential rival until Henry VIII had him executed in 1513 as a brutal safety precaution. The difficulty in ascribing a particular date as ending the War of the Roses is obvious. It could be said that well into Henry VIII's reign the threat of the Wars remained, a danger always in the mind of the King. One last point needs to be made about the Wars of the Roses. Though Shakespeare in Henry VI created a picture of roses plucked at the Temple Church to serve as badges for the rival parties, such an event almost certainly never occurred. And it was another great writer, Walter Scott , who popularised the phrase Wars of the Roses in the 19th century. Both authors created a rather romantic view of the lengthy conflict, but as can be seen, the reality was very different: a struggle for power; ruthless disposal of opponents real and potential; and a kingdom ill at ease until at least the last years of Henry VII's rule, or perhaps well into Henry VIII's.