英语修辞学教案
English Rhetoric 英语修辞学
I. Connotation of Rhetoric:rhetoric的含义
1. Rhetoric may be used as an ordinary(普通用词) word and a
technical term(专业术语).
1) As an ordinary word, rhetoric in a derogatory sense means “skilful
argumentation”(巧辩) and “empty or exaggerated eloquence”(虚
夸的话).
e.g. the exaggerated rhetoric of presidential campaigns(总统竞选期间唱
的高调); the empty rhetoric of the politicians(政客们的花言巧语);
flowery rhetoric(华丽的辞藻)
Rhetoric also means (1) “language designed to have a persuasive or impressive effect on its audience”(言语，辞令), e.g. employ stirring rhetoric; soothing rhetoric; glowing rhetoric (2) “artistic language”(艺
术语言), e.g. the rhetoric of fiction(小说的艺术语言); the rhetoric of film(电影语言); body rhetoric(肢体语言)
2) As a technical term, rhetoric has several senses. In America, the
writing course or the writing textbook is entitled “rhetoric”. Apart from
the above senses, rhetoric also has the following important senses:
(1) Speaking rhetoric(演讲修辞): the art of speaking
(2) Compositional rhetoric(写作修辞): the art of writing
(3) Stylistic rhetoric(风格修辞，文体修辞): the style of writing 2. Rhetoric may also be subdivided into the following:
1) Lexical rhetoric(词汇修辞):
the rhetorical law of choosing words and phrases
2) Sentence rhetoric(句子修辞):
the rhetorical law selecting sentence patterns
3) Paragraph rhetoric(段落修辞):
the rhetorical law of organizing paragraphs
4) textual rhetoric(语篇修辞):
the rhetorical law of organizing texts II. Definition of Rhetoric 修辞学的定义
What is rhetoric ?
1. Origin of modern rhetoric: 现代修辞学的起源
Rhetoric originated in “speaking”(说话). Aristotle(亚里士多得),
thin the 4 century BC, first defined rhetoric as the art of persuasion,
equivalent to argumentation as people understand today. John
thLocke(约翰.洛克), English philosopher of the late 17 century,
described rhetoric as “the science of oratory(演说术)” or “the art of
speaking with propriety, elegance and force(修辞学是说话得体、优
美和有力的艺术)”. All this explains why the word “rhetoric” means
“speaking” in such European languages as Greek, Latin, French,
Spanish and Italian. In the book Modern Rhetoric by American
linguists Brooks(布鲁克斯) and Warren(沃伦) rhetoric is defined
as “the art of using language effectively(修辞学是有效地使用语言
的艺术)”.
In the New Oxford Dictionary of English rhetoric is described
as “the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the exploitation of figures of speech or other compositional techniques(修辞学是有效或有说服力的演说或写作的艺术，特别
是运用英语修辞格或其它写作的艺术)”.
2. Rhetoric and Figures of Speech:
Figures of speech are quite different from rhetoric, but they are important components in English rhetoric. In the New Oxford
Dictionary of English, “figure of speech” is defined as “ a word or
phrase used in a non-literal sense too add rhetorical force or interest to a spoken or written passage”(修辞格是用一个非字面意义的单
词或短语使一段口头或笔头的文字增加修辞效果或兴趣). They
refer to rhetorical devices(修辞手段), each of which has a fixed
pattern, e.g. Simile is introduced by comparative words as, like, as if, as though, etc.; Like Simile, Metaphor refers to the comparison of
two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance; Irony refers to the intended implication of which is the opposite of the literal sense of words; Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of
two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense so as to describe a person or thing; Pun; a play on words,
sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on
the similar sense or sound of different words; etc. These figures are employed in the following.
He is as stupid as a goose. (=He is very stupid.)
He has a heart of stone./ He has a heart like flint.
(=He is unfeeling and stubborn.)
He slept like a log / top. (=He slept very soundly.)
They are birds of a feather. (=They are people of the same sort.)
(Simile and metaphor are used of the comparison of two
essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance.) This hard-working boy seldom reads more than an hour per
week. (If a boy seldom reads more than an hour per week, he must
be very lazy, not hard-working.)
(Irony refers to the intended implication being the opposite of the literal sense of words)
He seems to be a clever fool. (=He seems to be a fool, but in fact
he is very clever.)
(Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense)
Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man.
(grave: adj. serious; n. tomb The speaker stresses the latter.) (Pun refers to a play on words，sometimes on different senses of
the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of
different words)
3. The difference between rhetoric and grammar, phonetics, lexicology
1) The difference between rhetoric and grammar
Rhetoric is different from grammar, but it is closely related to grammar and also based on grammar. To be grammatically correct is foundation to writing, but it is not enough. Basic rhetorical requirements must also be met. Francis Christensenn, an American French rhetorician, once said:
Grammar maps out the possible(计划可能发生的事情);
rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective(使可能发生的事情变成很理想的事情或有效地事情).
In the preface to the book A handbook of English Rhetoric
Warren quoted a passage by a scholar:
Grammar is the law of language, considered as language; rhetoric is the art of language, considered as thought.
Grammar tells what is correct; rhetoric tells what is effective and pleasing.
2) Rhetoric and phonetics, lexicology
Rhetoric is quite different from phonetics and lexicology. Phonetics is about the study of speech sounds and their pronunciation; lexicology is about the study of the vocabulary of a language;
grammar concerns the study or science of rules for forming words
and combining them into sentences; whereas rhetoric is the art of
speaking or writing so as to persuade people effectively. III. The Object of the Study of Rhetoric (修辞学研究的内容)
Rhetoric aims at studying all forms of culture, which may be forms of mass media or any cultural phenomenon, concrete or abstract. Modern rhetoric seems to include all forms of discourse ---- written or colloquial, even all forms of communication in symbols.(修辞学研究的对象是一切
文化形式，它们可以是任何这样或那样、具体或抽象的文化现象。现
代修辞学似乎要把所有的话语形式----书面体和口语体，甚至所有用
进行交流的形式都包括在内。)
IV. Contents of Modern Rhetoric (现代修辞学的内容)
1. There are two main rhetorical trend(倾向，趋势) in contemporary
western culture:
1) Stylistics(文体学，风格学), which is associated with two aspects of
writing:
(1)Various registers(语域), e.g. scientific and technical writing(科技
文体), business writing (商业文体)and journalism(新闻体);
(2) Stylistic variants(文体的变体) ---- literary language and style,
including personal style, and styles of different times and schools.
2) Rhetoric(修辞学), which is chiefly concerned with techniques of
how to influence the audience: the functions and effects of different
language symbols in communication activities; measures to promote
mutual understanding and to affect the emotions of the audience;
skills to handle persuasion and arguments as described in the “three
aesthetic criteria(三个艺术标准)” and the “three levels of rhetorical
operations”(三个层次的修辞活动).
2. Specifically speaking, rhetoric consists of two basic aspects:
1) Communicative rhetoric(交际修辞), which emphasizes the choice
of words and phrases, and selection of sentence patterns, organizing
paragraphs and whole pieces of writing in such a way that ideas are
expressed most clearly, most accurately and most appropriately and
the best results are achieved in communication.
2) Aesthetic rhetoric(艺术修辞), which stresses the vividness and
gracefulness(得体) in expressing one?s ideas by aesthetic
approaches like the use of figures of speech so as to increase the
emotional appeal (增强情感魅力)of one?s speech or writing.
V. The Three Fundamental Elements in Writing
写作的三个基本元素
According to Dorothy Margaret Guinn(多罗西玛.格丽特.吉恩)
and Daniel Marder(丹尼尔.玛德) , co-authors of A Spectrum of
Rhetoric《修辞学的范畴》, the three fundamental elements in
writing are facts, reason and feeling(事实、推理、感情). Any piece
of written discourse contains a combination of these elements. A
technical report(专业性
报告
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) may be dominated by facts, though
reason and feeling will also be found; whereas a letter to a close
friend may be charged / filled with feeling, but reason and facts will
appear as well. Knowing how these elements combine helps writers
to shape(形成), elaborate(说明) and refine(完善) their own
expression so that they will be able to communicate with desirable
results(能收到.预期的效果)
VI. The Three Principles for Our Study of Rhetoric
(研究修辞学的三个原则)
There are three principles we should abide by in our study of English
rhetoric:
1. We should pay due attention to the rhetorical traditions which have
been handed down from classical rhetoric and from all the rhetorical
modes and techniques at the three of rhetorical operations(修辞活动).
We should study them and apply them to our practice of speaking
and writing. Meanwhile the audience and the context(场合) should
be borne in mind when we use any one of the rhetorical principles
and techniques. ( see p.8)
2. In order to achieve the best results in communication, one has to
understand(了解) the person or people being written or spoken to,
and do what is appropriate(合适的) for that particular occasion. (see
p9)
3. The third principle is that we should guard against(避免) the
negative influence of our mother tongue. Dorothy M. Ginn(多罗西
M.吉恩)and Daniel Marder (丹尼尔.玛德) write: “Rhetorical
operations are patterns of thought that direct(支配) and order(整理)
our perceptions, ideas, and feelings(印象、思想、感情).” (see p 11)
VII. The Three Aesthetic Criteria in English Rhetoric:
(修辞学的三个艺术标准)
1. The three basic elements in rhetoric:
English rhetoric has longstanding traditions tracing back to Aristotle in Greece (384-322 BC), and even earlier. The three aesthetic criteria, logos (=logic), pathos (=emotion), ethos (=character), are its fundamental elements.
The three aesthetic criteria discussed here are confined to their basic meanings and applications in writing and speaking, equivalent to Chinese “逻辑”，“情感”and“人格” respectively.
1) Logic and logical thinking (逻辑与逻辑思维)
Logos, similar to “dao”(道) in ancient Chinese philosophy,
contains profound implications of logic. When applied to the practice of writing and speaking, logos refers to the use of logical reasoning to persuade the audience or readers..
Effective logical reasoning comes from sound(完美的)logical
thinking, expressed in relevant material, proper organization, coherent
sentences, and words that appropriately convey one?s intended
meanings. Examine the following example taken from a student?s
composition: (see p 19)
(1) Formal logic and syllogism (形式逻辑和三段推理法)
a. In formal logic, there are two basic approaches people often use
for logical reasoning: deduction and induction.
a) What is deduction (演绎推理)?
Deduction is the inference of particular instances by reference
to a general law or principle. (---The New Oxford Dictionary of
English) (演绎推理是由一般原理或规律推出关于特殊情况
下的结论)
Or: Deduction is reasoning from general principles to particular
cases.
e.g. All men must die. 人固有一死。(Major premise)
I am a man. 我是人。(Minor premise)
Therefore I must die. 我一定会死。(Conclusion)
b) What is induction(归纳推理)?
Induction is the inference of a general law from particular
instances. (ditto) (归纳推理是由一系列具体事实概括出一般
规律)
Or: Induction is the method of logic reasoning which contains or
discovers a general law from particular facts or examples.
e.g. Gold is a conductor. 金是一种导体。
Silver is a conductor. 银是一种导体。
Copper is a conductor. 铜是一种导体。
Iron is a conductor. 铁是一种导体。
They are all metals. 它们都是金属。
All metals are conductors. 所有金属都是导体。
c) What is syllogism(三段推理法)?
Syllogism represents deductive reasoning in a pattern
consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. e.g. All metals are conductors. (Major premise)
Copper is a metal. (Minor premise)
Therefore copper is a conductor.(Conclusion)
2) Changes in the connotation of pathos (情感含义的变化)
(1) Originally, the term “pathos” referred to the emotion in
general which a speaker tried to arouse in the audience. In
modern rhetoric, it ranges from the study of the psychology of the audience or readers to the application of technology to convince them by emotional appeals(情感魅力).
The effects of emotional appeals include moral anger, ambition, excitement, fear, happiness, pity as well as various other feelings. By playing upon(利用) such feelings, the writer
intends to change the beliefs and behavior of his or her readers.
(2) Pathos in use today (当今所用的情感)
A) The use of emotional appeals is all around us. It is an essential
element in advertising, public relations, image-making(塑造形
象), and education, especially in “affective education” (情感教
育). In modern management, the practice of what is called
“emotion investment” (感情投资) is also associated with pathos.
For instance, the manager remembers to prepare a gift for each
member of the staff on his or her birthday.
B) Effective appeals to the emotions depend upon the
skilful----often witty handling of language, frequently
accompanied by “exposure” (揭露)and “eloquence”(口才)。.
1. “Exposure” evokes moral indignation --- sometimes humorously, sometimes angrily --- by condemning the unjust reality or revealing the difference between how things should be and how they are. The following is a letter that shows how an American mother resorts to(采用) this skill to move others to stand against the unjust war against Vietnam: (see the letter on p 23)
I am more than angry. I did not give birth to my one and
only (=only) son to have him snatched away from me 18
years later(我不因18年后小孩从我身边抢走而生下唯一的
男儿). My child has been loved and cared for and taught right
from wrong (一直受到辨别是非的教育) and will not be fed
into(=be involved into) any egomaniac?s war machine(不要卷
入极端利己主义者的战争机器).
Our 18-to 25-year-olds(18-25岁的人) have not brought this world to its present sorry state(目前这种可怜的境地). Men
over the age of 35(35岁以上的人), down through the
centuries(几个世纪以来), have brought us here, and we women have been in silent accord (静静保持一致).
Well, this is one woman, one mother, who says No. I did not go through the magnificent agony of childbirth to have
that glorious young life snuffed out(=killed被杀害)(我是由
于不杀害光荣的年轻生命而经历了生小孩的巨大痛苦).
Until the presidents, premiers, supreme rulers, politburos(政客) and congressmen of the world are ready to physically, as opposed to(与…对比) verbally, lead the world into combat, they can bloody well(sl.=very well) forget my child.
Unite, mothers! Don?t throw your sons and daughters away. Sometime, somewhere(某时某地), women must say No.
No. No. No. No. No. Never my child(不，不，不，不，不，
决不抛弃自己的男孩和女孩～).
(Louise M. Saylor, Washington Post, Jan. 28, 1980)
Mother?s love for children is profound, and universal.
The writer of the letter is a mother herself, and therefore, her
appeal (呼吁) has a special effect in arousing the sympathy
of other mothers.
1. “Eloquence” refers to language used powerfully and
fluently to appeal to people?s nobler emotions --- the sense
of honor, love of one?s country and hometown, desire to
reach toward virtue(达到效果). Eloquence is often used
emotively, to express one?s emotions and evoke the
sympathy of the audience on solemn occasions or issues of
great significance. In this aspect, the speech made by Martin
Luther King, JR.(马丁.路德.金), on August 28,1963, at the
March on Washington(在向华盛顿行进的路上), can be
regarded as a fine sample of “the emotional crescendo
(=climax高潮 ) of an emotional day” (A New English
Course, Level 5, p.231)
C) Although a speech or a piece of writing may appeal mainly to people?s emotion(主要是激发人们的感情), it should be based
upon logos. Take the above mother?s letter for example. The
logical reasoning that has made the mother?s emotional appeal
so powerful can be seen in three aspects: (see p. 25)
First, her son has been loved and taught right from wrong (辨别是非) and it is unjust to send him to fight an aggressive
war against another country.
Second, since those who should be responsible for “the
present sorry state” are not ready to shoulder their
responsibilities, it is unreasonable for them to turn other
people?s children into “cannon fodder (炮灰)”.
Third, the mother is more than angry and her anger comes
not only out of her love for her own son, but also out of her
concern for the fate of all the 18-to 25-year-old young people.
All the mothers should say No because there is absolutely no
reason for them to have their children?s glorious young lives
snuffed out (=killed扼杀).
As logic and emotion are so closely related in writing, skillful
writers always use them successfully in order to make their
words both convincing and moving.
3) Ethos in rhetoric (修辞学中的人格)
A. When you look up the word “ethos” in a dictionary like Webster’s
Third New International Dictionary, you will find a whole range of
multifaceted(多方面的) meanings. What follows here shows the
three basic aspects:
1) It generally refers to character, sentiment, moral nature: the
guiding beliefs, standards, or ideals that characterize or pervade(流
行于) a group, a community, a people, or an ideology; or the spirit
that motivates(激起) the ideas, customs, or practices of a people, an
epoch, or a region.
2) It refers to the complex(复合体) of fundamental values that
underlie(构成), permeate(充满), or actuate(开动) major patterns of
thought or behavior in any particular culture, society, or institution. 3) In Aristotelian philosophy, it refers to the character or personality
of a human being, especially with respect to a balance between the passions and caution, or the contrast between one?s thought and
action.
B) In modern rhetoric, “ethos” demonstrates itself in three ways:
1) On serious occasions or disputes of principles, ethos takes as its basis a thoroughgoing study of various schools of philosophical views on different values, different ways of living and different world outlooks. Take “human rights” for example. As we admit the fact that human
beings live in a society, everyone must enjoy human rights as well as fulfill(履行) their obligations, including observing disciplines, moral standards, social rules and regulations. Some people, however, only talk about human rights and even force their lopsided(单方面的)
views upon others. This one-sided(片面的) approach to the
understanding of “ethos” is definitely wrong and harmful.
2) In ordinary speaking or writing, ethos refers to the personal standing, academic authority, and moral qualities of the writer and speaker,
used to guarantee or even raise the writer?s or speaker?s
credibility(可信度) and acceptability(可接受性) in the eyes of the
readers and audience. The following are a few cases indicating “ethos” in practice:
a. In anthologies (诗歌) or textbooks, there is usually a brief account of each text and its author, which tends to help readers to study it and to increase their interest in studying it. This, in fact, can be regarded as an application of “ethos”.
b. A book usually has a preface and it is almost always written by an authoritative source. The purpose is inevitably to raise the social, literary or academic standard of the book, for there is always a positive introduction and favorable comment on the publication. In addition, the biding(装订) and layout(版面设计) of a book, a photo
and an introduction about the author are all associated with ethos. c. The titles, positions, address, fax (电传)and telephone numbers on
one?s name card all have something to do with ethos, which not only help people communicate but they also provide credibility. d. At a conference, the chairperson?s introduction of each speaker is also
meant to raise the social, personal and academic status of the speaker, and if the speaker gives the audience a striking impression by his opening remarks, he will probably be successful in his speech. VIII. The Difference between Rhetoric and Rhetorical Operations
(修辞学与修辞活动的区别)
According to The New Oxford Dictionary of English, rhetoric is the
art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing especially the exploitation of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.
Rhetorical operations refer to a system of thought processes, including the choice of words and phrases, the seeking of sentence varieties and the organization of paragraphs and complete essays.(修辞
活动是一个系统的思维过程，包括词语的选择，句子种类的选择，组
段谋篇。)
IX. The Three Levels of Rhetorical Operations
(修辞活动的三个层次)
The three levels of rhetorical operations are: selecting words or phrases(选择词语); selecting sentence varieties(选择句子类型);
writing a paragraph and arranging paragraphs into a complete text(组 段
谋篇).
1. Selecting words and phrases (选择词语)
1) The three basic levels of rhetoric (修辞学的三个层次)
Rhetoric involves choice of words, sentence patterns, figures of speech, organization of paragraphs and composition. This process can be broken down into three basic levels:
Level One: words and phrases.
Level Two: sentence variety.
Level Three: organizing paragraphs into a complete text. 2) Principles for selecting words and phrases:
Selecting words and phrases refers to the use of words (often
called “diction”), which always involves choice based on the following
five principles:
Principle One. Choose the word that will convey your meaning as exactly as possible. Pay much attention to the shades of meaning of
synonyms, e.g. speak, say, tell, talk; anxious, nervous, fearful; refuse, decline; see, look, gawk(look foolishly呆呆地看), peer(look
carefully/closely盯着看y), peep(look shyly/quickly偷看), stare(look
with the eyes wide open睁大眼睛看), glimpse(give a quick look瞥
见); smile, laugh, chuckle(抿嘴笑), grin(露齿而笑), snigger(窃笑),
giggle(咯咯笑); seem, look, appear; etc.
Principle Two. Try to use the smallest number of words necessary to say what you want to say.
e.g. 1a Sorry, I?m not in a position to offer assistance to him. (wordy,
verbose冗长)
1b Sorry, I am unable to help him.
1c Sorry I can?t help him. (economical, concise简练)
2a There has been persistent instability in numbers of staff.
2b The staff has continually varied in number. (economical简练)
工作人员的数目一直不能稳定。
3a There exists a considerable lack of the competition mechanism
in the socialist marketing system.
3b We do not know much about the competition mechanism in the
socialist marketing system. (economical简练)
The second sentence in each group is shorter than the first one and the idea is more clearly expressed, which indicates that it is usually more economical and more effective to use a notional verb as the informational center.
Principle Three Avoid clichés(老生常谈) and abstract expressions.
Cliches has been used so long by so many people that they have lost freshness(新鲜). For example, when people hear “How time flies!” or
“Someone is as cunning as a fox”, they often feel bored. In cases when
people need some definite information, you have to guard against abstract expressions, e.g. When you say “It?s extremely cold there at this
season and you must take adequate measures to keep warm”, the listener
still can?t tell how cold it is and what measures can be regarded as adequate; but you say “It?s usually 10 to 15 degrees below zero
centigrade”? the listener will have a much better idea. That is what we may call relevant accuracy(相对准确)。.
Principle Four. In order to make your writing not only readable but also interesting and attractive, you should write in a vivid way. This is what we call vividness or gracefulness (得体).
Compare the following two passages:
a. For several days snow fell heavily in the south of England. It lay
many inches thick on the ground. The roofs of houses were white;
through the streets was difficult; driving was dangerous. walking
b. It is the coldest winter for 45 years. Heavy snow blankets(层层厚雪)
swallowed everything on earth; Villages in the English countryside were cut off(被雪封) and the Thames froze over(冻结). Cars
crawled along(缓缓行驶) while pedestrians trudged through the
deep snow.(在深雪中艰难行走). Horns hoarsened(汽车喇叭嘶哑);
road accidents shot up(迅速上升). People told jokes about how it
was more risky to drive by day than to go boating on the sea at night.
The two passages were written to describe the same snowy days, but the first is not so vivid as the second, which can be viewed in terms of the following three aspects: (see p. 43)
(1) Many general, vague words and phrases are used in passage (a )(see
the underlined parts of the sentence), while in passage (b) more
concrete expressions are used, e.g. “45 years”, “cars”, “pedestrians”,
and “cut off”, “freeze over”, “crawl along”, ”trudge”, “horns”, which
all go together to give the reader a vivid picture. (2) Several figures are used in the second passage, e.g. blankets (hyperbole), swallow (metaphor), hoarsened (personification), shot up (hyperbole), cars (synecdoche: species for genus以种代类), …than to
go boating on the sea at night (simile), which have intensified(增强)
the vividness.
(3) Sentence patterns are varied in the second passage which consists of five different sentence structures, whereas in the first passage, the five sentences are all simple “subject + predicate” patterns. This difference
demonstrates how true the saying is: Variety breeds vividness.”(多样
产生生动)
Principle Five. Take into account the subject matter(要考虑题目问题),
the reader and the purpose of your writing, and see that your wording is in harmony with these factors. This is what we may call “appropriateness”(合适性) or “propriety”(合理性). For instance,
when you are writing to children, you will certainly use different wording from what you would use in writing to university students even if the subject is the same. And when you write a formal legal document, you will have to use those formal set phrases as “upon
termination of the trust”(在终止信托财产时), and it will be
inappropriate for you change it into such informal expressions as “by
the end of” or “when / once the trust is over”. Similarly, although the
need of “ exactness”(确切性) and “accuracy”(准确性) has been
stressed in general cases(在一般情况下)， you should also note that
on certain occasions(在某些场合)， you have to use vague language
so as to moderate your tone(缓和语气) or to be more tactful(策
略), or roundabout(间接性).
2. Seeking sentence variety (选择句子类型)
1) Seeking sentence variety mainly deals with two aspects of sentence
structures:
(1) Different sentence patterns;(不同句型)
(2)Varied sentence lengths(不同句长), i.e. shorter and longer sentences,
arranged in appropriate proportion(安排比例适当) in a paragraph.
2) The purpose of seeking sentence variety is to avoid monotony in one?s
speech or writing so as to achieve the most satisfactory results in
communication. Samuel Johnson, a noted English writer, critic and
compiler, said: “The joy of life is variety.(生活的乐趣在于多样化)”
So variety of writing is a joy. Without variety, any text can be dull and
uninteresting.
3) Variety in sentence patterns
(1) In grammar sentence patterns are generally viewed from two
perspectives:
a. Viewed from their functions(根据句子功能分类): the declarative
sentence; the interrogative sentence; the imperative sentence; and the
exclamatory sentence.
b. Viewed from structures(根据句子结构分类): the simple sentence; the
compound sentence; the complex sentence and the compound
complex sentence.
(2) There are many sentence patterns in English that have special effects
in achieving rhetorical purposes, i.e. in terms of English rhetoric,
there are several sentence patterns:
A. The Cumulative Sentence (渐进句)
The cumulative sentence begins with the basic sentence structure,
followed by phrases and / or dependent clauses so that further refinements are added to the main idea.(渐进句是以基础句式开始，
其后跟有独立结构或分词短语(一般用作伴随、方式或时间状语
等)，使基础句的内容得到进一步的说明、补充或深化)
e.g. The fall came early that year(基础句), the trees turning bare overnight, their yellow leaves scattered by the winds.
(那年，秋天来得很早。树木突然变得光秃秃的，风把黄色树叶刮
到地上。 (Arnold Lazarus H. Wendell Smith) Geiser (盖泽) serves his regular customer (老顾客) with special care
(特别关心地)(基础句), scraping(刮掉) the tops (=upper part上面
一层) of steaks (=meat肉) for those who insist on it, handing free frankfurters (法兰克福香肠) to the little tikes (=small child小孩),
adding an extra quarter pound of sausage to the order (订单).
(盖泽很特殊地为老顾客服务，把他们要的食品上面的肉刮掉，把
免费提供的法兰克福香肠递给小孩，又在订单上另外加了四分之
一磅的香肠。)
B. The Anticlimax Sentence (突降句)
An anticlimax sentence refers to a sudden or gradual decrease in importance in the items of a sentence or a series of sentences.(突降句是
指一个句子的各项或一系列句子的各句的重要性突然或逐渐下降。)
e.g. As a serious young man, I loved Beethoven, Keats, and hot dogs.
作为一个很认真的年轻人，我喜欢贝多芬，喜欢济慈，喜欢热狗。
For God, for America, for Yale. (School Motto of Yale University)
为了上帝，为了美国，为了耶鲁大学。
Religion, credit, and the eye are not to be touched. (Proverb)
宗教，荣誉和眼珠，三者都不能亵凟。
You manage a business, stocks, bonds, people. And now you can
manage your hair.
你能管好公司，股票，债劵，人员。现在你该管管你的头发。
C. The Loose Sentence (松散句)
Just as its name implies, the loose sentence is loose in structure.
a) The cumulative sentence and the anticlimax sentence are in
essence loose sentences.
e.g. I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Saesar)
He lost his empire, his family and his fountain pen.
b) The co-ordinate sentence is also loose because each of the
coordinate clauses can express a complete notion and even the
order of coordinate clauses can sometimes be exchanged without
affecting much of the meaning of the whole sentence.
e.g. John likes sports and Jane likes music./ Jane likes music
and John likes sports.
Arsenal win; United slip up./ United slip up; Arsenal win.
有武器就会赢;团结就会出错。
United we stand; divided we fall./ Divided we fall; united we
stand. 团结则存;分裂则亡。
c) A complex sentence can be a loose sentence when the main
clause stands before the subordinate one(s), i.e. main clause +
subordinate clause.
e.g. He was quite well when I saw him.
我见到他时， 他身体很好。
D. The Periodic Sentence(掉尾句)
A periodic sentence is usually a long and complex sentence in which some or all of the independent clause is held back(阻拦;抑制) until the
very end of the sentence so that the reader cannot get the complete idea of the sentence until the whole sentence is read. In grammar, the periodic sentence is an indivisible language unit.(掉尾句是一种把句子的主要意
思放在整个句子末尾，因而要读完全句才能了解该句完整含义的句子
结构;从语法上看，掉尾句是一个不可分割的语言单位。)
a. A simple sentence is a periodic sentence.
e.g. The English professor is popular among the students.
那位英语教授很受学生欢迎。
b. A complex sentence may be a periodic sentence when the main clause
follows the subordinate clause , i.e. subordinate clause + main clause.
e.g. When I saw him, he was quite well.
c. When the adverbial comes before the main clause, the whole sentence is a periodic sentence.
e.g. Yesterday I saw him in the street.
E. The Mixed Sentence (混合句)
When the main clause is preceded and followed by subordinate clauses, i.e. subordinate clause + main clause + subordinate clause, the whole sentence is a mixed sentence. (当主句前后跟有从句时，即主要意
思出现在句子中间时，整个句子称为混合句。)
e.g. When I saw him, he was quite well as far as I could tell. F. The balanced sentence (对称句或平衡句)
The balanced sentence, by positioning together two or more parallel items, makes for poignancy(深刻) and emphasis.(在对称句里，并列的
各部分占同等重要的位置，使某事更深刻、更强调。)
e.g. Look after the pence and the pounds will look after themselves
(=Take care of the pence and the pounds will take care of themselves.) (proverb)小事注意，大事自成。/ 积少自然成多
Love as in time to come you should hate, and hate as you should in time to come, love.(=Treat your friend as though he were one day to become your enemy, and your enemy as though he were one day to
become your friend.) (Proverb)
对朋友不可太亲热;对敌人不可恨至极。
His scope of knowledge, at first, excited our respect; his kindness, soon after, our love.
首先，他的知识范围之广，引起我们的尊敬;不久后，他的善良引起
我们的爱戴。
Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. (Francis Bacon: “Of Studies”)
阅读使人充实;讨论使人机灵;写作使人严谨。
G. The Rhetorical Question(修辞问句)
A rhetorical question is a question which requires no answer because it expresses a truth which can not be denied. It is used for emphasis. A positive rhetorical question is like a strong negative statement, while a negative rhetorical question is like a strong positive statement.
A rhetorical question may be a yes-no question or a wh- question. It may appear at the beginning, middle or end of an essay. But wherever it is placed, these points should be kept in mind.
(1) A rhetorical question focuses(集中)and intensifies(增强)the readers?
interest.
(2) A rhetorical question should be used to give force to(使…更有力) the
writer?s main ideas; it should not be wasted on minor points. (3) The rhetorical question, like any stylistic device, should be used
sparing for best effect. (像任何风格上的修辞手段一样，为了获得最
佳效果，修辞问句应尽量少用)
(4) A rhetorical question should be read with the falling tone, whether it is
a general question or a special question.
e.g. Is that the reason for despair? (That is not the reason for despair.)
Didn?t I tell you he would forget? (I told you he would forget.)
What difference does it make? (It makes no difference.)
Who doesn?t know that? (Everyone knows that.)
If winter comes, can spring be far behind?
(=If winter comes, spring can not be far behind.)
冬天来了，春天还会很远吗,
3. Writing a Paragraph and Arranging Paragraphs into a Complete
Text (段落写作，将段落组成文章)
A. Features of the paragraph (段落特点)
A) A paragraph is a division of a written text(书面文本) made up of
sentences ---- usually several, but at least one. It is used by a writer
to commemorate(记住) one point or one aspect of a point in a
complete text(在完整的文本中).
B) A paragraph is characterized by two features:(段落有两个特点)
(1) In form, a paragraph is set off / separated by indentation(空格) or
spacing(空行).
(2) In content, the sentences are closely related, representing a stage or
an aspect in the flow of a writer?s thought(思路贯通).
B. Requirements for paragraph writing (段落写作的要求)
A) Paragraph writing built on word choice and sentence variety, is basic
to the writing of a whole composition, a complete essay or even a
whole book. In this sense, a good writer is like a good chess player,
who moves (走动)every chessman(棋子) skillfully(熟练地), but
he must constantly keep the whole chessboard(棋盘) in mind. The
basic rhetorical requirements for paragraph writing can be
summarized by the following two points:
(1) All the principles and techniques associated with word choice and
sentence variety can be applied to paragraph writing. For example,
according to the principle of economy(简练), there should be no
unnecessary words in a sentence, and this also applies to writing a
paragraph:
A paragraph should contain no unnecessary sentences, for the
same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a
machine no unnecessary parts(一段话不应该有多余的句子，正如
一张画不应该有多余的线条，一台机器不应该有多余的零件。).
(William Strunk, quoted by Francis L. Fennell in Collegiate English
Handbook, p. 33)
(2) A clear central thought is essential in each paragraph. In other words,
all the statements and details in the paragraph must be closely related
to the central thought so that there should be good connections
between sentences.
B) When you write a paragraph to express your ideas either in exposition
or argumentation(在说明文或议论文中), it usually consists of three
parts:
(1) The topic of the central thought, expressed by the “topic sentence” (主
题句)which usually appears at the beginning of a paragraph or
sometimes, at the end to conclude it.
(2) The main part of a paragraph consists of more sentences and more
details that follow the topic sentence and develop it(展开主题句).
(3) The conclusion. The concluding sentence of a paragraph usually
appears at the end, and a good conclusion should serve as a
summary(总结) or highlight(强调) the importance of the paragraph.
C. The organization of an essay (论文结构)
1. The basic organization of an essay(论文) is similar to paragraph
development. A typical essay(论文) is formed by the following three
elementary parts:
1) The introduction(引言), which is usually the beginning paragraph of
an essay, and introduces the topic under discussion. 2) The body(正文), which is in most cases made up of a number of
paragraphs, and which constitutes(构成) the main content of the
essay.
3) The conclusion(结语), which is usually the last paragraph, and summarizes the essay.
2. In order to achieve good connections(连接紧密) and a proper flow of
ideas(思路畅通) in your writing, it is very important to make good transitions by using transition words and phrases(过渡词和过渡短
语)
Transition words and phrases fall into the following classes according to their functions:
1) To denote contrast: (表示对比)
but, however, nevertheless, by contrast, in spite of this, on the
other hand, etc.
2) To denote similarity: (表示类似)
and, also, another, besides, furthermore, in addition, in the same
way, likewise, similarly, next, moreover, etc.
3) To denote time or place relation: (表示时间或空间关系)
earlier, later, at the same time, meanwhile, soon;here, there,
farther on, nearby, etc.
4) To denote cause and consequence:(表示因果关系)
as a result, consequently, therefore, thus, etc. 5) To cite an example: (表示举例)
As an illustration, for example, for instance, another example,
take … for example, etc.
6) To denote repetition or summary: (表示重复或总结)
As I have said, in other words, to repeat; in brief, in short, in
sum, to sum up, in summary, etc.
7) To denote sequence or order: (表示顺序或次序)
First of all, first (or firstly, second / secondly, etc.), then, at last,
in the end, at length, finally, etc.
Note: Sentences can also be used to denote transitions(表示过渡):
“How should we proceed?” “The third case is curiously unlike
the first two.” “Let?s move on to the next issue.” Etc.
D. Flow of Ideas and Pattern of Paragraph Arrangement (思路贯通
与段落模式安排) (see p71 of the text-book )
A) The one rule that governs (支配) paragraph writing is this: there must be a smooth flow of ideas(思路畅通)throughout the piece of writing and
the flow of ideas(思路贯通)always comes from appropriate paragraph arrangement, which includes how to write the introductory paragraph, how to arrange the paragraphs in the body of the text and how to conclude(结尾).
B) Different subject matter requires different patterns of paragraph arrangement. Take the following topic (主题) for example:
I enjoy listening to music, which makes me feel relaxed and brightens my mood. … (我喜欢听音乐, 因为听音乐使我感到轻松，
使我心情舒畅，…)
Following the introductory paragraph with this topic sentence, the writer may use a few paragraphs to develop the topic. This can be done in various ways, and the following four are the most common patterns, which produce four basic types of writing:
Type One: The writer may tell the reader what music he often listens to and why he loves it. This will make an expository piece of
writing, or simply “exposition”(说明文). For example:
I find music more and more important in my daily life. In the morning, music helps brighten me up (使我愉快) and at night, music
makes me feel still energetic.
Once I was very much depressed as a result of my failure in the mid-term test, I was wondering what to do. Then I turned to Beethoven”s
Fifth Symphony(贝多芬第五交响乐)and felt greatly encouraged. “I
must take my destiny into my own hands, too,” I thought.
This type of writing usually consists of three parts: Generalization(概括) + Illustration(说明) + Conclusion(结论). The first sentence
in the above example is the first part and the topic, followed by illustration. The last sentence can also be regarded as the conclusion.
Expository paragraphs may also follow the pattern of classification and definition (分类和定义), process analysis (过程分析), comparison
and contrast (比较和对照) and other patterns. (see the example on p 72)
Topic sentence: There are three types of book owners.
Classification: The first has all the standard sets(全部标准的套装
书) and best-sellers --- unread and untouched. (This Category 1: deluded(受骗的) individual owns wood-pulp and ink nonreaders (木浆和油墨), not books.) The second has a great (不读书的人) many books --- a few of them read through (被翻
Category 2: 阅过), most of them dipped into (被浏览过) but all of
occasional them as clean and shiny as the day they were readers bought. (This person would probably like to make
(偶尔读书的人) books his own, but is restrained(受限制的) by a false
respect for their physical appearance由于假装爱护
书的外表.).
Category 3: The third has a few books or many --- every one of Devoted them dog-eared(书角卷角的) and dilapidated
readers (被损坏的), shaken and loosened(书页被扯动、扯
(专心读书的人) 松的),marked and scribbled in(里面被做上记号、被
乱点乱画) from front to back (从头至尾).
Type Two. The second paragraph of the essay on music may appear thus:
“Some people, however, don?t think this way. They say that
listening to music often makes one feel either excited(兴奋的) or
rather depressed (忧郁的;消沉的) …
The writer now tries to persuade those people with his reasons
and experiences; in this case he produces/writes out a piece of
“persuasion”(劝说) or “argumentation”(辩论;论说文).
According to Mary Lou Conlin, all effective writing involves, to some extent, argumentation or persuasion. Writers use various kinds on information to develop a topic or thesis. Such information can be said to “argue”(辩论)or “persuade”(劝说) in the sense that it convince the
reader that the writer?s idea is true or believable. However, as modes of development(作为展开的方式), argumentation and persuasion have
particular characteristics and the main difference lies in that persuasion
uses more emotional strength(情感上的力量) while argumentation
uses more logic power(逻辑上的力量).
Type Three. Coming back to the essay on music, let us assume that the writer wishes to write about his first experience in music and how he gradually became a music fan, he will then write a “narrative”(记叙
文). In narrative writing, temporal order(时间次序) and spatial order
(空间次序) is often followed as the main thread(主线).
Type Four. Finally the writer of the essay on music may write: “Here is a piece of Beethoven?s symphony …? or „The other day. I worked
several hours and began to feel dizzy. I stopped to listen to Beethoven?s
Moonlight Sonata(贝多芬的月光奏鸣曲) …” Then he starts describing
that piece of music or that day?s experience of listening, and you will
have a piece of “description”(描写文).
Writing a piece of description can be a joyous experience, as you recreate in words (用语言)what you experience through your senses
(通过感官经历的东西) and offer the reader a “word picture” (语言
图)of a specific person(具体的人), the flavor(风土人情) of a special
place(特定的地方), or the appearance of a particular object. To help the reader visualize(把…形象化) the object , the writer chooses key details(选择主要细节) to develop the description: a certain liveliness(敏感
性) in a person?s eyes, the movement(缓缓移动)of the clouds after a
heavy rain, the typical design(典型设计)of an ancient building.
IX. Importance of Choosing the Right Words (选择词语的重要性)
(see p 82 of the text-book)
A. “Diction”(措词) in rhetoric refers to the principles and techniques of
word choice. In order to choose words appropriately, it is of primary
importance to have a good grasp of word meanings. If you do not
understand a word, you should ask questions like:
“Sorry, I don?t understand the word. Could you explain it to me?”
“Would you please tell me what you mean by that word?”
A) In order to increase your ability in word choice, you have to notice the following two points:
1. Be fully aware of (充分意识到) the importance of word choice. In the dictionary entitled The Right Word at the Right Time, there is
analogy(比喻)concerning word choice:
Using the right word at the right time is rather like wearing appropriate clothing for the occasion(临时): it is a courtesy to others,
and a favor(小礼物) to yourself ---- a matter of presenting yourself in the eyes of the world(世人)。
In fact, this analogy goes further than that: just as dressing appropriately can help you feel more confident(感觉更有信心) and act
more effectively(做事更有效果), so appropriate word choice in your
speaking or writing can help you make clearer decisions(做出更明确的
决定) and persuade others to agree with you more easily. 1) Have the command of a larger vocabulary. The word “command”
here refers not only to spelling but also to usage and meanings. The vocabulary of the English language is an enormous one. According to Dr. Phillip (菲利普) B. Gove (果夫), Editor-in-chief of Webster’s
Third New International Dictionary of the English Language,
English has more than 450,000 words; in fact, the figure can run to(达
到) one million.
Apart from the huge number, the English words are characterized(英语单词的特点)by their creativeness in formation(构词的创造性)
and flexibility in meaning and usage, (意义和惯用法的灵活性)which
cause difficulties in word choice. Walter Pauk (沃尔特.波克), a
prominent American educator, writes in his book How to Study in
College that “Words are the tools of communication, learning, and
thinking,” and advise students to be attentive(专心) to and interested in
word studies. He even quotes Professor Lee Deighton (李.戴顿) of the
Columbia University that to learn a word genuine, you need the following essential ingredients(重要因素): a keen sense of interest(感
到很有趣), a sense of excitement(感到很兴奋), a sense of wonder(感
到很奇怪), and a feeling of pleasure(感到很高兴) when you choose
words and words choose you.”
How is it “words choose you”(单词选择你是怎么回事)? It seems
Deighton here is using “regression(逆向重复)”, a figure of repeating the
previous words in inverted order, to emphasize the idea that if you are keen in(对…感性趣) choosing words , precise and appropriate words come to you readily / easily. Words here seem to be personified ! B. Aspects of word meanings (几个方面的单词意义)
A) Word meaning is a multifaceted (多方面的) notion. The words of a
sentence may be meaningful and true(正确的) because they report an
event, raise a question, describe an action, or express a viewpoint. These are common aspects of word meanings easily found in any piece of writing. For example:
a. On the 20th of July, 1969，the lunar module (登月舱) of Apollo 11(阿
波罗11号宇宙飞船), landed on the moon. (An event that happened
at a certain time and place)
Note: The American spacecraft consists of three parts: the service
module(服务舱), the command module(指挥舱) and the lunar
module(登月舱).
b. “Do you say you do not believe that there were any civilizations on
the earth that reach back (=trace back) beyond (=more than) five
thousand years? (A question)
c. …and Bryan jumped up, his face purple, and shook his fist at Darrow,
crying, … (Here a series of actions took place.)
d. Theoretically, Fundamentalism had won, for the law stood. Yet really
Fundamentalism had lost. (This is the author?s viewpoint.)
B) Sometimes find it hard to decide the meaning of a word or some words
in a sentence, and the reason may be that there is ambiguity or
vagueness. For example:
a. I saw her duck.
b. I shall never forget my experience.
In sentence (a), the word duck may either be a verb referring to the
act of bending down quickly(迅速弯下腰, 偶然低下头) or a noun
referring to a domestic bird (鸭:家禽名).This results in ambiguity.
Sentence (b) is not only ambiguous but also vague. The word
“experience” may refer to knowledge or skill gained from practice or
may denote something that happens to someone and has an effect on
his mind and feelings. Besides, “experience” is usually used to tell
about (讲述) an event in the past, but as there is no mention of the
time and place, both of which are key factors of an event, therefore,
the sentence sounds incomplete and it is not true (正确的). The
original sentence is:
I shall never forget my first experience with German proximate
patterns(永远不会忘记第一次近似德国模式的经历), which
occurred when I was an undergraduate(大学本科生).
(Edward T. Hall, “The Hidden Dimension”)
C) Meanings of words can and should be viewed at different level (从不
同的层面去看). Some are most direct and obvious, and they are the
literal (字面的) and face (表面的) meanings, whereas others are not
so direct or obvious since they are hidden between the lines(暗含在字
里行间), and you have to go deeper in meaning for a correct
understanding.
When meanings of words are viewed in a more comprehensive way, they fall into three basic levels which constitute(构成) three types of
meanings: referential meaning (指称意义), social meaning (社会意义),
and affective meaning (情感意义).
1. Referential meaning (指称意义) (see p. 87)
1) The referential meaning of a word or phrase refers to a person, an object, an event, an abstract notion, or state of affairs as we have seen in C A). Sentences, just like words and phrases, may also carry referential meanings when they refer to actions, states, events and abstract notions,
e.g. ( 1) Event: They sailed from Devonport (德文波特) December
27, 1831, in H.M.S. (Her/His Majesty?s ship英国舰只) Beagle
(猎犬号), a ten-gun brig (=sailing ship帆船).
(2) State : The intellectual climate (学术空气) from which Darwin
set forth (开创)on historic voyage was predominantly (=mainly)
conservative.
(3) Action : While he fumbled for(=search for搜寻) a decision (苦思
冥想想做一个决定)and the future hung irresolute (前途未定),
Captain(海军上校)Fitzroy took command(指挥).
(4) Knowledge : Almost every great scientific generalization(概括)
is a supreme act of creative(创造性的) synthesis(综合).
2) Semantic classes(语义分类) are essential for describing the
meaningful relations between the elements (各成分) of grammatical
constructions. The major semantic classes are the following six: (1) Entities (表示实体), e.g. man, car, sun, dog, river, etc. (2) Activities (表示活动), e.g. run, walk, think, explosion, etc. (3) States (表示状态) (usually the result of some activity or event),
e.g. happy, tired, dead, alive, angry, etc. (4) Process (表示过程) (involving a change of state or characteristics), e.g. widen, enlarge, grow, deepen, blacken, etc. (5) Characteristics (表示特质), e.g. tall, intelligent, stupid, generous,
kind, etc.
(6) Links (表示关系), e.g. indicating (a) coordinate sets, such as
“and”, “or”; (b) temporal relations, such as “when”, “during”;
(c) spatial relations, such as “below”, “through”; (d) consequence
such as “as a result”, “because”; (e) links without distinctive
meanings, such as “to ( + infinitive)”, “that + indirect discourse”, etc.
(Nida, 1999:95)
2. Social meaning (社会意义) (see p.89)
1) The social meaning of a word or phrase is the type of meaning that we
rely on when we identify(鉴定) certain social characteristics of speakers and situations(职业情况) from the type of language used. Here are a few examples:
(1) I fears he can?t do nothin? right, an? I done it. (uneducated English)
(= I fear he can do nothing right, and so I have done it myself.)
(2) Y?all gonna (=Are you all going to) visit over the holiday?
(a particular southern dialect of American English)
(3) I adore (=like very much) your lavender(=pale purple color(淡紫色)
shawl(女用方围巾). It is absolutely gorgeous (= very beautiful)!
(spoken by a female)
(4) The incident reinforced my sense (增强我的观念) that
mountaineering (=climbing mountains登山运动) serves as an apt
analogy (恰当的比喻) for the art of teaching. (suggesting
something professional)
(5) “Cheerio for now!” (an informal form of “Good-bye”)
2) Social class, regional dialect, gender, and context are most important
social factors that affect meanings of words. And social meaning is conveyed not only by word choice but also by pronunciation and grammar forms.
3. Affective meaning (情感意义) (see p. 90)
1) The affective meaning refers to the emotional color that is attached to words and phrases(单词或短语带有的感情色彩). Compare the
following pair of sentences:
(1) It?s a pleasure to see you here, Mr. Jones.
(2) Awfully nice to see you here, Frank!
These two sentences describe the same event and they convey the similar referential meaning. However, their affective meaning is quite different: Sentence (1) is an ordinary polite form to address a person on meeting him, whereas sentence (2) is imbued / filled (充满的) with
warmth and intimacy(亲密) found only between relatives and close
friends.
2) Affected meaning is a very subtle and the most complicated aspect of word meaning, which is going to be dealt with in the next part. C. Accuracy in word choice
Inappropriate (=not suitable) use of words can affect the accurate expression (准确表达) in speaking or writing. Mark Twain, a famous
American writer and humorist, often said:
The difference between the right word and the almost-right word is as great as that between lightning and the lightning bug.”
(用词准确与用词几乎准确，这两者的差异就如同闪电与萤火虫之间
的差异。)
1. In order to be accurate, it is necessary to pay much attention to the two types of word meanings: denotation (=the essential /literal meaning
基本意义或字面意义) and connotation (=the extended /implicit
meaning引伸意义或隐含意义、含蓄意义) of words.
1 ) Denotation: (字面意义)
The denotat1ion, or denotative meaning, of a word is that the
word refers to, as described in a dictionary definition, so it is also
called the “explicit meaning”(明确意义). Referential meanings of
words or phrases on p 87 fall into the category of denotation.
(denotation指该词语本身，或客观的固有意义 )
e.g. cheap / inexpensive: low in price, costing little money 价格低
的;便宜的; 花钱不多的(表示价格便宜点基本意思)
cheap tickets(特价车票); cheap seats in a theatre(票价低的座位)
yellow: n. the color yellow 黄色
adj. of the color of sth.黄色的(表示物体颜色 的基本意思)
2) Connotation: (隐含意义、含蓄意义)
A. Connotations are sometimes called “implicit meanings”(隐含意
义), as contrasted with the explicit meanings of denotations,
because they imply attitudes, emotion etc. of the speaker or
writer. (Connotation指该词语一定搭配或上下文中出现的其
他意义，往往比较含蓄，带有词语的使用者的主观态度或感
情色彩 )
cheap: adj. Its connotative meanings are:
insincere; shallow; mean; ; despicable; contemptible; stingy
不真诚的;肤浅的;小气的;卑鄙的;下流的;低级的
e.g. cheap flattery; a cheap remark; a cheap trick; a cheap crook
假意奉承，下流的话，卑鄙伎俩，卑鄙小人
yellow: n. the color yellow (denotation)
Its connotative meanings are:
(1) Some people use “yellow” for pornographic literature. (2) The oriental people are called “yellow race” because their skin
are yellow.
(3) When “yellow” is used to refer to one?s character (性格), it
means “cowardly”.
(4) In traffic lights, “yellow” suggests a warning.
(see the diagram on p 100)
B. The two basic aspects of connotation may be called
“favorable”(好的) and “unfavorable”(不好的), or “positive(正
面的) and negative”(反面的), or “approving”(满意的) and
“ disapproving ” (不满意的). If someone calls you an
“opportunist”(机会主义者), you will ignore the denotation that
it refers to any person who takes advantage of his or her
opportunities, and respond directly to(直接回答) the negative
connotation of the word: opportunists are disreputable (名声不
好的), they care more for success than for principles, and people
don?t trust them.
2. Relations between literal/figurative and denotative/connotative
meanings (see p 167)
A) In a broader sense, “literal / figurative” and “denotative /
connotative” can be regarded respectively as synonymous
expression, e.g. the denotative or literal meaning of “fuel” is a
substance that is burned to produce heat or power. In the
idiomatic saying(习语) “to add fuel to the fire / flames(火上加
油)” the word “fuel” is used in its figurative meaning or
connotative meaning: to make a bad situation worse.
B) However, they may differ / vary in two ways: 1. The figurative meaning of a word or a sentence usually suggests
part of its literal meaning, whereas the connotative meaning of
a word or a sentence is not necessarily part of its denotative
meaning, though there exist some connections between them.
For example, when you hear the sentence “A thick blanket of
fog lay over the city yesterday morning”, the word “blanket”
immediately gave you a picture of what the fog was like; but when you hear someone say “To me chocolate connotes(意味
着)pleasure (乐趣)and indulgence (享受，嗜好)”, it will take you
some time to figure out(理解) why the person compares
“chocolate” with “pleasure and indulgence”.
2. The pair of “literal” and “figurative” intends to emphasize
people’s deliberate (谨慎的) use of the language whereas the
“denotative and connotative” pair mainly refers to objective
descriptions of the language meanings. As has been discussed
in IX, C (Accuracy in word choice on p 41 of the lecture notes), the denotative meaning is also called “explicit meaning” and
connotations can be called “implicit meaning”. A certain
“implicit meaning” arises in a certain context when a word, a
phrase or a sentence is used by the writer or speaker, and this is the figurative use of the word, phrase or sentence. For example:
It was a blow between the eyes. (那是一个沉重的打击。)
If the sentence is used to describe a boxing match(拳击赛), the
word“ blow” is used literally and is in its denotative sense: a hard hit with a hand. In another context, however, the word may be used in a figurative way to express connotative meanings: (to give) a sudden shock (to), (to produce) a very damaging effect
(on).
For example:
The experiment ended in failure again. It was a blow
between the eyes.
Losing his job was a severe blow to his confidence.
X. Generalization and Specification (概括性与具体化)
(see p 108 of the text-book)
A. Generality and specificity (概括性描述与具体细节描述)
A) Generality and specificity serve different purposes in writing.
General statement(概括性描述)is used when one writes a
short paper on a general subject(概括性题材的短篇论文), a
brief account of a long history(简单叙述漫长历史), an abstract
of an academic thesis(学术论文的摘要), or a quick report of a
great event which has just happened(快速报道刚发生的事件),
whereas specific details(具体细节)are given when one wishes
to demonstrate how a process goes on(说明过程的进展情况)
or what an object looks like(说明物体的外貌).
The following example indicates how important it is for one
to learn when to be general(什么时候要概括性描述)and
when to be specific(什么时候要具体细节描述).
Two correspondents on probation once reported to the
headquarters on a recent battle. One sent back a brief but timely
account of what had happened, when and where it happened
and how it ended (or perhaps how it was going on, if
necessary), while the other one was still busy writing about the
event with a lot of unnecessary details. No doubt the first
correspondent did well because he was in time to inform the
headquarters of the situation on the battlefield.
B) Generality (概括性描述) and specificity (具体细节描述) are
often found in combination(联合运用) in a piece of writing, and it
is important for a writer to use general and specific language
appropriately at different places. Take the preface of Longman
Language Activator 《朗曼语言激活词典》by Professor
Randolph Quirk (伦道夫.夸克) for example: (see the preface on
p. 109)
Preface
The conventional (=traditional) dictionary has become better and better during the many generations since Longman published Samuel Johnson?s
great work in 1755. But better and better at basically the same job: explaining what someone else has said or written; that is, converting words into meanings(把词汇转变成各种意思) for the passive partner in
communication(对交际中的消极合伙人来说).
For the active partner(对积极合伙人来说), striving to convert
meanings into words(竭力把各种意思转变成词汇), such a dictionary is less helpful, and the Langman lexicographers(朗曼词典编纂人) have
now produced a radically different type of dictionary(产出一种完全不同
的词典)with precisely this active partner?s needs in mind(正好考虑了这
种积极合伙人的需要).
Moreover(此外), by attracting users to (把…吸引到) major „key
word? entries(主要的关键词) such as SUMMARIZE, The Langman Language Activator performs a double function(起了双重作用). It
presents linguistic ---- not just lexical ---- information描述了语言上而不
只是词汇上的信息 in a rich, convenient and production-oriented
way(以丰富、便利和以产出为导向的方法). This transcends word boundaries (这超越了词汇界限) (in short简单地说 is there) and grammatical categories(语法范畴) (a rundown缩小 is there, but also to
sketch out概括). Secondly, the Activator《激活词典》 gently obliges users(善意地为使用者效劳) by this format (用这一版本) to train themselves in preparatory thought and planning (训练他们预备性思维和
筹划). They are encouraged to single out (=selected挑选) a word representing(代表) the beginnings of what they wand to state and are then
helped to home in on (向…前进) „ideas boxes(思想箱)? in which semantically relevant and suggestive expressions(富有启发性的词语)
are presented(呈现出来). An initial skeleton(初步骨架) can thus be
fleshed out (=added增补) and be given not merely a satisfying
fullness(不只是令人满意的完美) but the desirable linguistic
precision(称心如意的精确).
Professor Sir Randolph Quirk
This preface has 216 words only. Short as it is, it gives a brilliant (非
凡的) introduction to a dictionary of 5 million words in three brief but informative(信息量很大的) paragraphs: The first paragraph consists of two sentences which summarize both the achievement and limitation(局
限性) of all the previous traditional dictionaries; the second paragraph contains one sentence which highlights(=emphasizes强调) the unique
feature (独有的特点) of Longman Language Activator. Both of them
are very general statements (高度概括的描述). The third paragraph is
comparatively longer, which tells the reader specifically how the present dictionary “performs a double function”(起着双重作用). You can
imagine that if a piece of writing is formed only by general statements or specific details(只有概括性描述或只有具体细节的描述), it will be
either empty(空洞的) or a jumble of facts(一堆杂乱的证据).
B. General terms and specific terms (概括性词语和具体细节词语)
(see p 111 of the text-book)
A) Words and phrases can be classified according to the nature of their
referents(所指) as general terms and specific terms: As a rule (通常，
一般说来), general terms refer to ideas, qualities, mental or physical
activities(思想、品质、脑力活动或体力活动), or various
relationships between different people, or objects, whereas specific
ones refer to definite(具体的) persons, places, objects, facts or individual acts. The following pairs of sentences demonstrate the difference between these two classes of terms: 1a. Eiseley wrote about prominent people in science(写有关科学界
杰出人物的文章).
1b. Eiseley wrote about Darwin, Einstein and Franklin. 2a. They were specially concerned with astronomy(他们特别关心天
文学).
2b. They were specially concerned with the solar system. B)The distinction between general terms (概括性词语) and specific
terms (具体细节词语) is relative rather than absolute. For example, “vehicle” is general compared with “automobile汽车” or with
“motorcycle摩托车”, but specific when compared to “transport” or
“transportation”; similarly, although “automobile” is specific in
comparison with “vehicle车辆”, it is general in comparison with “sports-car赛车”.
All this indicates that by “general”, we refer to a larger class (一
大类) or group of objects, whereas by “specific”, we refer to a
number of the class(一大类中的几个)or group. Abstract terms may
not be classified that way, but the main principle is applicable.
Consider the words “emotion”, “fear害怕” and “terror恐惧”.
“Emotion” is the most general; and “fear” with regard to (对…来说)
with “emotion”, is more specific. At the same time, “fear” is general
reference to (对…来说) “terror”.
C. Approaches to writing in a specific way (具体描述的方法)
There are three approaches people often follow so as to write in a specific way: choosing exact words, listing interesting details, and using appropriate examples
A) Choosing words that bring about specific(具体的) instead of vague
ideas(模糊的概念), e.g.
1a She uses simplicity in her style of writing.
1b She writes with plain words and simple sentence patterns. 2a The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities
a great deal.
2b. The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two
cities by 30 per cent.
Obviously, words and phrases like “simplicity” and “a great deal” are
vague, and the substitutions(替代词) in sentences 1b and 2b are more
exact and specific. Comparatively speaking, verbs like “be”, “do”,
adjectives like “good”, “small”, adverbs like “fast”, “very”, or nouns like
“materials”, “instruments”, “situation”, etc. all tend to be vague and
abstract(倾向模糊和抽象概念); and if you want to be specific, use
concrete verbs, definite modifiers or phrases(限定修饰语或短语)
denoting degrees, speeds, percentages, or tell the very names of the objects you refer to(叫出你所指的物体的名字).
B) Listing specific details, e.g.:
1. Near the water there was a big tree that was rather impressive.
2. On the edge of the pond (池塘), at the far side (在远的那边), there
was an enormous walnut tree (核桃树), standing like an open
umbrella whose ribs (伞骨) extended halfway (延伸到池塘中点的
上方) across the still water of the pool (横跨静静的池塘水面).
As there are more details in the second sentence, the description of the tree is really impressive, for it not only tells the readers that there was a big tree, but also tells them the name of the tree, where it is located and what it looks like.
C) Using illustrative examples, e.g.:
In this century, the president is much more cut off (被隔绝) from
contact with the people than in earlier times (总统与人民的联系比以前
更加被隔绝了). Ordinary citizens, for example, could get to see (开始
见到) Abraham Lincoln directly in the White House and make their
requests to him in person (且亲自向总统提出要求). (Mary Lou Conlin
(玛丽.卢.康林)
XI. Economy and Clarity (简练和清晰) ( see p121 of the text-book)
1. Two basic requirements of “economy” in writing
A) According to Jacqueline Berke (杰克林.伯克), “The first quality of
good writing is economy.” She quotes William Strunk (威廉.斯特伦克)
and E.B. White to illustrate the point:
A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short or that he avoid all detail …
but that every word tell (=produce a noticeable effect起作用,).
( A New English Course, Level 6, p.161)
This passage indicates the first criterion of economy: there is no unnecessary word in the sentence ; similarly, no unnecessary sentence in the paragraph and no unnecessary paragraph in the whole piece of writing.
B) Francis L. Fennell, author of Collegiate English Handbook, says:
Good writing does not belabor (啰嗦,赘述) the obvious, does not
use six words where four words will do. And no phoniness (伪造) either
---- we like a writer who is blunt(=frank坦率的), who comes right to the
point (说话中肯) rather than talking like a witness at a Senate hearing (在
参议院的听证会上).
The second criterion of good writing as indicated in this passage is
that when you start writing, come straight to the point(说话中肯), and
never beat about the bush (绕圈子，拐弯抹角).
2. The relationship between economy and clarity
A) A writer?s style can be different and the length of a piece of writing can be varied, but the principle of economy is something every writer
should follow, for wordiness (啰嗦)does not only undermine economy
but also affect clarity(清晰度).
Sentence economy means wording statements(措词的说法) so that
their meaning can be grasped by the reader without unnecessary effort(毫
不费力地).No one likes to listen to a speaker who talks too much(说话
啰嗦) and says too little(少言寡语), and no reader likes to cut at a
path(堵塞思路) through a tangle of useless words (一堆没有用的单词)
or constructions(破坏句子结构) to get a relatively simple idea. Phrases, clauses, or other constructions that use many words to say what can be said more directly are called “circumlocutions”(累赘的话). Compare the
following two statements:
1) The fact of the matter is that the office does not have enough funds
in the allotment(配给量) to make expenditure on programs of this
nature (花在这类项目的开支拨款).
2) In fact the office does not have enough funds to spend on these
programs.
Obviously, the first one is wordy and obscure while the second is
more economical, more direct and clearer.
B) Practicing sentence economy doesn?t mean that should strip your
sentences down to the bare minimum (把句子削减到最小数量), as
(正如)you might in composing a telegram or writing a classified advertisement(写电报或写分类的广告). The shortest words and
simplest constructions are not always the most economical, for they may fail to convey your exact or complete meaning. Compare the following three sentences:
1) Now I was shocked not only by the disclosure (被揭露的事) but I
was equally shocked by the fact that my fellow seminar (研讨会)
participants were not shocked.
2) Now I was shocked(感到震惊) not only by the disclosure but equally
by the fact that my fellow seminar participants were not. 3) Now I was shocked not only by the disclosure but equally shocked at the fact that my fellow seminar participants were not shocked.
If we take the number of words into consideration, the second sentence is the most economical among the three, and it is true that the first sentence is rather wordy. However, the most economic may not be the best. In Sentence 3 the repetition of “shocked” stresses the author?s
point(观点) by bringing an effective contrast between the author?s
strong reaction and the indifferent(冷淡的), apathetic(漠不关心的)
attitude of others. No matter(不管) in speaking or writing, effect is the
most important thing to consider, The most effective expression or sentence structure is the best. The practice of economy should also
follow this principle.
3. Approaches to clarity (逹到清楚的方法)
(see p 128 of the text-book)
A) Barnet (巴尼特) and Stubbs (斯塔布斯) cite two passages to indicate the value of clarity:
1) We have seen new realities created by the advance of physics (我们已
看到物理学的发展所带来的新的创造物). But this chain of creation can be traced back far beyond the starting point of physic (这一连串的
创造物可以追溯到遥远的物理学的起点). One of the most primitive concepts is that of an object (最原始的概念之一就是物体的概念).
The concepts of a tree, a horse, any material body, are creations gained
on the basis of experience (树、马及任何物体的概念都是在经验的基
础上获得的), though the impressions from which they arise are primitive (虽然产生的印象都是原始的) in comparison with the world of physical phenomena (与大量的物理现象相比). A cat teasing a
mouse also creates, by thought, its own primitive reality (戏弄老鼠的
猫通过思维塑造自己的原始印象). The fact that the cat reacts in a similar way towards any mouse it meets (猫对任何一只遇到的老鼠都
做出类似的反应) shows that it forms concepts and theories which are its guides(向导) through its own world of sense impressions (这个事
实说明:猫通过自己大量的感官印象形成自己指导性的概念和理
论).
--- Albert Einstein(艾伯特。爱因斯坦) and Leopold Infeld 利奥波
德因菲尔德)
2) Skills constitute the manipulative techniques of human goal attainment(技能构成人类实现目标的) and control in relation to
(关系到) the physical world (和人类对物质世界控制的可操纵的
技术), as far as artifacts (人造制品) or machines especially
designed as tools do not supplement(增补) them(只要设计为工具
的人造制品和机器不能增补技能). Truly human kills (人的真正
技能) are guided by (在…指导下) organized and codified
(=arranged编排的) knowledge of both the things to be manipulated and the human capacities that are used to manipulate them(有组织
的、经过编排的可操纵的东西的知识和操纵这些东西的人的能力
指导着人的真正技能). Such knowledge is an aspect of cultural-level (文化层的) symbolic processes(这种知识是文化层
的符号过程的一个方面), and, like other aspects to be discussed presently(就像现在讨论的其它方面一样), requires the capacities of the human central nervous system (需要人的中枢神经系统的能
力), particularly the brain(特别是人的大脑的能力). This
organic(有机的 )system is clearly essential to all of the symbolic processes (很显然，这种有机系统对所有的符号过程是必不可少
的); as we well know, the human brain is far superior to the brain of
any other species(众所周知，人的大脑远远超过其他生物的头脑).
Talcott Parsons塔尔科特.帕森斯
(Barnet &Stubbs: 221)
When you go over the above two passages, you will find the first one
clearer and easier to follow (=accept接受), though both of them discuss the relationship between the brain and the physical world (物质世界) it
attempts to understand (大脑想了解的物质世界), and both explain that the brain organizes sense impressions(两段都说明大脑使感觉印象条理
化). The factors that cause the difference in clarity are mainly the
following two(引起清楚方面差异的因素主要有下面两点):
The first passage explains the profound (深奥的东西) in simple terms. Although a clear analysis doesn?t reduce a complex problem to a simple one(虽然明确的分析不能使复杂的问题简单化), it breaks it down into(分成) simple, comprehensive(综合的) parts(但是这种的分析可把
复杂问题分成简单的和综合性的) and discusses them, one by one, in a logic order with a plain language. For example, where Parsons writes of
“organized and codified knowledge of … the things to be manipulated,”
Einstein and Infeld write simply of the concept of an object (只是很简
单地写出物体的概念). And even “object”, a simple but general word(概
括性的词), is further clarified (=made clear清楚) by the specific,
familiar examples of “tree” and “horse”.
The organization of Einstein and Infeld?s paragraph is clear, too. The first sentence, clearly transitional(过渡性的), refers to the advance of
physics traced in the preceding ages (追溯到以前几个时代). The next
sentence introduced by “But” reverses the reader?s direction (把读者的方
向扭转过来): They are now going to look not at an advance, but at primitive beginnings (原始的开头). And the following sentences, to the end of the paragraph, fulfill that promise (履行这个诺言). In contrast (比
较起来), Parsons? paragraph is organized in a much more difficult route (用困难得多的路线) for the reader to follow.
B)The three key points in achieving clarity (做到清晰的三个要点)
(see p130 0f the text-book)
1) Careful word choice (细心地选词): Good writing is clear, not because it presents simple ideas (简单地陈述观点), but because it
presents ideas in the most appropriate form the subject requires(用文章
题目所需要的最合适的形式陈述观点). In a broad sense(在广义上)
most problems of diction are problems of clarity.(大多数措词的问题
都是清楚的问题) One?s lapses (小差错) in this aspect may result from not seeing one?s words as others will see(不像其他人那样去看待自己
的话) and thus they convey a meaning very different from what one
intends (因此，这些话表达了不同于人们想要的意思). For example:
* Many people now realize that the word wastefulness is dangerous.
When Thomas S. Kane (托马斯.S.凯恩) comments on this sentence in The Oxford Guide to Writing《牛津写作入门》(p. 359), he points out that what the writer meant (作者的意思) is obviously that wastefulness
itself is dangerous.
2)Appropriate presentation(适当地描述): As we have discussed
earlier, wordiness is one type of bad presentation and it often blurs
clarity(模糊了清晰度). Sentence pattern is another aspect that is
essential to sentence clarity, too. A good example can be found in
Barnet & Stubbs? Practical Guide to Writing《实用写作入门》. There
is a sentence on page 287 which reads:
It is difficult to write clearly.
On that page, there is a footnote:
Our first draft of this sentence read “Writing is clearly difficult.”
Can you see why we changed it ?
This change of presentation has enhanced clarity(提高清晰度)
because it can avoid ambiguity: “Writing clearly is difficult” may be
interpreted (理解) in two ways:
(1)It is difficult to write clearly.
(2)It is clear that writing is difficult.
However, as “clear” means “easy to understand, hear, read or see”,
the phrase “to write clearly” can still be ambiguous; so it will be more accurate to change the sentence into the following:
It is difficult to express one’s ideas clearly in writing.
3) Logic organization:(结构有逻辑性) Logic organization in fact
involves(涵盖，包含) the whole process of writing, which has
already been touched upon(=mentioned) in “the three artistic criteria
in English rhetoric”. The point we?d emphasize here is that a clear
analysis does not reduce a complex problem to a simple one (明确的
分析不能把复杂的问题变成简单的问题); it breaks it down into its
simple, comprehensive parts(它可以把复杂问题分成简单的和综
合的部分) and discuss them, one by one, in logical order. XII. Unity and Coherence (整体性和连贯性) (see p.151)
A. The central idea and two principles in information organization
(中心思想和信息组织的两个原则)
A) The central idea, also called the “main idea”. “major idea” or
“controlling idea”(中心思想), is the writer?s focus point (焦点，中心) (or
principal theme) of information. The central idea of a sentence, a
paragraph, or an essay may be compared to the foundation (地基) of a
building. It is the main idea upon which all other ideas and details are
based; it holds the entire piece of writing together(把全文结合在一起),
just as a foundation keeps the whole building standing(正如地基使整
个建筑物不倒).
The central idea of a simple sentence lies in the key words (关键词
上), e.g
The Tourist Promotion Board (=Committee) is getting into the business of linking foreigners with locals(正开始联络当地的外国人), in
some truly off-the-beaten-path parts (在一些去的人不多的地方，偏僻的
地方) of the country. (Time,Sept.28,1998)
The central idea of a paragraph lies in the topic sentence (在主题句
上), e.g.
An aspect of the political change which was revolutionizing Europe was the encouragement of foreign adventure and exploration(鼓励到外
国冒险、到外国考察), in the thirteenth century, the brothers Polo (i.e. Marco Polo, Italian navigator马可波罗) went as unprotected merchants
on their daring journey into the land of the great Khan (大汉族之国); in
the fifteenth century, Columbus (i.e. Christopher Columbus, Italian navigator, who discovered the Continent of America on October 12,1492哥伦布) sailed for what he hoped would be the same
destination(哥伦布航海希望到达同一个目的地). (Robert L.
Heilbroner: The new Science)
Similarly, at or near the beginning of an essay, there is usually an
introductory paragraph which brings out(提出) the central idea of the
whole piece of writing.
B) The two key principles for a writer to observe in organizing
information are to achieve unity and coherence. When we say that a
piece of writing has unity, we mean that each part of the composition
closely relates to the central idea. When we say it has coherence, we
mean that each of these parts connects smoothly and logically to the
one preceding it. If we draw a diagram, it would be something like the
picture on page 153 of the text-book.
The A, B, C, and D (Note: There can also be E,F, G, And even more) in circles refer to the different parts of a sentence, a paragraph or a piece of writing, and the circle in the middle refers to the central idea. When the different parts are properly connected and all of them are related to the central idea as indicated in the diagram, both unity and coherence are achieved. (See the diagram on p.153) B. Creating unity (建立整体性)
A) A unified piece of writing contains only those details that help develop the central idea. Here is an example of the beginning of a student?s
narrative writing entitled “An Early Start”《早点动身》:
I got up early and it was a fine day. Mom told me that there was always traffic jam. Our car was a little bit too old and we need to buy a new one….
This beginning is not unified. In the first sentence, the second clause (i.e. it was a fine day) has nothing to do with the central idea of “starting
early”, and the relationship between the central idea and the third sentence is not clearly stated(叙述不), especially, the last clause (i.e. we
need to buy a new one) is irrelevant; therefore, this paragraph should be rewritten. The following is a possible solution:
I got up early Monday morning. Mom told me that there was always heavy traffic on Mondays, and as our car was a bit old and couldn’’t run
fast, we’d better start earlier than usual.
B) To achieve unity, two points have to be observed:
1) Delete any unnecessary detail that does not help explain and /or support the central idea, e.g.
Parking space (停车场) on the campus, which is one of the most
beautiful in the state, has become completely inadequate, and recently the city council(市议会) voted to increase bus fares again….
The central idea of the passage refers to the shortage of parking space, and the city council?s decision of increasing bus fares is bound to make the situation even worse(一定会使形势更加恶化), because it will
compel more people to use private cars and make parking more difficult. The clause introduced by “which” is not related to the central idea, and so it should be deleted.
2) Rewrite the part of the composition if the structure is loose and does not convey the central idea clearly, e.g.
I worry about whether I will get a job, and I am convinced that
new opportunities will open up before the end of spring.
The two clauses in the above sentence have not formed a unified sentence to express the central idea of “worrying”, and so it should be
revised. One way is to change the coordination into subordination:
I worry about whether I will get a job, though I am convinced(相
信) that new opportunities will open up(开辟) before the end of spring.
You can use a few more words to intensify the “worry”:
I worry about whether I will get a job. Although I am convinced
that new opportunities will open up before the end of spring, I still
can’t help being anxious about my prospect (前途).
C. Maintaining coherence (保持连贯性)
A) Coherence is another important principle in organizing one?s writing.
A paragraph is coherent if the sentences are connected clearly and logically and are easy for the readers to follow(接受). An essay is
coherent if the writer has made sure (确定) to create logical connections
between paragraphs. The idea expressed in one sentence or paragraph should lead directly --- without break or block (不停顿地) --- to(通往)
the idea in the following sentence or paragraph. (see the example on p.156)
B) In order to maintain coherence, the following three points should be observed:
1) The coherence of a piece of writing is based on the writer?
understanding (理解) of the subject under discussion. For example, if you want to write about a social problem, you must make a good study of it. You should not only read plenty of materials, but also make on-the-spot investigations until you have a comprehensive command of the data (资
料). At the same time, you have to make an in-depth analysis of the data, so that you can tell what things have been going on(哪些事情一直在进
行) and what they will look like.(这些事情看起来像什么)
2) Make an outline of your writing (拟写作文提纲) in such a way that
ged in the central idea is clearly expressed and your main ideas are arranan appropriate order.
When you write or revise your draft, see to it (注意) that there are
logical connections between sentences and between paragraphs. This is a matter of writing skill that can be obtained through reading and practice. You must read (or listen to) more good articles and stories; try to retell them and learn some of them by heart. Practice of writing can help you to digest what you have read, and little by little, you will be able to create unity (建立整体性) and maintain coherence (保持连贯性) in your own
writing, including using cohesive devices(运用连贯性手段) --- using
transitional words and phrases and making necessary reference to words, ideas, and other details that you have mentioned earlier.(必要时要提一下
前面提到过的的单词、观点和其他细节) (see the examples on p 158)
XIII. Several Types of Erroneous Sentence Patterns (几种错误句型)
Five types of erroneous sentence patterns can often be found in speaking and writing:
A. The sentence fragments: (句子片段)
A grammatically complete sentence has a verb with its subject. Structurally it must be an independent unit(独立运用的语言单位),
capable of standing alone(能独立存在的). Now this means simply that
dependent units(不能独立运用的语言单位) such as phrases, clauses,
appositives and other such groups of words, are not sentences and should not be written as sentences. When any one of these dependent units is written and punctuated(加标点) as a sentence it is called a sentence fragment, e.g.
1. The basketball game was cancelled. Because half of the players were in
bed with the flu (short for influenza).
2. Looking out toward the horizon, she saw only the old cabin(小木屋) in
which Mary had been born. A single cottonwood(三角叶杨树) that had
escaped the drought(抵御干旱). The apparently boundless expanse of sunburned(晒焦的) prairie.
3. With the knowledge that, although the documents have been stolen, the have not yet been seen by a foreign agent.
In the above three sentences, the subordinate clause (”Because half
of the players were in bed with the flu” in Sentence 1)，the noun
phrases(“A single cottonwood that had escaped the drought”; “The
apparently boundless expanse of sunburned prairie” in Sentence 2) and
the prepositional phrase (“With the knowledge that, …” in Sentence 3)
are written as sentences respectively.
These erroneous sentences should be rewritten as the following: 1?. The basketball game was cancelled because half of the players were in
bed with the flu.
2?. Looking out toward the horizon, she saw only the old cabin in which
Marry was born, a single cottonwood that had escaped the drought
and the apparently boundless expanse of sunburned prairie. 3?. We knew that although the documents (文件) have been stolen they
have not yet been seen by a foreign agent.
B. The Run-on Sentence (连写句 / 融合句 / 误用逗号连接句)
A run-on sentence or a fused sentence puts together or fuse two or more sentences with no mark of punctuation between them(不用逗号隔
开). When two complete sentences run together or are fused with only a comma between them, it is called a comma splice or a run-on sentence or a fused sentence.
e.g.1. The snakes are dangerous, however, most snakes are quite
harmless.
2. We were early, hence we waited outside.
Sentences 1, 2 are run-on sentences. the first clause of each is a complete sentence and the second clause of each is also a complete one. The two clauses should be separated by a period or a semi-colon rather than by a comma, so these two erroneous sentences may be rewritten as the following:
1?. These snakes are dangerous. However, most snakes are quite
harmless.
2?. We were early; hence we waited outside.
Or: We were early. Hence we waited outside.
C. The dangling modifiers (垂悬修饰语)
A careless use of verbal phrases (participle, gerund, infinitive, etc.) (非谓语动词短语)results in a construction usually known as the dangling modifier. A phrase is said to dangle if it is not tied to something it modifies(与修饰的东西无关). It is a stylistic fault(修辞上的错误), not a
grammatical one. Most objectionable /disgusting (令人讨厌的)are ones
that suggest a ludicrous / absurd (滑稽可笑的)meaning never intended by
the writer(那些含有作者从没想到的滑稽荒唐意义的垂悬修饰语), e.g.
1. Last year, after graduating from high school, my father put me to work
in his office.
2. To appreciate the poem. It must be read aloud.
3. I helped my mother wash clothes last Sunday, thus causing me to miss
that film.
4. Driving across the state, many beautiful lakes were seen.
5. While running down the stairs, the clock struck twelve.
In Sentence 1, the logical subject of the gerund phrase should refer to “I” rather than to “my father”. Since the gerund phrase is not tied to the subject it modified, it is what we call the dangling gerund phrase; in Sentence 2, the logical subject of the infinitive phrase should refer to someone rather than to something. Since the infinitive phrase is not related to the subject it modified, it is what is called the dangling
infinitive phrase; in Sentences 3, 4, 5 the logical subject of the participle phrase should refer to someone rather than to something. Since the participle has nothing to do with the subject it modified, it is what we call the dangling participle phrase. The following is the suggested revision: 1?. Last year, after I had graduated from high school, my father put me to
work in his office.
2?. To appreciate the poem, one must read it out.
3?. I missed that film because I had to stay home to help my mother wash
clothes last Sunday.
4?. Driving across the state, one saw many beautiful lakes.
5?. While running down the stairs, I saw the clock strike twelve
D. The illogical or faulty parallelism (误用平行结构)
False parallelism, that is, using parallel structure for ideas that are not parallel, should be avoided. Correlatives (both…and, either… or,
neither…nor, etc.) should be used only before sentence elements that are parallel in form, e.g.
I. Unselfish people not only are happier but they are more successful.
2. I finally realized that my daydreaming was not making me beautiful,
slender, or friends.
3. He is a man of wide experience and who is also very popular with the
farmers.
4. I am interested in electronics, because it is a new field and which offers
interesting opportunities to one who knows science.
In Sentence 1, “not only…but also” should be used to introduce two
parallel sentence elements, i.e. “happier” and “more successful” rather
than “happier” and “they”; In Sentence 2, “or” should be used to
introduce two parallel participle phrases rather than “making…” and
“friends”; in Sentence 3, “and “ should be used to introduce two
parallel prepositional phrases, i.e. “of… and of …”; in Sentence 4,
“and “ should be used to introduce two parallel which-clauses rather than “because clause” and “which-clause”. The corrected sentences
are:
1?. Unselfish people are not only happier but also more successful. 2?. I finally realized that my daydreaming was not making me beautiful
and slender or bringing me friends.
3?. He is a man of wide experience and also of great popularity among the
farmers.
4?. I am interested in electronics, which is a new field and which offers
interesting opportunities to one who knows science.
E. The shift in point of view: (角度转换)
Any unnecessary and illogical shift in point of view should be avoided. Unnecessary shift from active to passive voice are undesirable. A needless/unnecessary shift in number and person should be avoided. Shifts in subject(主语) or perspectives(观点), in tenses, etc., should be
avoided, e.g.
1. We swept the room carefully, and the furniture and shelves were
dusted. (An unnecessary shift from active to passive voice)
2. If one?s mouth is dry, eat a lump of sugar or chew gum.
(A needless shift in subject)
3. You must make yourself interesting to the group that listens to you
and are constantly trying to detect your mistakes.
(An unnecessary shift in number)
The above three erroneous sentences may be rewritten as the following:
1?.We carefully swept the room and dusted the furniture and the
shelves.
2?. If one?s mouth is dry, one should eat a lump of sugar or chew gum
(口香糖).
3?. You must make yourself interesting to the group that listens to you
and is constantly trying to detect (找出) your mistakes.
XIV. Propriety and Creativity (得体与创新)
(see p 181 of the text-book)
1. Relationship between propriety and creativity (合适性与创造性之
间的关系)
\A) Propriety refers to the appropriate (适当的) arrangement choice of words, sentence patterns and the appropriate arrangement of
paragraphs and the whole piece of writing according to the needs of effective communication.
Creativity comes out of creative thinking, which includes producing original ideas (提出创见) and fresh ways of expressing
them(表达这些创见的新方法). Creative writing(创造性的) means
writing something new(写新的东西), observing a phenomenon from
a new aspect(从新的角度观察一个现象), describing an object in a
more explicit manner(更明确地描写一个物体), or expounding a
viewpoint in a more impressive and persuasive way(给人印象很深
的、有说服力的说明一个观点).
B) Propriety and creativity depend on each other. The former is the
prerequisite condition(前者是后者的必备条件) for the latter, which
in turn serves as the heart of the former(反过来后者是前者的关键).
But there are two extremes that should be avoided:
1) Some students are so eager “to write in a creative way” that they
use new and difficult words and phrases they find in dictionaries though they do not know exactly what the expressions(词组) mean, and some
of them even coin(杜撰) new words. These students like to try out “new
techniques of writing” or simply write at will without taking any notice of the principles or methodologies concerning writing in their texts. As a result(因此), their writings usually lack unity and coherence and do not make for(有助于…) smooth reading (读起来不流利) because of their
incongruous style and outlandish (稀奇古怪的) terms.
2)On the other hand, some teachers lay too much emphasis on (过分
强调) the form and formulas(公式) of writing and they often
inhibit(=prevent压抑) and even kill(扼杀)the students? initiative (积极
性) in creative writing. One example is that they pay too much attention to (过分注意) the slips (=little/slight mistakes) in spelling and grammar and other aspects in writing whereas they neglect the sparks of original thinking and fresh forms of expressions.
In order to achieve the best combination (结合) of propriety and
creativity in writing practice, it is advisable /reasonable (明智的) to have
appropriate handling of the three component parts of an essay. 2. Three component parts of an essay
A) The beginning, the body and the ending are the three organic parts
of an essay. As the saying goes, “Well begun / A good beginning is half
done/ ; The first blow / A good beginning is half the battle.”, the first
paragraph of an essay should be good enough to grab the reader?s
attention. Most writers, however, find that beginning a piece of writing is a most difficult task. In his How to live to be 100 --- Or More, George
Burns says:
Well, I’m going to write another book. This is my fourth one, and I’ve
learned that the most important thing about writing a book is to have a great first chapter to grab your readers. If you’ve got that, from then on
everything flows (流畅). I’ve also learned that writing a first chapter is not easy.
( see pp183-187)
3. Three devices used to make one’s viewpoints impressive and
convincing ( see p 187 of the text-book)
When you have original ideas (创见), you need to express them in
such a way that will be most easily and quickly accepted by your target readers. Among other things, the following three devices are the commonest that people often resort to (采用) in order to make their
viewpoints impressive and convincing.
A) Support a statement (支撑陈述) with appropriate evidence, e.g.
The United States faces a major crisis in health care (养身), and
has a worsening(日益恶化的) social crisis in which over 30 million Americans live below the poverty line, and in which large segments(大部
分) of its population continue to be deprived of adequate opportunities for economic advancement.
( Phil Williams, et al: “Health Care and Social Crisis”, International
Affairs, Jan., 1993) (see the analysis on p.188)
B )Make an abstract notion somewhat substantial(实实在在的) by
using certain verifiable(可核实的) or measurable terms, e.g.
The principle of verification (核实) is supposed to furnish a
criterion by which it can be determined whether or not a sentence is
literally meaningful. (Alfred Jules Ayer)
The words “verification(核实)” and ”criterion” give people the
impression that what has been discussed can be measured (可衡量的)
and manipulated (可操纵的).
C) To be close to the readers and try to influence them with slanted
words (see p 190 of the text-book)
To be close to the readers refers to a writer?s attitude or tone
towards his target readers. A good writer always bears his target readers in mind and communicates with them on an equal and friendly footing (以平等和有好的关系) with his pen (用笔). One example in
this aspect is the use of parenthesis that helps to moderate (缓和) one?s
tone, which can be seen in the italicized phrases in the following passages:
What, then, can we learn from Samuel Johnson in general(大体上)?
First, I think, the inestimable(不能估计的) value of individuality. (F. L.
Lucas)
Whether this slowing-down of traffic(交通上降低车速) will cause
a great or a small loss of national income is, I am told, a point on which
expert economists have not agreed. (Max Beerbohn)
Sometimes the writer also uses the first person plural instead of singular so as to give people the impression that the writer and the
reader share the views under discussion, e.g. :
(see the example on p.191)
For the first time in memory, our decision came down to the final week. When we began deliberating (=think about carefully仔细考虑) in
early November, the midterm elections made it appear that Monica
Lewinsky scandal might recede into being (慢慢消失了) but a tale of sound(散布谎言) and fury(怒火冲冲) signifying little.(不大重要) The
global economic turmoil(混乱) and rolling (不稳定的)stock markets
could turn out, it seemed, to be of more lasting importance (似乎带来永
久的影响), …
(Walter Isaacson: “How We Made the Choice”, Time,
December 28, 1998---January 4,1999)
--- The End ---
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