英语写作方法示范讲解

英语写作 方法 快递客服问题件处理详细方法山木方法pdf计算方法pdf华与华方法下载八字理论方法下载 示范讲解 写作Writing I. Structure of CET-4 composition , 开篇的写法 写好文章或段落的开头很重要。一般 来讲， 文章开头既要写出文章的主题， 又要能够引起读者阅读的兴趣。不同的文 章开头的方式不同， 常见的有以下八种: 引语法(Quotation)、设问法(Questions)、数 据法(Figures and statistics)、背景法 (Relevant background information)、定义法 (Definition)、主题句法(Topic sentence)、 比拟法(Analogy)、列举法(Listing the main items)。 一、引语法(Quotation):指通过在开头 段引用一些与主题相关的名人名言、成语 或谚语等来开始一篇文章。引语法可应用 于各种文体。 E.g.: As the proverb says, “No one knows the value of health until he loses it.” In other words, nothing is more valuable than health. 1 It is clear that health is the foundation of one?s future success. … Now that we know that health is the resource of our energy, what should we do to maintain and enhance our health? … In conclusion, health is more important than wealth. (Health) It is known to all that life is short. School life is still shorter. We can obtain many a thing more than once, but we cannot get back the lost time even once. An old saying goes, “Art is long, but life is short.” We have only limited time to learn unlimited knowledge. (Make the Most of Our School Days) A proverb says, “Time is money.” But in my opinion, time is even more precious than money. Because when money is spent, we can earn it back; but when time is gone, it will never return. Thus we must value time. 2 (The Value of time) 二、设问法(Questions): 只用提出问题 的方法来引出文章的主题，以激起读者的 兴趣。设问法可用于各种文体。 What Is Success What is success? Different people might give different answers to this question. Some people think that one is successful if he can make a great deal of money. Other people think that success means holding an important government post. Still others consider one who has got a high academic title as success. However, I do not think that money, power, or status is the symbol of success. In my opinion, success means achieving brilliant results in one?s speciality, making contributions to the development of the country and bringing happiness to the people. To become successful men in the true sense, we should be both perseverant and industrious. We should keep in mind that perseverance is 3 the mother of success and industry is the key to success. If we follow these principles, we can certainly achieve success in the future. 三、数据法(Figures and statistics) 数据法就是用数字或数据开头来引出文章 的主题。数据法多用于描写文、说明文和议 论文。 Honesty: Is It Going out of Style? According to a recent poll, 61% of American high school students have admitted to cheating on exams at least once. It cannot be argued that such a response may not mean much. Children today seem to be glued to the silver tube called television. By kindergarten age (five years old), the average child who started watching television at age three will have consumed 5,000 to 8,000 hours of television a year, and watched more than 30,000 commercials per year. 4 四、背景法(Relevant background Information) For so long as there have been liars, there have been attempts to find the truth. Those on trial in ancient China were made to chew rice powder while testifying. If the powder was dry when the suspect spat it out, he was judged guilty because it was assumed that nervousness over telling lies had dried that saliva in the suspect?s mouth. 五、定义法(Definition) Self-confidence Self-confidence means trust in one?s own ability. As a very important psychological quality, it brings your creative power to play, arouses your enthusiasm for work and helps you overcome difficulties. When asked for the secret of her success, Mme. Curie answered: “My success lies in perseverance and self-confidence, the latter in particular.” Self-confidence gives you light when you 5 are in dark and encouragement when you are dismayed. It is self-confidence, rather than genius and extraordinary ability, that inspires you to cope with any arduous task. With self-confidence, the goal you intend can be reached, and so can the hard nut be cracked. Some people find most of things impossible, saying: “It is beyond my ability to do the task.” or “I am not cut out for it.” In many cases, there are only lame excuses. When our heart is void of self-confidence, every hope is gone, and everything we are laying our hands on is spoilt. On Patriotism Patriotism means the love of one?s country. It makes one ready to sacrifice one?s life for one?s country and to do many other deeds which can bring benefits to the people. The effect is very great when it is exercised by all the people of a country. It makes a country strong, and her history glorious. It also 6 improves a man?s character and secures for him a widespread fame. To love our country, to work so as to make her strong and rich, to support her government, to obey her laws, to pay fair taxes into her treasure, to treat our fellow-citizens as we wish to be treated ourselves—this is to be a real Chinese patriot. If the people of a country are not patriotic, the country must be very weak. History tells us how some countries of ancient times were, owing to a lack of patriotism, conquered by other peoples and how the peoples of the conquered countries were made slaves under the yoke of their victorious masters. 六、主题句法(Topic sentence) On Happiness Happiness is easy to find and easy to miss. It depends on the way you look at life. It is true for most people that, for most of life, nothing wonderful happens. If you do not 7 enjoy getting up and studying, and finishing your work and sitting down to a meal with family or friends, then the chances are you are not going to be very happy. If someone bases his happiness or unhappiness on major events like a great new job, huge amount of money, a flawless lover or spouse or an American passport, that person is not going to be happy much of the time. If, on the other hand, happiness depends on a good breakfast, flowers in the garden, a drink or a nap, then we are more likely to live with quite a bit of happiness. 七、比拟法(Analogy) A traditional story describes a foolish man lifting a rock too heavy for him and having his own feet squashed. Hitler was like that foolish man, but he was different in that, before he destroyed himself, he destroyed millions of other people. 8 Have you ever crossed a steam by stepping on the stones? It surely is a wonderful experience to walk across a steam of turbulent current without getting wet. In doing so, however, it is important to choose the stepping stones. If there are enough stones and the distance between each two stones is not longer than a man?s stride, you can be sure of your steps. If the gaps are too wide, or if some of the stones do not have a solid foundation, you should look before you leap, or you would fall into the water. Putting your ideas across to other people is just like stepping across the stream. The words, idioms and grammar points are the stepping stones. If you have a solid foundation of everything, it would not be difficult to put your ideas across, and you would appreciate your own ideas being understood and accepted by your audience. On the other hand, the deficiencies in your language learning are the big gaps between the stones. Your have to be 9 very careful if you don?t want to fall into the water of ineffectiveness or of being misunderstood by your audience. 八、列出文中要讨论的主要内容法(Listing the main items) 简单列出扩展段要论述的主要内容，使读者 对整篇文章有个概括的了解。例如: Learner Differences Although language learners share some common language learning principles, individual variations can never be ignored. In fact, it is these individual variations that may be able to explain the phenomenon that some language learners are very successful in their learning, while others can never manage to grasp what they should grasp. The influential factors in terms of learner differences can be manifold. Among them, I would like to discuss, in this paper, the factors associated with personality, cognitive style, age, and learner strategies. These factors, I think, have significant implications for second and foreign 10 language learning. , 扩展段的写法 扩展段是一篇文章的主体段。文章的主题在扩展段展开，常用的展开段落的方法有下面九种: 列举法(Listing) 举例说明法(Examples) 因果关系法(Cause and effect) 定义法(Definition) 分类法(Classification) 比较对照法(Comparison and contrast) 时间顺序记叙法(Time order) 空间顺序描述法(Space order) 过程描述法(Process description) 一、列举法(Listing) 列举法是指在主题句之后列举一些足以支持主题句观点的具体细节。这种具体细节一般是事实描述、数据、例子等。一般来讲， 所列举的具体细节按照重要性递增的顺序排列。列举法常常和举例法结合起来使用。 11 列举法常用的过渡词有以下几组。一般要相 对呼应，不混用。 1. First, second, third, … last 2. firstly, secondly, thirdly, … finally 3. the first …, the second …, the third …, …the last 4. to begin with/ to start with/ in the first place, then, next, in addition (to),besides, also, moreover, furthermore, what is more, finally 运用列举法展开段落的写作模式如下: Topic sentence Detail 1 Detail 2 Detail 3, … Concluding sentence Watch TV Football Watching a football game on television may seem like the easiest thing in the world. However, like the game of football itself, watching a game correctly is far more complicated than it appears. First is the 12 matter of the company. The ideal number of people depends on the size of your living room. Also, at least one of your companions should be rooting for the opposite team. There?s nothing like a little rivalry to increase the enjoyment of a football game. Next, you must attend to the refreshments. Make sure to have on hand plenty of everyone?s favorite drinks, along with the essential chips, dips, and pretzels. You may even want something more substantial on hand, like sandwiches or pizza. If you do, make everyone wait until the moment of kickoff before eating. Waiting will make everything taste much better. Finally, there is one last piece of equipment you should have on hand: a football. The purpose of this object is not to send lamps hurting from tables or to smash the television screen, but to toss around outside during half-time. If your team happens to be getting trounced, you may decide not to wait until half-time. 13 二、 举例说明法 (Examples) 举例说明法是指用具体的事例来阐述主题 句中的中心思想，举例说明法常与列举法结 合使用。使用这种写作方法要注意所选事例 应与文章主题密切相关，具有典型性和代 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 性。举例法常用的句型句式和词语有: This can be illustrated by … An example of this is/involves … …can be illustrated/shown by the following examples/instances. There are many examples to show that … One example is … . Another example is … The … shows/illustrates … For example, for instance, say, suppose, such as, such … as, to provide a specific example, as an illustration 运用举例法展开段落常用的模式如下: Topic sentence Example 1 Example 2, … Concluding sentence 14 The Balance of Nature It is only during the last few years that man has become generally aware that in the world of nature a most delicate balance exists between all forms of life. No living things can exist by itself: it is part of a system in which all forms of life are joined together. If we change one part of the natural order, this will in its turn almost certainly bring about changes in some other part. The cutting down of forests reduces the supply of oxygen. The killing of weeds and insects by chemicals leads to the widespread poisoning of animals and birds. The throwing of waste products into the ocean damages life in the sea, while exhaust fumes change the chemical balance of the atmosphere and shut out some of the sun?s essential life-giving rays. And so we could go on, adding more examples, until in despair we might feel like giving up the struggle to control and keep within limits these harmful human activities. 15 Man is very clever at changing the world around him to satisfy his immediate needs, but he is not so clever at looking far ahead, or at thinking about what the future results of his actions might be. Man may well, in his attempt to be too ambitious, destroy himself. 三、 分类法 (Classification) 当要说明的事物比较复杂或包括的内容比 较多时， 常常将其分成更小的类别， 这便 是分类法。使用这种写作方法要注意分类的 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 一定要明确，而且标准只有一个。分类 法常用的句型句式有: 1. … may be classified into several types according to … divided the following kinds on the basis of … categorized two categories depending upon … put three main groups 16 2. … consists of … comprises … 3. The classification is based upon … 4. … may be divided … sub-divided … further sub-divided 分类法的写作模式如下: 主题句+所分类别+各个类别的具体事例+结 束句 Ways of communication We can communicate in three basic ways. Each way has its advantages. One way is speaking. When we speak, we have a chance to judge our audience?s reactions. If they don?t understand, we can repeat as necessary to make our points. We can also invite additional questions and clarify additional aspects for our listeners. Another way of communicating is by writing. We can think of our subject thoroughly. We can modify our development and polish our phraseology until we get it the way we want 17 it. The third way of communicating is nonverbal. Communication can be quite effective in a very noisy atmosphere, or when we don?t want to dignify a response with actual words 四、 比较对照法(Comparison and contrast) 比较法是将人们熟悉的事物与其他事物 放在一起分析其相似之处， 比较的目的在 于表现不同事物的相似之处;对照法则是将 人们熟悉的事物与其他事物放在一起分析 其不同之处，其目的在于表现同类事物的不 同方面。两者强调的重点不同，但结构相似。 常用的结构有两种:第一种称之为块式结 构， 假如比较的事物为A和B，文章首先 把有关事物A的全部要讨论的内容讨论完， 再转入B事物。第二种结构称之为点式结 构， 即首先就事物A和事物B的要比较的 内容的第一方面进行比较或对照，然后在比 较或对照A和B的第二个方面， 比较: 18 Both A and B are … A and B seem to have much in common. A and B seem to have some features in common. A is similar to B in … There are a lot of similarities between A and B. A has something in common with B. A and B share similar … A shares some common features with B. A is like B in … A is the same as B in … Both, too, compare with, similarly, likewise, also, in comparison, just like, just as, also, both … and, similar to 对照: A is different from B in … A differs from B in … There are many differences between A and B. A has nothing (little) in common with B. The difference between A and B lies in … 19 Compared with A, B … Unlike, on the contrary, in contrast, on the other hand, while, whereas, however, although Professor Wright and Professor Hunter Professor Wright, who teaches English poetry, is about forty. He has an easy-going personality. He is lively and friendly. He mixes more with the students. However, he doesn?t work hard. Professor Hunter, on the other hand, is also about forty. He teaches management. He has a dignified personality and is always serious-looking. I never see him smile. There is always a sore look on his face when a student is late or when a student makes a mistake. But he works like a beaver. (块式 结构) 块式结构模式: Topic sentence Subject A Feature 1 20 Feature 2, … Subject B Feature 1 Feature 2, … Concluding sentence Professor Wright and Professor Hunter Professor Wright, who teaches English poetry, is about the same age as Professor Hunter, the teacher of management. Professor Wright?s personality is quite different from Hunter?s. Professor Hunter is much more serious-looking than Professor Wright. I never see him smile. There is always a sore look on his face when a student is late or when a student makes a mistake. Professor Wright is more lively and friendly. He mixes more with the students than Professor Hunter. But he doesn?t work as hard as Professor Hunter. Professor Hunter works like a beaver. (点 式结构) 点式结构模式: 21 Topic sentence Feature 1 Subject A Subject B Feature 2 Subject A Subject B Feature 3, … Subject A Subject B Concluding sentence 五、 因果关系法 因果关系法是通过分析事物的因果关系来展开段落。如果是一果多因的情况，一般先写结果后分析多种原因;如果是一因多果， 一般实现写原因后写结果。运用因果分析法展开段落最好把主题句放在开头，这种段落展开方法的结构常见的有两种:即分块法和连环法。 分块法指的是先说原因后说结果(一个原因引起一个或多个结果);或者先说结果 22 后说原因(多个原因引起一个结果)。连环 法指的是先叙述的一个原因及结果，再叙述 第二个原因及结果，以此类推。 形象一点表示，运用因果关系法展开段 落常见的模式有3种: 模式1 Topic sentence Effect 1 Effect 2, … Concluding sentence 模式2 Topic sentence Cause 1 Cause 2, … Concluding sentence 模式3 A Cause B Effect C (Cause) Effect D (Cause) Effect E (Cause) Effect 23 因果关系常用的句型句式和词语有: 原因: The explanation is that … There are several reasons why/ for … The cause of … is … The reasons for … are … … is the result of … … is caused by/ due to/ because of … because, since, now that, because of , as a result of , on account of , for this reason, owing to, due to, for, as, thanks to, result from 结果: The result/ effect/ consequence of … is … … will result in … Therefore, … As a result (of), … Lead to, result in, contribute to, so that, thus, hence, consequently, so, accordingly, in view of … 24 Advertisements on Television Today, more and more advertisements are seen on television. Whenever we turn on TV, we will see advertisements. Every fifteen minutes we will be interrupted by commercials. Advertisements are one of the most frustrating parts of watching television. In the first place, the advertisements waste time. For instance, in order to see a 90-minute movie, we have to spend another 20 to 30 more minutes watching advertisements. In the second place, the advertisements interrupt the viewers. For example, the viewers may forget the plot of a show during the advertisements. Even worse, the frequent appearances of ads may make watchers lose their appetites for a good movie. That is the bad psychological influence of ads. In the third place, they make people under constant economic pressure. The ads make many products look 25 more attractive than they really are. They always ask those that their young parents cannot possibly afford. But life should not be controlled by advertisements. Since ads could not disappear from TV screen, the television viewers must be aware and critical of the advertisements in order to endure them. (第一种模式) Smoking results in a series of negative effects. To begin with, it has been proved that poisonous nicotine contained in cigarettes can reduce your fitness. And what is worse, it can even cause lung cancer if you smoke constantly. That is why such warning as “smoking is harmful to your health” must be printed on the cover of the cigarette case in western countries. Further more, passive smoking occurs in your family members and other people as a result of your smoking at home or in public 26 places. Consequently, their health will be unfavorably influenced. In addition, smoking adds to your financial difficulty if you happen to be short of money. Even if you are rich, you are encouraged to spend your money on valuable books, nutritious food, high quality TV sets, etc., not on meaningless smoking. Therefore, giving up smoking is a good way to make you and your family happy. (第二种模式) Supermarkets, a Way to Improve Service With the development of commercial network, a number of supermarkets have been springing up in big cities in our country. It is a hopeful signal of commercial modernization. Supermarkets on an average have increased their sales much more than those offering traditional behind-the-counter services. The reasons for the increase are 27 diverse. First, self-service requires fewer salespeople than the traditional counter service. The reduced number of employees means an increase in profits. Second, in supermarkets, customers often buy things they haven?t planned to buy, as they have had the chance to look at things closely. Moreover, goods in supermarkets are all conveniently and attractively packed, adding to the temptation. The customers really enjoy their shopping in the supermarkets. However, supermarkets in some cities are still fairly small. More and larger ones are needed. I think that supporting the development of such markets is an important step to commercial reform, and people will feel much more convenient to buy things than ever before. (第三种模式) 28 , 结尾 ? 结论 1. From what has been discussed above, we may reasonably draw/reach/come to/arrive at /the conclusion that… 2. Therefore, we can come to a conclusion that… 3. Thus, it can be concluded that… 4. In summary/conclusion/a word, it is important… 5. To sum up, In short, In a word, All in all…. 6. As has been mentioned above, a conclusion can be drawn that … 7. In my opinion, 8. As far as I am concerned, 9. From this point of view, 10. This conclusion is also suggested by the fact that … ? 号召性和意义 1. It is time that we urged/put an immediate end to… 29 2. It is necessary that some effective steps should be taken … 3. It is hoped that efforts will be made… 4. We may have a long way to go before… 5. Only by doing this can we… ? 展望,后果 1. Any person who ignores/fails to learn the warning would…. 2. I think/ believe/ that… 3. We rest assured that … 4. This is the prospect that man now faces. “…” is avalanching upon our heads and most people are absurdly unprepared to cope with … 5. The future will be a better place if we do. 6. I only hope that some day there can be a solution to this problem. 7. No doubt, … will continue to be a feature / problem of … for some time to come. Its causes are rooted in the opportunities of our society, and in the rapid pace at which 30 society changes. ? 反问 1. Why don?t we double our efforts to learn it? 2. Is it any wonder that June is my favorite month? II. Sentence writing , Common mistakes in students? composition: 文章无论长短，都是由句子组成的，句子是表达思想的最基本的单位。因此，句子是否能写得正确、达意和清楚，将直接影响整篇文章的写作质量。大学英语四、六级考试和研究生入学英语考试的实践都表明，考生写作成绩长期得不到明显提高的主要原因是欠缺写好单句的能力。 为改变这种状况，我们将从剖析考生作文中的典型病句入手，对写作测试中的基本句子结构和写法进行评议和分析，来帮助考生进一步提高句子写作能力。 31 from the grammatical perspective: 1. sentence fragment: a sentence fragment is only part of a sentence. It is a “wannabe” sentence that lacks either subject, verb, or sense. Examples: , Then pour about 3/4 water into a pot. Put some thing into the pot when it?s boiling. , One is that it is stuffed with fascinating things and interesting jokes. Because everyone can enjoy oneself without any restrict. , All of us need recreation. Because we have to relax our nerves. , Love our dormitory. Enjoy our dormitory life. [ways of correcting fragments: by joining the fragment to the sentence before or by rewriting the fragment as a separate sentence.] 2. run-on sentence: 32 Run-on sentence is actually two sentences written as one. Fused sentence consists of two sentences joined without any punctuation between them. Comma splice: two full sentences separated by a comma instead of a full stop. , In the dormitory, you can?t do anything you want, you are not one. , Lin is one of our members, he likes reading history story and English magazines, also he is one of the best friends of mine. , For example, I was very tired at night, I wanted to fall asleep quickly. [ways of correcting: put a period at the end of each sentence; use a coordinating conjunction to join two sentences.] 3. lack of subject-verb agreement: subjects and verbs must agree in number: A singular subject always takes a singular verb; a plural subject always takes a plural verb. 33 , When one of us have troubles, the others often help him and make him feel better. , Then he will feel that dormitory life bring us so much benefit. 4. faulty parallelism: words in a pair or series should have a parallel structure. When you rewrite, you should try to put matching words and ideas into matching structures. , Most of its members are friendly, warmly and usually help each other. , We thought she was charming, intelligent, and a very capable young woman. , A man is judged not only by what he says but also by his deeds. 5. shifting point of view: writing is easier to read if it uses the same point of view throughout. You may choose a first person, second person, or third person point of view. , But we should try our best to understand my roommates or talked with them about 34 the problem. , After one and a half year, I think dormitory life is important to us, because we live with them and see them everyday and all the time. 6. misuse of part of speech: , More courses is so terrible and fewer courses is so benefit. , More courses can open our eyes. enough our knowledge. from the perspective of sentence structure: 1. :There be:结构 考生病句: 1. There are many people like to go to the movies. 2. There are different kinds of vegetables can be bought on the market by people. 正确表达: 1. There are many people who like to go to the movies. 35 2. There are different kinds of vegetables that people can buy on the market. 这两个例句的错误比较有普遍性，因为 在历次考试中有不少考生不能正确运用 there be这一最常用的句式。在这种结构中， there是引导词，没有实际意义。be在句中 作谓语，有时态和数的变化。 例如: 1. There was no school in the village at that time. (=there was not a school...) 注意:在否定句中，否定词用no，也可 用not a或not any。not a后接单数名词，not a 后接复数名词，no后面的名词单复数都可 以。 2. There is not a moment to be lost. 3. There are many people rushing into the cities every year. 4. There are many things we can do to prevent traffic accidents. 5. There is no use holding back the wheel of history. 36 从以上例句还可看出，句中的主语后面 可接多种修饰语，如介词短语、不定式短语、 定语从句、分词短语等等。这无疑使该结构 增加了表现力，使句子表达内容更加丰富。 在运用这一结构时，考生最容易犯的错误是 在there be之后又用了一个动词作谓语，使 句子结构出现严重错误。这里列举的考生的 典型错误均属这种情况，对此我们在写作中 要格外注意。 2. 比较结构 考生病句: 1. Comparing with the bike, the car runs much faster. 2. The climate in Walton is colder than other cities. 正确表达: 1. Compared with the bike, the car runs much faster. 2. The climate in Walton is colder than that of other cities. 评议与分析:许多考生在作文中用 37 compare或than表示比较，但相当多的表达 有误。 在例1中，对两个事物进行比较的句式 为Compared with A, B...,只能用compare的 过去分词，不能用现在分词，因为B是分词 的逻辑主语，只能被比较。在例2中，考生 误将"天气"与"城市"进行比较，而二者没有 可比性，只有将后者改为"其他城市的天气" 才符合逻辑，很显然，考生的错误是受了汉 语表达习惯的影响。 比较结构是常用结构，正确地使用这一 结构可以使文章的句式增加变化，有利于提 高写作成绩。一般说来，考生若能恰当、正 确地运用这一结构，其写作成绩应在5分以 上。 下面是比较结构的一些常用的表达方法。 1( 同级比较 1) In 1998 we produced as many cars as we did in the previous five years. 2) We have accomplished as much in the past three years as would have taken ten years in the past. 38 2( 比较级 1) Children now enjoy better medical treatment than before. 2) We can live longer without food than we can (live ) without water. 3( 最高级 1) This is the most interesting book I've ever read. 2) Of all his novels I like this one best. 4( the more…the more…结构 1) The harder you work, the greater progress you will make. 2) The more a man knows, the more he discovers his ignorance. 5( 选择比较 1) I prefer staying at home to going out. 2) They prefer to work rather than (to) sit idly. 3) He prefers to work alone. 注意:这里的1)句用的是Prefer A to B 结构，to为介词，后接名词或动名词;2) 句是以不定式作prefer的宾语;3)句用法 39 同2)，只是不把rather than部分表达出来。 6( 对比 1) Motion is absolute while stagnation is relative. 2) He is tired out, whereas she is full of vigour. 注意:while 和whereas均可用于连接 两个意义对立的分句，相当于汉语的"而"字。 许多考生能较好地运用这一句式，尤其在图 表作文中。 3. 表达原因的结构 考生病句: 1. The real reason to our failure is not far to seek. 2. The reason for this is because some people want to earn plenty of money without working hard. 正确表达: 1. The real reason for our failure is not far to seek. 2. The reason for this is that some people 40 want to earn plenty of money without working hard. 评议与分析: 以上两个病句分别引自92年1月和97年12月四级考试的考生作文。从遣词造句上看，这两位考生具有一定的写作能力，not far to seek, plenty of money以及without working hard等均运用正确、恰当。但令人遗憾的是，第一位考生不知道reason不与to搭配而应接介词for，第二位考生犯了一个中国学生常犯的错误，就是用because引起表语从句，because这个词不能引起表语从句，在本句中只能改用that才正确。 掌握好表达原因的结构是十分重要的，几乎所有的写作试题都要求写原因或可以写原因。在大学英语四、六级考试、研究生入学英语考试以及TOEFL考试中，写作的文体基本上是议论文，而议论文的基本模式是摆事实、讲道理，讲道理就是说明原因。写作测试的文体决定了表达原因结构的重要性。 英语中用来表达原因这一概念的结构 41 有多种。我们可用as , because, since, seeing that, considering that, now that, not that...等词 组引出表示原因的从句。例如: 1. Now that we have seen these great achievements with our own eyes, we feel more proud than ever of our country. 2. Professor Liu is strict with us because he wants us to make rapid progress. 3. Since we live near the sea, we enjoy a healthy climate. 4. Pollution is still a serious problem, not that we don't have the ability to solve it, but that some people have not realized the consequences of the problem. 我们还可以借助某些词语用简单句表 达原因结构。例如: 1. The reason for this change is quite obvious. 2. Diligence is the key factor of success. 3. Idleness is the root of all evils. 4. He was ashamed to have made the mistake.(=He was ashamed that he had made 42 the mistake. =He was ashamed because he had made the mistake.) 除了上述的例句外，英语中还有很多或 易或难的表达原因的结构。我们在进行写作 训练的时候，不能满足于一知半解，要讲究 书面语言的正确性和准确性。比如，because 是最常用的引导原因从句的连词，语气最 强，表示直接的原因，若because置于句首， 后面的主句不能再用so。用as引导的原因 从句语气较弱，所说明的原因是附带的，而 since表示的原因暗示着是稍加分析之后才 能推断出来的原因。 4. 否定结构 考生病句 1. Some people think we needn't to worry about fresh water. 2. Nowadays many people don't like to go to the movies, too. 正确表达: 1. Some people think we needn't worry 43 (或don't need to worry) about fresh water. 2. Nowadays many people don't like to go to the movies, either. 评议与分析: 例句1选自96年1月四级考生作文，例句2选自92年1月六级考生作文。例句1 的错误在于该考生混淆了need作为情态动词和作为普通动词的用法。need作为情态动词时，主要用于否定句，后面的动词不带to, needn't worry，作we的谓语。need作为实意动词时，可用于肯定句、否定句和疑问句，don't need to worry 中的to worry作don't need的宾语。例句2的错误在于该考生混淆了too和either的区别，这两个词都表示"也"的意思，但是在英语中too, also只能用于肯定句，而either只能用于否定句。 否定结构除了在助动词、情态动词，be和have后面加not之外，还有许多不含not的否定结构。若能正确使用他们，文章会显得生动活泼，增加写作的闪光点。下面我们就来看看: 1( 含有否定意义的词汇和短语 44 以下列举的词和词组本身就具有否定 的含义，因此无需用否定词。 介词against, beyond, but, except, without,... 形容词和动词absent, deny, differ, different, fail, free, ignore, miss, refuse, the last, used to, reluctant, lack, want,... 短语keep...from, protect...from, prevent...from, let alone, at a loss, in vain, instead of, out of the question, rather than, too...to, by no means, anything but,... 我们看以下例句: 1) Women fail to get the equal rights in some countries. 在一些国家里妇女没有得到平等 的权利。 2) This is by no means the best way to solve the problem of energy crisis. 这不是解决能源危机的最好的办 法。 3) We should protect trees from being destroyed. 45 我们应保护树木，不让它们受破 坏。 4) In old China we could not make a nail, let alone(make) machines. 在旧中国，我们连一个钉子都造不 了，更不用说制造机器了。 2( 含有半否定意义的词语 barely, hardly, few, little, rarely, scarcely, seldom, not all, not everyone, not everything,...具 有半否定的意义。例句: 1) We could hardly see any fresh vegetables in winter on market several years ago. 几年前在冬天市场上很难见到新 鲜蔬菜。 2) These young people know little about how to choose good books to read. 这些年轻人几乎不知道如何挑选 优秀的书籍来读。 3( 不含否定意义的否定结构 46 有些词和词组形式上是否定结构，但其 含义是肯定的，比如:cannot but, can't help, no sooner...than, not...until, in no time, none other than, nothing but,等等。例句: 1) We can't but face the reality. 我们只有面对现实。 2) These old buildings will be replaced by modern apartment buildings in no time. 这些旧建筑将很快为现代化的公 寓所代替。 4( 否定结构的倒装语序 我们有时为了强调而把否定词和词组 放在句首，这时句子结构应倒装。例如: 1) On no account should we follow blindly.我们决不应当盲从。 2) No where has the world ever seen such great enthusiasm for learning as in our country.没有任何其他地方有我国这样高的 学习热情。 5. 含有it的结构 考生病句: 47 1. As is known to all of us that science and technology play an important role in the development of society. 2. It is known to us, practice makes perfect. 正确表达: 1. It is known to all of us that science and technology play an important role in the development of society. (或:As is known to all of us, science...) 2. It is known to us that practice makes perfect. (或:As is known to us, practice...) 评议与分析: 例句1是93年12月六级考试11分作 文的评分样卷句子，例句2选自97年1月 四级考试作文。很显然，两个考生混淆了it 和as的用法。如果用it作形式主语，后面 的主语从句必须由that引起;如果用as，则 后面不能用that，因为as是关系代词，代表 practice makes perfect。 It 在英语中是个相当活跃的代词，在写 作中我们常要使用它。以下几种用法应熟练 48 掌握，并能灵活运用。 1(作形式主语 It is necessary for us to master a foreign language skillfully. It makes difference whether we could purify the air or not. 2.作形式宾语 We find it rather difficult to prevent people from doing that. Modern science has made it possible for babies to grow healthily and for people to live longer. 3.引导强调句 It is only by this way that we can achieve success. It was then that people began to realize the importance of controlling population. 从语法结构来看，上述的句子都不难，或 者可以说是考生相当熟悉的。然而在写作考 试中，多数考生缺乏运用自己已掌握的句式 的意识，而以自己头脑中拼凑的中式英语取 而代之。其实，只要能恰当地运用上述的任 何一个句式，考生的作文就会出现闪光点， 49 就会取得比较好的成绩。 , How to achieve sentence variety 在写作时要注意句式的变化, 使文章读起来 富有生气。同样一个意思可以通过多种句式 来表达。在考虑英语句式的变化时, 我们一 般从以下几个方面入手: (1) 既可以用主动式也可以用被动式, 例如: 例1. Today, we use machines not only in industry but in other sectors of national economy as well. Today machines are widely used not only in industry but in other sectors of national economy as well. 例2. Some people believe that it will be possible for automatic machines to replace completely in the future. It is believed by some people that it will be possible for automatic machines to replace completely in the future. 50 (2) 既可以用肯定式也可以用否定式, 例如: 例1. I shall go there unless it rains. I shall go there if it doesn't rain. 例2. Their daily lives don't provide them with the exercise needed to keep them healthy. Their daily lives fail to provide them with the exercise needed to keep them healthy. (3) 某些修饰成分既可以用在句子前面也可 以用在后面, 还可以用在中间, 例如: 例1. With a car, people can get around freely. People can get around freely with a car. 例2. In fact, speaking is one of the most important means of communication. Speaking is in fact one of the most important means of communication. (4) 既可以是正常语序也可以是倒装语序, 例如: 例1. A new type of TV sets was among the products on display. Among the products on display was a new 51 type of TV sets. 例2. We did not realize the problem of energy crisis until the end of last century. Not until the end of last century did we realize the problem of energy crisis. (5) 既可以用简单句也可以用并列句或者主 从复合句, 例如: 例1. Nowadays a lot of people work in office, spending most of their time indoors. Nowadays a lot people work in office and they spend most of their time indoors. 例2. There are many means of getting information and they enable us to keep up with what is going on in the world. There are many means of getting information which enable us to keep up with what is going on in the world. III. Writing Step by Step Directions: You are allowed 30 minutes to 52 write a composition on the topic „We Need to Broaden Our knowledge?. You should write no less than 120 words and you should base your composition on the outline below: 1. 科学技术是社会发展所不可缺少的 2. 社会科学和自然科学相互渗透 3. 现代大学生需要广博的知识 Step I: Write topic sentence Review: In exposition and argumentation we can find topic sentences are frequently used in paragraph writing. Sample 1 The world is full of disappointed people. Some of them probably never had much ambition to start with; they sat back and waited for something good and felt cheated because it never happened. Some of them had very set, specific ambitions and, for one reason or another, never got what they wanted. Others got what they wanted but found it wasn?t exactly what they?d expected it to be. Disappointed ambition provides 53 fodder (素材 )for both drama and melodrama (情节剧 ): aspiring athletes ( who could have been contenders), aspiring dancers ( all they ever needed was the music and the mirror ). Sample 2 Is marriage, as is so often supposed, more strongly associated with men?s happiness than women?s? In both European and North American national surveys, the happiness gap between the married and never-married is similar for women and men. The results of nearly a hundred such studies confirm this: Although a bad marriage may be more depressing to a woman than to a man, the myth that single women report greater happiness than married women can be ignored. Sample 3 As regards health, I have nothing useful to say since I have little experience of illness. I eat and drink whatever I like, and sleep when I cannot keep awake. I never do anything whatever on the ground that is good for health, though in actual fact the things I like 54 doing are mostly wholesome. Sample 4 Neat people place neatness above everything, even economics. They are incredibly wasteful. Neat people throw away several toys every time they walk through the den. I knew a neat person once who threw away a perfectly good dish drainer because it had mold on it. The drainer was too much trouble to wash. And neat people sell their furniture when they move. Please write topic sentence now! Step II Write supporting sentences The function of supporting sentences: As the topic sentences are decided supporting sentences are used to explain, develop, and support the meaning of the topic sentences. After we finish the topic sentence we should try to see it from different angles, think of it with every aspects, choose the proper ones, and write them down one by one. Sample 1 55 Topic sentence: Some zoologists and psychologists compare modern man to a caged lion. Supporting sentences: The first level: Living conditions in crowded cities, they say, are similar to those of animals in a zoo and make the inhabitants unusually aggressive. If the human population had not increased so rapidly, people would have had more space and freedom. The second level: In prehistoric times a group of about 60 people had many kilometers of empty land to n wander and search for food in. If conditions had remained thus, man might have been no more aggressive than his fellow creatures. The third level: As it is, it is possible for as many as 30,000 people to be working in a single office-building. It is not surprising if in these conditions people behave aggressively towards each other. In fact, it is almost impossible for them to behave otherwise. 56 th The 4 level: Man must have become more aggressive over the years as the world population had increased. ( This is the last sentence and also a concluding sentence.) Sample 2 Topic sentence: How do youths spend their incomes? Supporting sentences: , Both female and male teenagers spend most of their money on clothes, CDs, stereo equipment, entertainment, and travel. , Young women spend most on cosmetics, followed by clothes and jewelry. , Young men spend the most on sporting goods, cameras, CDs, stereo equipment, bicycles, shoes, jeans, musical instruments, and electronic games. Advice The variety of your sentences will make your article vivid, attractive, appealing and interesting. Teenagers often spend hours shopping, 57 especially on weekends. The fact that they are doing more shopping may result in their spending more money in stores they go to. In addition, youths often have a great deal of authority in store-selection decisions, which means that stores must attract them with an effective appeal. Although the popular belief is that young people buy products impulsively and are less rational than the market as a whole, surveys indicate that most respondents aged 14 to 25 compare prices and brands before buying. Research on adolescent shopping behavior has produced the following tentative conclusions: 1)….2)….3)…. How to write supporting sentences? 1. Try to use examples: Examples are always used to present a story, a fact, a piece of information, or the author?s own experience etc. to support the author?s view-point. Sample 1 Do hackers regard themselves as criminals? Probably not. But they do not make a distinction between “good” and “bad” hacking. Take, for example, the case of Ian, a 16-year-old hacker. He admits quite proudly 58 that he enjoys doing just for the fun of it. Nevertheless, he prefers breaking into software programs rather than systems because there is less chance of being prosecuted. Ian never hacks for profit although he knows some who do work for money and even just for the fun of causing someone else headaches. Like many members of the hacker community, he does not feel morally obliged to turn “bad” hackers over to the authorities. Sample 2 In some cases, a patient?s “right to die” has subtly become a “duty to die”. Some people are pressured toward euthanasia by exhausted and impatient relatives. A story is told of a woman whose relatives gathered in Amsterdam for her planned euthanasia. One relative came from overseas. When the patient had last-minute doubts, the family said, “You can?t have her come all this way for nothing.” Instead of ensuring that the patient?s true wishes were observed, the doctor carried out the euthanasia. 59 Sample 3 …at least 30 percent of adult women were using the same brands they first chose as teenager. Translated into total market figures, that the findings would mean, for instance, 6,760,000 women still are using the same brand of cosmetics and 8,900,000 still are eating the same kind of packaged cheese that they first bought. Sample 4 …. Like exercise, good nutrition and proper medical care, methods such as relaxation therapies are only one part of the recipe for good health. Still, they are an important ingredient. 2. Proverbs, old sayings, experts? theories, facts, information etc. can also be used as supporting sentences. Sample 1 ….Nobody wants to be caught napping or found asleep at work. To quote a proverb: “Some sleep five hours, nature requires seven, laziness nine and wickedness eleven.” 60 Sample 2 “ There is senseless notion that children grow up and leave home when they are 18, and the truth is far from that,” says sociologist Larry Bumpass of the University of Wisconsin. Today, unexpected numbers of young adults are living with their parents. “ There is a major shift in the middle class,” declares sociologist Allan Schnaiberg of Northwestern University, whose son, 19, moved back in after an absence of eight months. Sample 3 The case for college has been accepted without question for more than a generation. All high school graduates ought to go, says conventional wisdom and statistical evidence, because college will help them earn more money, become „better? people, and learn to be more responsible citizens than those who don?t go. Sample 4 As the Bible tells us, worrying about money----or anything else for that matter----won?t do us any good. “ Who of 61 you by worrying can add a single hour to his life?” Jesus asked. “And why do you worry about clothes? See how the lilies of the field grow? They do not labor or spin.” Sample 5 …. Will you have a stronger immune response and greater health if you are happier, less stressed, and more optimistic? Experts believe that the answer is yes. There are studies showing that by employing certain mind-body techniques that help reduce stress and improve outlook, cancer patients can live longer. …. English Proverbs , All roads lead to Rome. , Art is long, but life is short. , Beauty lies in lover?s eyes. , Diligence is the mother of good luck. , Don?t put off till tomorrow what should be done today. , Doubt is the key of knowledge. , Easier said than done. , Easy come, easy go. , Facts speak louder than words. , Failure is the mother of success. 62 Four eyes see more than two. , , A friend in need is a friend indeed. , God helps those who helps themselves. , Health is not valued till sickness comes. , He laughs best who laughs last. , Hope for the best and prepare for the worst. , It is the last straw that breaks the camel?s back. , It?s never too late to learn. , Knowledge is power. , Love is blind. , Many hands make quick work. , Money makes the mare go. , Never judge by appearances. , No news is good news. , There are two sides to every question. , Time cures all things. , Time is money. , Time and tide wait for no man. , Two heads are better than one. , Well begun is half done. , Where there is a will, there is a way. Quotations from Benjamin Franklin , Early to bed, early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. , God helps them that helps themselves. 63 Diligence is the Mother of good luck. , , Energy and persistence conquer all things. , Genius without education is like silver in the mine. , Having been poor is no shame, but being ashamed of it, is. Quotations from John Dewey , Failure is instructive. The person who really thinks learns quite as much from his failures as from his successes. , Education is not a preparation for life; education is life itself. , In brief, the function of knowledge is to make one experiences freely available to other experiences. Quotations from Eric Hoffer Nature attains perfection, but man never does. There is a perfect ant, a perfect bee but man is perpetually unfinished. He is both an unfinished animal and an unfinished man. It is this incurable unfinishedness which sets man apart from other living things. For, in the attempt to finish himself, man becomes a creator. Moreover, the incurable unfinishedness keeps man perpetually 64 immature, perpetually capable of learning and growing. Lessons from Jefferson , Go and see. , You can learn from everyone. , Judge for yourself. , Do what you believe is right. , Trust the future; trust the young. , Neither believe nor reject anything, because any other person has rejected or believed it. Heaven has given you a mind for judging truth and error. Use it. , There are two sides to every question. If you take one side with decision and act on it with effect, those who take the other side will of course resent your actions. Quotations from Ralph Waldo Emerson , To be great is to be misunderstood. , Good is a good doctor, but Bad is sometimes a better. , What lies behind us and what lies before us are small matters compared to what lies within us. , The reward of a thing well done, is to have done it. 65 All live is an experiment. The more , experiments you make the better. Please write supporting sentences now! Paragraphs , Introductory paragraph: It is the first paragraph and it comes to the subject. Sample 1 Exercise. Eat right. Don?t smoke. These are some of the most common words of advice to people who wish to stay healthy. But a growing amount of scientific research shows that there is another, equally important, aspect to staying well, peace of mind. peace of mind. Sample 2 Marketers are interested in understanding what products will sell well in the youth market. It is also important to appreciate the influence that young people have on the purchases of others, such as parents. In fact, sometimes marketers are more 66 interesting in young people?s influence on other buyers than in their role as the main purchasers of certain items. We find from the two paragraphs Summary: that the function of the introductory paragraph is to raise the problem and then deal with or discuss the problem in the following paragraphs. , Concluding Paragraph Sample 1 So remember, if music be the food of love, do it slowly, especially if you?re driving, then we can all “play” on. Sample 2 Each one of us is a unique, valuable individual. We are interesting in our own personal ways. The better we understand ourselves, the easier it becomes to live up to our full potential. Let?s not allow shyness to block our chances for a rich and fulfilling life. Summary: We learned from the concluding paragraphs that in the last paragraph the author will come 67 to a conclusion for the argument or statement in the previous paragraphs. Please remember, as human beings, our own thought is the most important thing , which will make our article bright. The articles in our textbooks are good models for us to learn writing skills so please enjoy them. The Sample One We Need to Broaden Our Knowledge We all know that knowledge, especially scientific and technological knowledge, is necessary to develop our modern society. Without it, we may still stay in primitive society, neither conquering the nature, nor knowing the essence of the earth. Once we acquire the knowledge about nature, we come to realize that it is still impossible to build an ideal society by relying only on scientific and technological knowledge. Therefore social knowledge becomes 68 essential, too. Once we know about it, we obey the rule of social life, and learn the social culture such as history, politics, and music. However, the most important point is that social science interacts with natural science. In the past years, we just focused on our own development but neglected the protection of natural resources. Having got lessons from our past activities, therefore, we have already noticed the importance of interaction and have been trying to get benefits from it with the minimal loss. As for college students, we should acquire comprehensive knowledge, which is not only the need of our society, but also the need of our new century. Preserving natural resources Through the changes in the ways of making a living in a family over several generations the passge aims at sounding a warming against man?s wasteful use of natural resources and 69 emphasizing the urgent need to preserve these resources. Ever since man appeared on the earth , man?s survival had been heaily relied on nature. Almost everything we use in our everyday life comes from nature, ranging from the food we eat, the water we drink, to the wood which is turned into furniture . with the development of technology and population growth, the amount and range of materials used has increased at an alarming rate. However, natural resources are not inexhaustible. Some reserves are already on the brink of exhaustion and there is no hope of replacing them. The widespread water shortage is an example in point. If man continued to sqaunder natural resources with no thought for future, the later generations would end up selling sand, and the whole world would be in a mess. Time is running out. It is up to us to take effective measures before the situation gets out 70 of hand. 作文 一( Is a test of spoken English necessary 92 年6 月 有些人认为读书有选择 有些人认为要博览群书 我的看法 Do lucky numbers bring good luck? 有些人认为某些数字会带来好运 我认为数字和运气无关。。。 二( 97年12月 My view on fake commodity 1. 假冒伪劣商品的危害 2. 怎样杜绝伪劣商品 ( 可在现有提纲前加一提纲作为引言段) 97年6月 getting to know the … 1. 大学生了解社会的必要性 2. 了解社会的途径 71 3. 我们该怎么做 三(图表题 Changes in people?s diet 1. states the changes in peoples diet 2. give possible reasons 3. draw your conclusion you should quote as few figures as possible 四( Practice makes perfect 1, 怎样理解熟能生巧 2( 例如在学习英语中。。。 3(又如。。 五( 99年1月 Don?t hesitate to say no 1(别人请求帮助时，在什么情况下我们会说不 2(为什么有些人在该说不时不说不 3( 该说不时不说不的坏处 六(Letter 72 英语作文启、承、转、合 常用词语 first, second, third to begin with , next ,then finally in addition, moreover, what is more, besides , also for example, for instance, in other words however, but, on the other hand, on the contrary, whereas, accordingly , as a result, so, therefore, consequently, thus,. hence in short, in brief, to sum up, in conclusion , 结尾 ? 结论 11. From what has been discussed above, we may reasonably draw/reach/come to/arrive at /the conclusion that… 12. Therefore, we can come to a conclusion that… 13. Thus, it can be concluded that… 14. In summary/conclusion/a word, it is important… 73 15. To sum up, In short, In a word, All in all…. 16. As has been mentioned above, a conclusion can be drawn that … 17. In my opinion, 18. As far as I am concerned, 19. From this point of view, 20. This conclusion is also suggested by the fact that … ? 号召性和意义 6. It is time that we urged/put an immediate end to… 7. It is necessary that some effective steps should be taken … 8. It is hoped that efforts will be made… 9. We may have a long way to go before… 10. Only by doing this can we… ? 展望,后果 8. Any person who ignores/fails to learn the warning would…. 74 9. I think/ believe/ that… 10. We rest assured that … 11. This is the prospect that man now faces. “…” is avalanching upon our heads and most people are absurdly unprepared to cope with … 12. The future will be a better place if we do. 13. I only hope that some day there can be a solution to this problem. 14. No doubt, … will continue to be a feature / problem of … for some time to come. Its causes are rooted in the opportunities of our society, and in the rapid pace at which society changes. ? 反问 Why don?t we double our effort 75 76