英语中级语法
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contents Lesson 1 The Seasons………………………………….……….1 Lesson 2 The days of the week………………………….……...2 Lesson 3 My family…………………………………………….3 Lesson 4 Our factory…………………………………...………4 Lesson 5 Time (1)………………………………………...…….19 Lesson 6 Morning and evening…………………………...…….23 Lesson 7 Study for the modernization of china…………………26 Lesson 8 at the seaside………………………………………….27 Lesson 9 A Frenchman in New York……………………….…..28 Lesson 10 the rabbit kills a wolf……………………….……….31 Lesson 11 A Conversation………………………………….…..35 Lesson 12 the donkey‘s shadow………………………………..37 Lesson 13 another chance………………………………….…..39 Lesson 14 The Lost watch……………………………………..44 Lesson 15 in the café…………………………………………..46 Lesson 16 Sambo (1)……………………………………..……47 Lesson 17 Sambo (2)……………………………………..……48 Lesson 18 New York ----A city of many faces……………..….52 Lesson 19 Man and the killers…………………………………53 Lesson 20 Attitude toward work………………………………55 Lesson 21 The lady of the lamp……………………………….57 Lesson 22 the woman who was too tall…………………….…59 Lesson 23 A time for courage………………………………….60 Lesson 24 aspirin and pregnant women……………………….61 Lesson 25 Christmas…………………………………………..65(空白) Lesson 26 the glorious painter…………………………….…..65 Lesson 27 the stock market………………………………..…..68 Lesson 28 Colour……………………………………………...72
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Lesson 29 Ruthless…………………………………………….76
Lesson 1 The Seasons
一(词类，词是组成
句子
关于阅读的唯美句子关于古风的唯美句子执行力的经典句子鼓励人努力奋斗的句子用沉默代替一切的句子
的最小单位，英语共分为十大词类:
句词:(n) 表示人物，事物，地点，抽象概念等的名称。
如:man,pen, China, love
代词:(pron) 且来代替人，物，及名词等。
如:you, it, this.
形容词:(a) 修饰名词，表示人或事物的特征。
如:clean, beautiful, red.
数词:(num)表示数或顺序
如:one, first
动词:(V)表示人或事物的行为或状态。
如:be, have, teach, play
副词:(ad)修饰动词，形容词或其他副词，
说明
关于失联党员情况说明岗位说明总经理岗位说明书会计岗位说明书行政主管岗位说明书
时间，地点，程度等。
如:now, here, very
介词:(prep)用在名词或代词前，说明该词与其它词的关系
如:in, on
冠词:(art)用于名词前，说明名词所指的人或事物是指特指或泛指。
定冠词(the), 不定冠词(a,an)
连词:(conj)用来连接词和词，短语和短词
And, but, if
感叹词:(int) 表示惊讶，喜悦等感情 oh, ah,
There be 结构是一常见的表示―存在‖的句型，但是，该结构不表示―存在‖意义的现象，它以否定句的形式出现，用于对某一具体行为和抽象概念的否定。其惯用结构一般有以下三种: 一、There is + no + Noun + in doing something
1.其中名词为表―利弊‖、―用途‖的抽象名词，如:
There is no good in going. 去没有什么好处。
There is no harm in doing that. 那样做并无害处。
There is no use in doing it. 干此事毫无用处。
2.其中名词为表―价值‖、―意义‖的抽象名词，如:
There is no sense in waiting here. 在这里等候下去毫无意义。 There is no disgrace in failing once. 一旦失败也不丢脸。
(注:此结构中的介词可以省略，如:There is no use asking her—she doesn‘t know anything.)
二、There is + no + doing something 1.其中的动词(do)多为―转述‖或―认知‖等意义的动词，如:tell, say, know等，其后一般跟疑问句，如when，what等。
There is no saying what may happen. 很难说会发生什么事。 There is no telling when he will return. 说不清他何时回来。 There is no knowing when we shall meet again. 不知何时我们能再相会。 2.其他动词，其意义相当灵活。
There is no mistaking what ought to be done. 应该做什么是清楚的。 There is no denying the fact. 事实无可否认。
There is no holding back the wheel of history. 历史的车轮不能倒转。
- 3 - There is no getting along with him. 他很难相处。
Once she starts talking, there is no stopping her. 一旦她打开话匣子，就说个没完。 There is no joking with him. 和他不能开玩笑。
三、There is + no + Action Noun
此结构的含义相当于It‘s impossible /unnecessary to do something。如: There is no hurry about it. 没有必要这么急匆匆的。
There is no question of his honesty. 他的诚实是勿庸置疑的。
有时，在此结构中的Action Noun被动名词形式所取代，其意义不变。试比较: There is no escape from the evident. There is no escaping the fact. 两句都表示:无法逃(躲)避……
Is there any use in discussing the matter further? 这种事再讨论下去有何益处, Is there any hurry about it? 这事需要匆忙吗,
此惯用结构中的be有时可与情态动词连用，其语气更趋委婉。如:
There could be no mistaking where he had come from. 他从哪里来是相当清楚的。 此结构中的no也不是一成不变的，它可被其他形式所取代。如:
There isn‘t any getting away from it. 要从它那里逃脱是不可能的。
There‘s never any predicting what they will do next. 无法料及他们下一步将会干什么
Lesson 2 The days of the week 一、 人称代词的概念及形式
表示"我/我们，你/你们，他/她/它(们)"的词叫做人称代词。人称代词用来指代人、动植物及无生命的物体。根据它们在句中的作用，可分为主格和宾格两种形式。人称代词主格有:I, you，he, she, it, we, you, they;宾格有:me, you，him, her, it, us, you, them。由此可见，you和it的主格和宾格形式相同。
二、 人称代词的用法
1. 人称代词作主语时用主格，在陈述句中放在谓语动词之前。例如: You are a good student. 你是一个好学生。
2. 人称代词宾格用作宾语，置于动词或介词之后，构成动宾或介宾结构。有时在口语中还用作表语。例如:
Let me help you. 让我帮助你。(动宾)
-Who is it? 谁呀,
-Its me. 是我。(表语)
三、 使用人称代词时应注意的几点
1. 单数人称代词作主语时，谓语动词用单数形式;复数人称代词作主语时，谓语动词用复数形式。例如:
She is over there. 她在那边。
They are under the tree. 他们在树下。
2. 两个或两个以上的人称代词作主语时，谓语动词用复数形式。例如: You, he and I are all Young Pioneers. 你、我、他都是少先队员。
3. 两个或两个以上的人称代词并列使用时，一般的排列顺序是:
单数按二、三、一的顺序。例如:
You， she and I are right. 你、我和她是对的。
注:第三人称单数he, she或表示男女的姓名并列时，一般遵循男先女后的习惯。例如: He and she are in the same class. 他和她在同一个班级。
复数按一、二、三的顺序。例如:
We, you and they are good friends. 我们，你们和他们是好朋友。
但如果表示承认错误或承担责任时，英语习惯上把I放在最前面。例如: I and he are wrong. 我和他都错了。
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特殊用法:
? it可指代时间、天气、气候、距离等，还可指代上文提到的人或事物。例如: It‘s half past ten. 十点半。(时间)
It is fine today. 今天是晴天。(天气)
There is a book on the desk. It is Wang Tao‘s.书桌上有本书。它是王涛的。(指上文提到的事物)
? 用she来代表国家、小动物、太阳、月亮等以表示亲切和爱抚。例如: We love China very much. She is very beautiful. 我们非常爱中国。她非常美丽～ 物主代词就是表示所有关系的代词叫做物主代词。物主代词分为形容词性物主代词和名词性物主代词两种。物主代词有人称和数的变化。第三人称单数的物主代词还有性的变化。 物主代词列表
第一人称单数 my mine 我的
第二人称单数 your yours 你的
第三人称单数 his his 他的(阳性) her hers 她的(阴性) its its 它的 第一人称复数 our ours 我们的
第二人称复数 your yours 你们的
第三人称复数 their theirs 他们的、她们的、它们的
Lesson3 My family 一 、be动词的几种形式和基本用法
am 当主语是第一人称单数(I)时用
is 当主语是第三人称单数(he, she , it )时用
are 当主语是you ,we和所有复数时用
was 在过去时中,当主语是第一人称单数,第三人称单数时替换am 和is
were 在过去时中,当主语是we ,you和所有复数时用,即替换are。 二 、be动词的两种句子形式
(一) 肯定形式: 主语+be+其它.例如:
1. I am (I‘m) a doctor.
2. You are (You‘re) a doctor.
3. He is (He‘s ) a doctor.
4. She is (She‘s ) a doctor.
5. It is (It‘s ) a cat.
(二)否定句形式: 主语+ be + not+其它 (构成方法: 肯定句变否定句,只要在be 后+not 即可)
以上面的句子为例,将肯定句变为否定句.
1. I am not a doctor. (注: am 和is 不能缩写 )
2. You are not (aren‘t ) a doctor.
3. He is not (isn‘t ) a doctor.
4. She is not (isn‘t ) a doctor.
5. It is not ( isn‘t ) a cat.
三、be 动词一般疑问句:
be + 主语 + 其它. (构成方法: 肯定句变为疑问句,将动词提前到主语前面,同时在末尾 + ―?‖)
以上面的句子为例,把肯定变为一般疑问句.
1. —— Am I a doctor?
2. —— Are you a doctor?
3. ——Is he a doctor?
4. ——Is she a doctor?.
5. ——Is it a cat?
四、对动词一般疑问句的两种回答
肯定形式: Yes, 主语 + be (肯定回答不能缩写)
否定形式: No, 主语 + be + not (能缩写的用缩写形式)
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以上面的一般疑问句作出两种回答。
1、Yes, you are. / No, you aren‘t.
2、Yes, I am ./ No , I‘m not .
3、Yes, he is, / No, he isn‘t.
4、Yes, she is. / No, she isn‘t
5、Yes, it is. / No, it isn‘t.
Lesson4 Our factory 名词复数的规则变化
情况 构成方法 读音 例词
一般情况 加 -s 1.清辅音后读/s/; map-maps books
2.浊辅音和元音后读 /z/; car-cars bag-bags
3.以s,sh,ch, x等结尾的词 加 -es 读 /iz/ bus-buses ,watc
h-watches
4.以辅音字母+y 变y 为i baby---babies
5.以f,fe结尾，改f,fe为V再加es. wife- wives knife- knives
名词的格
在英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系，带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格，如:a teacher's book。名词所有格的规则如下:
1) 单数名词词尾加"'s"，复数名词词尾没有s，也要加"'s"，如the boy's bag 男孩的书包，men's room 男厕所。
2) 若名词已有复数词尾-s ，只加‘，如:the workers' struggle 工人的斗争。
3) 凡不能加" 's"的名词，都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系，如:the title of the song
歌的名字。
4) 在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时，名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词，如:the barber's 理发店。
5) 如果两个名词并列，并且分别有's，则表示"分别有";只有一个's，则表示'共有'。 如:John's and Mary's room(两间) John and Mary's room(一间)
6) 复合名词或短语，'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。
如:a month or two's absence
名词所有格用来表示所有关系，一般用‘s和of来表示名词的所有格。与所有格相对，不带‘s词尾的是名词普通格。
1. I have been away from home for quite a few days. 我已经离家多日了。
2. My wife's car is so small. 我太太的车太小了。
名词的所有格表示名词的所有关系,有两种形式。其一是由名词后加's构成,多用来表示有生命的人或动物。
3. What is the name of this street? 这是哪条街,
名词的所有格的另一种形式是由介系词of加名词构成,多用来表示无生命的东西(包括植物)。
4. Puppy Street? Hey, where are we heading for?
帕皮大街,嘿，我们去那里呀,
5. We are going to Puppy's in passing.
我们顺路去趟帕比商店。
名词后加's的形式用于house, shop, home, store等建筑物时名词一般被省略。本句中Puppy 's相当于Puppy 's store。
6. Oh, it is a nice store. There are women's clothes on sale there.
噢，它是个不错的商店。那里的女士服装正打折呢。
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复数名词以s作结尾的后加';不以s作结尾的后加's,如，the students' reading room(学生阅览室), women's clothes(女装)。
7. What is that building? 那个是什么楼,
8. Oh, that's Puppy and Barby's house. 噢，那是帕皮和芭比的房子。
两个以上名词共同的所有格表示共同所有;或两个以上名词各自的所有格连用表示各自所有时在名词后加's，如Puppy 's and Barby's houses。
9. You keep saying Puppy, Puppy? Who is he?
你总是说帕皮，帕皮，他是谁,
10. He is Thomas' brother, don't you remember?
他是汤姆斯的哥哥，你不记得了,
单数名词后加's;单数名词以s结尾的后面加 ' 或 's。
若所有格修饰的名词与后面出现的名词重复,则可以将前者省略,此时第一个名词后加's。 11. Oh, yeah. Puppy 's is really a big house. 噢，对。帕皮的房子可真大呀。 12. He is really the fortune's favorite. 他真是幸运儿。
在表示时间、距离、重量、价格、国家、团体或城市时,也用名词加's来表示所有关系。复数名词
以s作结尾的后加 '。
13. I am really tired after two days' train ride.坐了两天的火车我真是累了。
"of+名词"所有格用于无生命的东西。
15. The wheel of the car fell off. 车的轮子掉了。
冠词的定义 冠词是虚词,本身不能单独使用,也没有词义,它用在名词的前面,帮助指明名词的含义。冠词可以说是名词的一种标志，它不能离开名词而独立存在。
它们的基本用法总结归纳如下:
1.定冠词的基本用法:
?特指 可用于各类名词，包括物质名词、抽象名词及专有名词。如:
I own a dog. The dog is brown.
This is the house I lived before.
?在形容词的最高级前加the表示一类人。如:
The rich get richer, and the poor get children.
?用于表示民族、阶级、党派的名词前。如:
The Chinese is a great people in the world.
The working class 工人阶级
The Chinese Communist Party 中国共产党
?表示世界上独一无二的事物，名词前用定冠词。如:
The earth runs around the sun.
?与姓氏的复数连用，表示一家人。如:
The Smiths are on holiday now.
?用于表示方向、方位的名词前。如:
It rains more often in the south of China than in the north.
?在最高级、序数词及next，last，same等词前常用定冠词。如:
The last one is the most important one.
?用于乐器名称前。如:
He is good at playing the piano.
9(在一天的早上，下午，晚上用定冠词the,
In the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening,
10. 在海洋，江河，湖泊，山脉，海峡，海湾，等地理名词前。
The Pacific Ocean The Huanghe River The Tainshan mountains
2.不定冠词的基本用法:
?泛指 表示"某一个"，用于可数名词单数前。如:
We need a pen to write with.
?与可数名词单数连用，表示类别。如:
An ox is a useful animal.
A tiger can be dangerous.
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?在某些词组中，代替介词per。如:
I go back home once a month.
We go swimming four times a week.
?表示人的职业或工作。
I am a teacher, teaching in a college.
?专有名词也可以加不定冠词，表示专有名词的普通化。如:
He wishes to be an Edison.
3.零冠词的基本用法(即不用冠词的情况)
?表示一般概念的物质名词、抽象名词前不用冠词。如:
Unity is strength.
Failure is the mother of success
?在复数名词与不可数名词前不用冠词表示类别或泛指。如:
They are teachers, not students.
?表示人名、地名等专有名词在一般情况下不用冠词。但是，表示江河、海洋、山脉、群岛等地理名词及含有普通名词的国名、组织机构名词前需要用定冠词the，人名、地名在特指时也需要加定冠词 the。如:
Beijing is the capital of China.
?表示季节(除in the fall外)、月份、星期、日期、节日等名词前一般不用冠词。如:
I often swim in summer.
?在作表语或宾语补定语表示职位、身份、头衔等的名词前常不用冠词。如:
George W. Bush, president of U. S., declared the war against Iraq.
?具有抽象意义的个体名词和一些介词构成短语时，一般不用冠词。如:
The peasants are in trouble because of the bad harvest.
?表示使用某种交通手段时，名词前不用冠词。如:
I usually go to my office by bus.
?学科名词前一般不用冠词。如:
The boy is very interested in physics.
?表示某顿饭的名词在一般情况下通常不加冠词。如:
After supper, I often go out for a walk with my wife.
?表示运动项目的名词前不用冠词。
I prefer playing basketball to playing football.
冠词的位置:
1) 不定冠词位置
不定冠词常位于名词或名词修饰语前。注意:
a. 位于下列形容词之后: such，what，many，half，
I have never seen such an animal.
b. 当名词前的形容词被副词as, so, too, how, however, enough修饰时，不定冠词应放在形容词之后:
It is as pleasant a day as I have ever spent. So short a time.
Too long a distance.
c. quite，rather与单数名词连用，冠词放在其后。
但当rather，quite 前仍有形容词，不定冠词放其前后均可。如:quite a lot
d. 在as，though 引导的让步状语从句中，当标语为形容词修饰的名词时，不定冠词放形容词后: Brave a man though he is，he trembles at the sight of snakes.
当名词被比较级形容词修饰时，不定冠词通常置于比较级形容词之后。
2) 定冠词位置
定冠词通常位于名词或名词修饰语前，但放在all， both，double，half，twice，three times等词之后，名词之前。
All the students in the class went out.
与形容词+名词结构
1) 两个形容词都有冠词，表示两个不同东西。
He raises a black and a white cat. 他养了一只黑猫和一只白猫。
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The black and the white cats are hers. 这只黑猫和白猫都是他的。
2) 如后一个形容词无冠词，则指一物。
He raises a black and white cat. 他养了一只花猫。
大家除了掌握使用冠词的基本规则外，还有一些不拘泥于规则，注意冠词的活用:
1(表示世界上独一无二的事物的名词前一般加定冠词the; 但如果名词前有修饰语，也可能用不定冠词a,an。
the world, a peaceful world
the moon, a bright moon
2. 表示一日三餐的名词前面一般不用冠词，但前面如果有了定语修饰，也可能用不定冠词a, an。
Have you had supper?
We had a wonderful supper.
3. 表示乐器的名词前一般用定冠词the, 但前面如果出现定语修饰，也可能用不定冠词a, an。
He starts his day by playing the violin.
He is playing a borrowed violin.
4. 介词与表示交通工具的名词连用表示笼统的方式，前面一般不用冠词，但如果名词的前面出现了修饰语，前面需加冠词。
He went to the station by car.
He went to the station in a black car.
5. 表示语言的名词前一般不用冠词，但后面如果出现language一词，前面需加定冠词the。
English=the English language French=the French language
6. turn用作系动词时，后面作表语的单数名词前不用冠词。
He turned writer many years later.(=He became a writer many years later.)
冠词的用法练习
题
快递公司问题件快递公司问题件货款处理关于圆的周长面积重点题型关于解方程组的题及答案关于南海问题
I.冠词填空:在下列句中空白处填入适当冠词，不需用冠词处划×。
1(There is _______ picture of _______ elephant on _______ wall(
2(This is _______ useful book(I've read it for _______ hour(
3( _______ elephant is much heavier than _______ horse(
4( _______ doctor told him to take _______ medicine three times _______ day( 5(Let's go out for _______ walk(
6(It's too hot(Open _______ door，please(
7(There is _______ woman over there( _______ woman is Meimei's mother( 8( _______ sun rises in _______ east(
9( _______ Changjiang River is _______ longest river in _______ China( 10(Are you going to do it _______ second time,
11(Washington is _______ capital of _______ USA(
12( _______ Turners are living at the end of _______ Turner Street(
13(He joined the army in _______ spring of _______ 1995(
14( _______ old man is _______ teacher(He likes playing _______ basketball after _______
supper(
- 9 - 15(After I had _______ quick breakfast，I hurried to school(
16(Are _______ sheep kept by _______ farmers for producing _______ wool and _______
meat,
17(They went to _______ People's Park，but we both went to _______ People's Cinema
yesterday(
18(I often watch _______ TV in _______ evening(
19( _______ day of _______ December 20，1999 is Monday(
20(Tomorrow is _______ Christmas Day and my father and I went to choose _______
Christmas tree today(
II.选择填空。
1(—Does Jim have _______ ruler,
—Yes，he has _______ (
A(an;some B(a;one C(a;, D(any;one 2(There is _______ old bike( _______ old bike is Mr Zhao's(
A(an ;The B(the;An C(a;The D(the;The 3( _______ apple a day keeps the doctors aw ay(
A(The B(A C(An D(Two 4(—How many books do you have,
—I have _______ book(That's _______ English book(
A(a;an B(a;one C(one;an D(one;one 5(At that time Tom was _______ one-year-old baby(
A(a B(an C(the D(, 6( _______ tiger is _______ China(
A(The;a B(A;the C(The;from D(The;the 7(We can't see _______ sun at _______ night(
A(the;the B(the;, C(a;, D(,;, 8( _______ useful book it is～
A(What an B(How a C(What a D(What 9(One afternoon he found _______ handbag(There was _______ ―s‖on the corner of _______
handbag(
A(a;an;the B(a;a;the C(an;an;an D(the;a;a 10( _______ old lady with white hair spoke _______ English well at _______ meeting(
A(An;an;a B(The;,;an C(The;,;a D(The;,;the
- 10 - 11( _______ Great Wall is _______ longest wall in the world(
A(A;a B(The;the C(A;the D(The;a 12( _______ new bridge has been built over Huangpu River(
A(The;a B(A;, C(A;the D(An;the 13( _______ woman over there is _______ popular teacher in our school(
A(A;an B(The;a C(The;the D(A;the 14(He used to be _______ teacher but later he turned _______ writer(
A(a;a B(a;the C(,;a D(a;, 15(They made him _______ king(
A(a B(the C(an D(, 16(His father is _______ English teacher(He works in our school(
A(a B(an C(the D(, 17(Is he _______ American boy ,
A(an B(a C(one D(, 18(Does Tom often play _______ football after _______ school,
A(,;, B(,;the C(the;, D(a;, 19(They passed our school _______ day before yesterday(
A(an B(one C(a D(the 20(Australia is _______ English-speaking country(
A(a B(an C(the D(, 21(She has _______ orange skirt( _______ skirt is nice(
A(a;The B(an;The C(an;A D(the;The 22(This is _______ apple(It's _______ big apple(
A(an;a B(a;the C(a;an D(an;the 23(Look at _______ horse over there(
A(a B(an C(the D(, 24(Don't play _______ basketball here(It's dangerous(
A(a B(an C(, D(the 25(There is _______ old woman in the car(
A(, B(the C(a D(an 26(Beijing is _______ beautiful city(It's _______ capital of China(
A(a;a B(the;the C(,;the D(a;the
- 11 - 27(Shanghai is in _______ east of China(
A(, B(an C(a D(the 28(I've been a student there for nearly two and _______ half years(
A(a B(an C(the D(, 29(Bill is _______ English teacher(He likes playing _______ football(
A(a;the B(an;the C(a; , D(an;, 30(The museum is quite far(It will take you half _______ hour to get there by _______ bus(
A(an;, B(an;a C(a;, D(,;,
Lesson5 Time(1)
数 词:主要分为基数词和序数词两类。
一、 数词的分类
1. 基数词 表示数目的词称为基数词。其形式如下:
A(从1——10
one，two，three，four，five，six，seven，eight，nine，ten(
B(从 11——19
eleven，twelve， thirteen， fourteen， fifteen， sixteen， seventeen，eighteen， nineteen(
这里除 eleven， twelve， thirteen， fifteen， eighteen为特殊形式外，fourteen，sixteen，seventeen，nineteen都是由其个位数形式后添加后缀-teen构成。
C(从 21——99
整数几十中除twenty，thirty, forty，fifty，eighty为特殊形式外，sixty，seventy，ninety都是其个位数形式后添加后缀-ty构成。表示几十几时，在几十和个位基数词形式之间添加连字符―-‖
21 twenty-one 76 seventy-six
D(百位数
个数基数词形式加―hundred‖，表示几百，在几十几与百位间加上and(
101 a hundred and one 320 three hundred and twenty
648 six hundred and forty-eight
E(千位数以上
从数字的右端向左端数起，每三位数加一个逗号―，‖。从右开始，第一个―，‖前的数字后添加 thousand，第二个―，‖前面的数字后添加 million，第三个―，‖前的数字后添加 billion。然后一节一节分别表示，两个逗号之间最大的数为百位数形式。
2,648 two thousand six hundred and forty-eight
16,250,064 sixteen million two hundred and fifty thousand sixty-four
5,237,166,234 five billion，two hundred and thirty-seven million，one hundred and sixty-six
thousand，two hundred and thirty-four
F(基数词在表示确切的数字时，不能使用百、千、百万、十亿的复数形式;但是，当基数词表示不确切数字，如成百、成千上万，三三两两时，基数词则以复数形式出现。
There are hundreds of people in the hall(
大厅里有数以百计的人。
Thousands of people come to visit the Museum of Qin Terra-Cotta Warriors and Horses
every day(
每天有成千上万的人来参观秦兵马涌博物馆。
They went to the theatre in twos and threes(
他们三三两两地来到了剧院。
G(表示人的不确切岁数或年代，用几十的复数形式表示。
- 12 -
He became a professor in his thirties(他三十多岁时成为了教授。
She died of lung cancer in forties(她四十来岁时死于肺癌。
It was in the 1960s(那是在二十世纪六十年代。
H(基数词的句法功能
基数词在句中可作主语、宾语、定语、表语、同位语。
The two happily opened the box(两个人高兴地打开了盒子。(作主语)
I need three altogether(我总共需要三个。(作宾语)
Four students are playing volleyball outside(四个学生在外面打排球。(作定语)
We are sixteen(我们是16个人。(作表语)
They three tried to finish the task before sunset(他们三个人尽力想在日落前完成任务。(作
同位语)
2. 序数词
表示顺序的词称为序数词。序数词的主要形式:
A(从第一至第十九
其中，one— first， two— second， three— third， five— fifth，eight—eighth，nine—ninth，twelve— twelfth为特殊形式，其它的序数词都是由其相对应的基数词后面添加―th‖构成。例如:
six— sixth、nineteen— nineteenth(
B(从第二十至第九十九
整数第几十的形式由其对应的基数词改变结尾字母y为i，再加―eth‖构成。
twenty——twentieth thirty——thirtieth
表示第几十几时，用几十的基数词形式加上连字符―,‖和个位序数词形式一起表示。
thirty-first 第三十一
fifty-sixth 第五十六
seventy-third 第七十三
ninety-ninth 第九十九
C(第一百以上的多位序数词
由基数词的形式变结尾部分为序数词形式来表示。
one hundred and twenty-first 第一百二十一
one thousand，three hundred and twentieth 第一千三百二十
D(序数词的缩写形式
有时，序数词可以用缩写形式来表示。主要缩写形式有。
first——lst second——2nd third——3rd
fourth——4th sixth——6th twentieth——20th
twenty-third——23rd
其中lst，2nd，3rd为特殊形式，其它的都是阿拉伯数字后加上th。
E(序数词的句法功能
序数词在句中可作主语、宾语、定语和表语。
The second is what I really need(
第二个是我真正需要的。(作主语)
He choose the second(
他挑选了第二个。(作宾语)
We are to carry out the first plan(
我们将执行第一个
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。(作定语)
She is the second in our class(在我们班她是第二名。(作表语)
注:序数词在使用时，通常前面要加定冠词 the;但是如果序数词前出现不定冠词a或an时，则表示―再——‖，―又——‖。
We'll go over it a second time(
我们得再念第二遍。
We've tried it three times(Must we try it a fourth time?
- 13 -
我们已经试过三遍了，还必须试一次(第四次)吗,
另外，基数词也可以表示顺序。只需将基数词放在它所修饰的名词之后即可，不需要添加定冠词。
the first lesson——Lesson One
the fifth page——Page 5(five)
the twenty-first room——Room 21(twenty-one)
二、时刻表示法
1. 表示几点钟用基数词加可以省略的o'clock
5:00 读作 five o'clock 或 five
2. 表示几点过几分，在分钟后加past，再加小时
five past seven 七点过五分
half past six 六点半
a quarter past eight 八点过一刻
seven past eight 八点过七分
3. 表示几点差几分，在分钟后面加to，再加小时
ten to eight 差十分八点(七点五十分)
a quarter to twelve 差一刻十二点(十一点四十五分)
twenty to six 差二十分六点(五点四十分)
三、年月表示法
1. 世纪可以用定冠词加序数词加世纪century表示，也可以用定冠词加百位进数加\'s表示
the sixth(6th)century 公元六世纪
the eighteenth(18th)century 公元十八世纪
the 1900's 二十世纪
the 1600's 十七世纪
这里，用百位数整数表示的世纪比这一百位阿拉伯数字本身多一个世纪。
2. 年代用定冠词及基数词表示的世纪加十位整数的复数形式构成
in the 1930's(in the thirties of the twentieth century或 in the nineteen thirties)
在二十世纪三十年代
in the 1860's(in the sixties of the 19th century或 in the eighteen sixties)
在十九世纪六十年代
In the 1870's when Marx was already in his fifties，he found it important to study the
situation in Russia，so he began to learn Russian(
在十九世纪七十年代当马克思已经五十多岁时，他发现研究俄国的形势很重要，便开始学习俄语。
3. 表示某年代的早期、中期和晚期，可以在定冠词后，年代前添加 early，mid-，late
in the early 1920's 在二十世纪二十年代早期
in the mid-1950's 在二十世纪五十年代中期
4. 年月日表示法
A(年份用基数词表示，一般写为阿拉伯数字，读时可以以hundred为单位，也可以以世纪、年代为单位分别来读。
1949 读作 nineteen hundred and forty-nine 或 nineteen forty-nine
1800 读作 eighteen hundred
253 读作 two hundred and fifty-three或two fifty-three
1902 读作 nineteen hundred and two或 nineteen o two
表示在哪一年，一般在年数前加介词in，使用year时，year放在数词之前。
in the year two fifty-three B.C. 在公元前253年
但是，通常采用in加表示年份的阿拉伯数字。
B. 月份，在哪个月用介词in加第一个字母大写的月份词表示。例如:in May在五月; in July
- 14 - C(日期用定冠词the加序数词表示。在哪一天要添加介词on。
National Day is on Oct. 1.
国庆节是十月一日。(读作 October first)
此句也可以表示为 National Day is on the 1st of October(
May 5 五月五日(读作May fifth)
也可以表示为the fifth(5th)of May
Mar. 1(st) 三月一日(读作March first或 the first of March)
5. 表示不具体、不确切的时间，如世纪、年代、年份、月份时，用介词in表示，表示具体确切的某一天用介词on表示通常情况下morning，afternoon，evening等词前用介词in。但是，当这些词前后有一修饰限定的词作为定语，把它们限定为某一天早晨、下午或晚上时，介词in应改为on。
On a cold morning，the old man died lonely in his house(
在一个寒冷的早晨，这个老人孤独地死在自己的房子里。
The accident happened on the afternoon of July 7(
这次事故发生在7月7日下午。
We are to have a small test on Monday morning(
星期一早晨我们将进行一次小测验。
一、It用作人称代词
指代无生命的物、性别或身份不明的人或婴儿、动物、上文所提事件，在句中作主语或宾语。 1. I lost my pen yesterday, but I‘ve found it. (it 指代物品the pen) 2.What a lovely baby, isn‘t it! (it 指代婴儿 baby)
二、It 用作非人称代词
常用作句子主语，表示天气、日期、时间、温度、距离等。
1.It‘s October 1st today---National Day. (表示日期)
2.It was nearly midnight when I arrived home. (表示时间)
3.It‘s about an hour‘s walk from here to the village. (表示距离)
4. It was raining when I left the office. (表示天气)
注:It指时间还可以用于以下常用句式:
(1) It + be + 时间+ since 短语或从句。
It is fifteen years since she left. It has been two years since I began to smoke. (2) It is/ was time for sth. / to do sth./ for sb. to do sth./ that…是做某事的时候了。 It‘s time for lunch./ to have lunch / for us to have lunch/ that we had lunch.
(3) It + be +(not) +时间+before从句
在肯定句中，意为―多长时间之后才。。。‖，在否定句中，意为―用不了多长时间就。。。‖。 It will be more than 100 years before the country begins once again to look as it did before.
要经过100多年以后，这个国家才能恢复到以前的样子。
It was not long before the thief was caught.
Lesson 6 Morning and evening 一般疑问句是疑问句的一种。它是指用yes或no来回答的句子。其结构是:
系动词be/助动词/情态动词，主语，其他成分?
如:Is this your pen? Yes it is./No it isn't.
注意:
,(将陈述句变为一般疑问句时，如句中有be 动词(am is are …)时，可直接将它们提至主语前。如主语为第一人称，应将其改为第二人称。如:
I'm in Class ,Grade ,( ? Are you in Class ,Grade ,？
We're watching TV( ?Are you watching TV？
- 15 -
,(陈述句中有情态动词(can may must …)时，也可直接将它们提至主语前，即可成为一般疑问句。如:
He can swim now( ?Can he swim now？
The children may come with us( ? May the children come with us？
,(陈述句中只有一个实义动词作谓语且其时态为一般现在时，变为一般疑问句时要在句首加do或does 主语后的实义动词用原形。如:
I like these animals( ?Do you like these animals？
She wants to go to the movies( ? Does she want to go to the movies？
,(一般疑问句一般读升调(?)
,(一般疑问句有时不用yes或 no 回答。如:
Are they in town now？ I think so.
May I sit here？ Certainly(
Does he like soccer？ Sorry I don't know(
二、特殊疑问句
以疑问词开头，对句中某一成分提问的句子叫特殊疑问句。常用的疑问词有:what who whose
which when where how why等。
特殊疑问句有两种语序:
,(如疑问词作主语或主语的定语，即对主语或主语的定语提问，其语序是陈述句的语序:疑问词(，主语)，谓语动词，其他成分,如:
who is singing in the room？
whose bike is broken？
,(如疑问词作其他成分，即对其他成分提问，其语序是:疑问词，一般疑问句语序, 如:what class are you in？
What does she look like？
Where are you from？
What time does he get up every morning？
How do you know？
英语祈使句(Imperative Sentence)
定义:用于表达命令、请求、劝告、警告、禁止等的句子叫做祈使句，祈使句最常用于表达命令，因此在学校文法中也常称为命令句。
祈使句因对象(即主语)是第二人称，所以通常都省略。祈使句的动词都为一般现在时，句末则使用句号来表示结束。例:
Go and wash your hands. (去洗你的手。——命令)
Be quiet, please.(Please be quiet.) (请安静。——请求)
Be kind to our sister. (对姊妹要和善。——劝告)
Watch your steps. (走路小心。——警告)
Look out～Danger～ (小心～危险～——强烈警告，已如感叹句)
Keep off the grass. (勿践草坪。——禁止)
No parking. (禁止停车。——禁止)
祈使句也常把主语―You‖表达出来，使对方听起来觉得柔和些，例如: You go and tell him, Chris. (克立斯你去告诉他。)
二、相关口令
祈使句无主语, 主语you常省去;
动词原形谓语当, 句首加don't否定变;
朗读应当用降调, 句末常标感叹号。
三、表现形式
?肯定结构:
1. Do型(即:动词原形(+宾语)+其它成分)。如:Please have a seat here. 请这边坐。
- 16 - 有的祈使句在意思明确的情况下,动词可省略。如:This way, please. = Go this way, please. 请这边走。
2. Be型(即:Be + 表语(名词或形容词)+其它成分)。如:Be a good boy! 要做一个好孩子!
3. Let型(即:Let + 宾语 + 动词原形 + 其它成分)。如:Let me help you. 让我来帮你。
?否定结构:
1. Do型和Be型的否定式都是在句首加don't构成。如:Don't forget me! 不要忘记我!
Don't be late for school! 上学不要迟到!
2. Let型的否定式有两种:―Don't + let + 宾语 + 动词原形 + 其它成分‖和―Let + 宾语 + not + 动词原形 + 其它成分‖。如:Don't let him go. / Let him not go. 别让他走。
3. 有些可用no开头,用来表示禁止性的祈使句。如:No smoking! 禁止吸烟!No fishing! 禁止钓鱼!
练习:
将下列汉语
翻译
阿房宫赋翻译下载德汉翻译pdf阿房宫赋翻译下载阿房宫赋翻译下载翻译理论.doc
成英语。
1. 请照看好您的包。 ___________________.
2. 让我们去学校吧! ___________________!
3. 亲爱的,高兴点儿! ___________________!
4. 不要把书放这儿。 ___________________.
5. 不要让猫进来。 ___________________.
"let"带头的祈使句
由"let"带头的祈使句(Imperative Sentences)是个常见的动词句型，它的主要用法有下列三种:
1.表示―建议‖。 这个句型里的"let"后头紧跟着一个第一人称的代词宾语，如:
(1) Let me try.
(2) Let's do it.
(3) Let me go and look for it.
这个句型语气委婉，比直接的祈使句客气。试比较(4)a和(4)b:
(4) a. Don't disturb him.
b. Let's not disturb him.
2.表示―间接命令‖或―愿望‖。
这句型里的动词宾语是第三人称名词或代词，如:
(5) Let Robert take charge of the marketing department.
(6) Let her join our choir.
3.表示―警告‖、―蔑视‖、―威胁‖等。
这种祈使句里的宾语也是第三人称为主。除了口气凶悍之外，有时还语带讽刺，如:
(7) Let him try and he will expose his inability to work on his own.
(8) Let the invaders come and our armed forces will wipe them out in time.
用"let"的祈使句时，必须注意下列几点:
一、"let" 的否定句有二。如果宾语是第三人称用"Don't let.....";如果宾语是第一人称，则用"Let......not" (见例(10)):
(9) Don't let this type of things happen again.
(10) It's raining now. Let's not go out until after the rain.
二、"Let"只适用于现在时态，可以有被动语态 (the passive voice)，如:
(11) Let the recalcitrant criminals be sent to prison.
(12) Let all the dedicated capable staff be promoted.
三、"Let"后头除了是不带"to"的不定式动词 (The infinitive without"to")之外，还可以是某些适当的副词，如out, in, down, alone等:
(13) Let the puppy out.
(14) Open the windows and let the fresh air in.
(15) The room is too sunny. Let the blinds down.
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(16) Let me alone, please.
四、用"Let's"时，把谈话者的对象包括在内;用"Let us"时，并不包括对方，如:
(17) Let's try it, shall we?
(18) Let us do it by ourselves, will you?
Lesson 7 Study for the modernization of china
英语中时态度共分为16种，时间上主要有四个主要部分，即现在、过去、将来和过去将来。 动作方面也有四种，即一般、完成、进行和完成进行。把这些时间和动作方面结合在一起就构成16种动词时态。(以play为例)具体表述如下:
1、一般现在时(We play);
2、一般过去时(We palyed);
3、一般将来时(We will play);
4、一般过去将来时(We would play);
5、现在进行时(We are playing);
6、过去进行时(We were playing);
7、将来进行时(We will be playing);
8、过去将来进行时(We would be playing)
9、现在完成时(We have played);
10、过去完成时(We had played);
11、将来完成时(We will have played);
12、过去将来完成时(We would have played);
13、现在完成进行时(We have been playing);
14、过去完成进行时(We had been playing);
15、将来完成进行时(We will have been playing);
16、过去将来完成进行时(We would have been playing)。.
定义:一般现在时表示现在经常反复发生的动作、存在的状态或习惯性的动作的时态。 构成:一般现在时用行为动词的原形，但第三人称单数作主语时，动词的词尾要加-S。(一般的动词词尾+S。以sh/ch/s/x结尾的词+es.以辅音字母+Y结尾的把Y变成i，+es。辅音字母+o结尾的+es.)
形式:主语+动词原形+宾语
用法:1.表示经常的或习惯性的动作，常与表示频度的时间状语连用。
2.表示主语具备的性格、能力和特征。
3.表示现在的状态。
4.表示客观事实和普遍真理。
5.在时间状语从句和条件状语从句中，常用一般现在时代替将来时。
一般现在时的用法:
1) 经常性或习惯性的动作，常与表示频度的时间状语连用。
I leave home for school at 7 every morning.
2) 客观真理，客观存在，科学事实。
The earth moves around the sun.
Shanghai lies in the east of China.
3) 表示格言或警句中。
Pride goes before a fall. 骄者必败。
?注意?:此用法如果出现在宾语从句中，即使主句是过去时，从句谓语也要用一般现在时。
例:Columbus proved that the earth is round..
4) 现在时刻的状态、能力、性格、个性。
I don't want so much.
Ann Wang writes good English but does not speak well.
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比较:Now I put the sugar in the cup.
I am doing my homework now.
第一句用一般现在时，用于操作演示或指导说明的示范性动作，表示言行的瞬间动作。再如:Now watch me!
5).表示按规定、计划或时间表将要发生的事。
He starts next week.他下个星期出发。
We leave very soon.我们很快就离开。
The train starts at 10 o'clock in the morning.火车将在早上10点开出。
这类用法限于表示―移动‖的动词:go去，come来，leave离开，start出发，begin开始，arrive到达，take off起飞，等。
一般现在时表将来:
1)下列动词:come, go, arrive, leave, start, begin, return,live,fly的一般现在时表将来。这主要用来表示在时间上已确定或安排好的事情。
The train leaves at six tomorrow morning.
When does the bus start? It starts in ten minutes.
2)倒装句，表示动作正在进行，如:
Here comes the bus. = The bus is coming.
There goes the bell. = The bell is ringing.
3)在时间或条件句中。
When Bill comes (不是will come), ask him to wait for me.
I'll write to you as soon as I arrive there.
4)在动词hope, take care that, make sure that等后。
I hope they have a nice time next week.
Make sure that the windows are closed before you leave the room.
Lesson 8 at the seaside 现在进行时
现在进行时的定义:现在进行时表示现在或当前一段时间正在进行的动作。可以表示有计划的未来，也就是用现在进行时表示将来。
现在进行时的构成是:主语+be+v.ing〔现在分词〕形式
第一人称单数 I+am+doing+sth
第一人称复数 We+are+doing +sth
第二人称单(复)数 You+are+doing+sth
第三人称单数 He(She，it)+is+doing+sth
第三人称复数 They+are+doing +sth
肯定句:主语+is/am/are+现在分词
否定句:主语+is/am/are+not+现在分词
一般疑问句:Is/am/are+主语+现在分词
现在分词变化规则
1.直接+ ing
2.去e+ing
3.重读闭音节结尾，且末尾只有1个辅音字母，双写这个辅音字母+ing
4.以ie结尾改ie为y再加ing:die-dying,lie-lying，tie-tying
基本用法
A. 表示现在( 指说话人说话时) 正在发生的事情。
例:We are waiting for you.
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B. 习惯进行:表示长期的或重复性的动作，说话时动作未必正在进行。
例:Mr. Green is writing another novel.
(说话时并未在写，只处于写作的状态。)
例:She is learning piano under Mr. Smith.
C.已经确定或安排好的将来活动
He is leaving for a trip in Japan next week.(已经安排了)
We are flying to Paris tomorrow.(票已经拿到了)
D.有些动词(状态动词不用于进行时态)
1.表示知道或了解的动词:believe,doubt,forget,imagine,know, remember,realize,suppose,understand
2.表示―看起来‖―看上去"appear,resemble,seem
3表示喜爱或不喜爱hate,like.lover.prefer
4表示构成或来源的动词 be come from.contain,include
5表示感官的动词 hear see smell sound taste
6表示拥有的动词belong to.need.own .possess.want wish
注意
现在进行时也可以用来表示按计划将要发生的动作。
常用的动词有come,go,leave,start等、如:
George is coming soon.乔治就要到了。
Lesson 9 A Frenchman in New York 一、基本结构:
反意疑问句的基本结构:陈述句+逗号+简短的一般疑问句。
1(前肯定、后否定式。例如:You are all students, aren‘t you?
2(前否定、后肯定式。例如:He doesn‘t speak English, does he?
二、语调:
反意疑问句的前半部分(陈述句部分)用降调，而后半部分的升降调要由提问者的语气决定。若坚信陈述部分说的是事实，即对陈述部分把握较大时，用降调;否则，用升调。例如: 1(今天这么热，不是吗,(天气炎热，事实显而易见)
It‘s so hot today,isn‘t it?
2(你是英国人，对吧,(对对方的国籍判断没有绝对把握)
You are from England , aren‘t you?
三、回答:
由于反意疑问句的后半部分是一个简短的一般疑问句，因此事用来进行简略回答。但有一点需要特别提醒大家;当陈述部分是否定句时，应注意汉、英回答习惯的差异。只要事实是肯定的，就用+肯定结构作答;若事实是否定的，就用―+否定结构‖作答。例如:
1(--She isn‘t a teacher, is she?
--Yes, she is.
--她不是老师，对吗,
--不，她是老师。(事实是肯定的)
2(--He doesn‘t know you, does he?
--No, he doesn‘t.
--他不认识你，对吗,
--是的，他不认识我。(事实是否定的)
四、反意疑问句前后两部分时态必须一致。
误:He went to the cinema last Sunday, doesn‘t he?
正:He went to the cinema last Sunday, didn‘t he?
五、在反意疑问句中，简略问句的主语和谓语在人称和数方面要和前面的陈述句保持一致，但是，也有不少不一样的特殊情况，大致有25 种情况。
1( Everybody is here, aren't they/isn't he? (指人的不定代词 作主语，简略 问句一般用they, 也可用he)
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2( I don't think he is a doctor, is he? (主从复合句中，谓语动词为think, believe, suppose,
guess等，且主语为第一人称时，附加句由从句决定;如主语不是第一人称时，由主句决定;陈述句是转移否定，反意疑问句的主语和谓语必须和从句一致。)
3( Open your books, would you/won't you? (陈述句对第二人称的祈使句，简略问句可用will you? Won't you? Would you? Can you? 或can't you?)
4( Don't forget to write a letter to me, will you?(在否定祈使句中，只用will you?)
5( Let's go to the station shall we?(Let's 包括听话者，所以用shall we?)
6( Let us go for a walk, will you?/won't you?(Let us 不包括听话者，而是向听话者提出建议或要求。)
7( We must study all the subjects well, needn't we?(must在这里不表示"必须"，只表示"有必要"， 所以不重复must, 要用need.)
8( It must be Xiao Wang, isn't it?(must be在这里表示推测，要用be 的适当形式)
9( You must have seen the film "Shaolin Brothers", haven't you?(当must+不定式的完成式表示对过去事情的推测时，用have。)
10. The boys mustn't play with fire, may they?(当must表示"禁止"时，反意问句要用may.)
11. He used to get up early, didn't he/ usedn't he?(当陈述句含有used to 时，简略问句用did,也可重复used.)
12(We usually have breakfast at seven, don't we?(当have不作"有"解而用作行为动词时，简略问句用do 适当形式)
13. You had to do it well, didn't you?(陈述部分的谓语包含have to, has to, had to时，疑问部分要用do 的适当形式。)
14. Nothing can stop us now, can't it?(陈述部分用everything, nothing作主语时，疑问部分主语用it.)
15. I am a good student, aren't I?(陈述部分用I am 开头时，疑问部分用aren't I. 陈述部分以I‘m not …开头时，附加问句部分用am I?)
16. There is something wrong with your TV set, isn't there?(陈述部分为there+be结构，疑问部分用there,省略主语代词。)
17. I wish to go to the cinema, may I?(当陈述句是主语结构I wish, 用以征求对方意见，简略问句用may I.)
18. Tom has been reading novels, but he didn't read this afternoon, did he?(陈述句是并列句， 简略问句的主谓语应和后一个分句一致。)
19. She dislikes smoking, doesn't she?(如果陈述部分里出现表示否定意义的某些词 如never, hardly, few, little,nothing,nobody等，简略问句要用肯定式;但是， 如果谓语是通过加前缀构成的否定词 ，简略问句用否定。)
20. That China is a great socialist country is well known, isn't it?(不定式短语，动名词短语或主语从句作主语，简略问句的主语用it.)
21. This is my pen, isn't it?(陈述部分的主语this ,that,简略问句用it:陈述部分的主语these, those,简略问句的主语用they.)
22.None of it is here, is it?(在"none of…"结构中，如of 后的名词或代词是单数，后面的主语也为单数，这种情况，主要由于of 后的名词或代词为不可数名词)
23. In our class each of the students passed the exam, didn't he/they?(陈述部分如是"each of "结构作主语，若强调个别，简略问句的主语用单数代词;若强调全体，简略问句用复数代词。)
24. We ought to make a greater contribution to the world revolution, shouldn't/oughtn't
we?(陈述部分含ought to 时，简略问句要用should,也可重复ought.)
25. The girl daren't go home alone, dare she?(陈述部分的谓语含有dare, need时，看它们是情态动词还是行为动词，分别重复dare, need或 用do 的适当形式。)
快速记忆表
陈述部分的谓语 疑问部分
I aren't I Wish may +主语
no,nothing,nobody,never,few, seldom, hardly,rarely, little等否定含义的词,肯定含义 ought to(肯定的) shouldn't/ oughtn't +主语
have to+v.(had to+v.) don't +主语(didn't +主语)
used to didn't +主语或 usedn't +主语
had better + v. hadn't you
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would rather + v. wouldn't +主语
you'd like to + v. wouldn't +主语
must 根据实际情况而定
感叹句中 be +主语
Neither…nor, either…or 根据其实际逻辑意义而定
指示代词或不定代词everything,that,nothing,this 主语用it 并列复合句 谓语根据邻近从句的谓语而定
定语从句,宾语从句的主从复合句 谓语根据邻近从句的谓语而定 主从复合句 根据主句的谓语而定
think,believe,expect,suppose,imagine等引导 与宾语从句相对应的从句 everybody,anyone,somebody,nobody,no one 复数they, 单数he 情态动词dare或need need (dare ) +主语
dare, need 为实义动词 do +主语
省去主语的祈使句 will you,
Let's 开头的祈使句 Shall we?
Let us 开头的祈使句 Will you?
there be 相应的谓语动词+there(省略主语代词)
否定前缀不能视为否定词 仍用否定形式
反意疑问句练习题:
反意疑问句练习
1. It‘s a fine day, Let‘s go fishing, _____?
A. won‘t we B. will we C. don‘t we D. shall we
2. Frank is working late again. This is the first time this week he‘s had to study late, ____?
A. isn‘t he B. hasn‘t it C. hasn‘t he D. isn‘t it
3. —Daddy forgot to post the letter again, ____ he?
—I‘m afraid he ___.
A. has; has B. isn‘t; is C. hasn‘t ; has D. has; hasn‘t
4. —Sorry, I‘m not feeling well and I don‘t think I can finish.
—Don‘t worry. Let us do it for you, ____?
A. will you B. shall we C. shan‘t we D. shall you
5. I don‘t think he could have done such a stupid thing last night, ____?
A. do I B. could he C. did he D. has he
6. —The ground is wet.
—It must have rained last night,____ ?
A. hasn‘t it B. didn‘t it C. mustn‘t it D. isn‘t it
- 22 - 7. —Jenny doesn‘t think that Robert is honest, ___?
—I‘m afraid not.
A. is he B. isn‘t he C. does she D. doesn‘t she
8. —The new windows need washing.
—Well, let‘s wash them together, ____?
A. shall we B. will you C. should we D. would you
9. There is little we can do about it, ____?
A. is there B. can‘t we C. isn‘t there D. can we
10. —The problem wasn‘t difficult for him, was it ?
—______. He should have been given a more difficult one.
A. No, it was B. Yes, it was C. Yes, it wasn‘t D. No, it wasn‘t
Lesson 10 the rabbit kills a wolf 重点和难点: 1. 一般将来时
2. 不定式的句法和作用
一般将来时表示将来某一时刻的动作或状态，或将来某一段时间内经常的动作或状态。一般将来时由助动词 shall(第一人称)，will(第二、三人称)+动词原形构成。美式英语则不管什么人称，一律用will。going to形式可以在任何情况下使用。
构成 (1)be going to + 动词原形 (2) will/shall + do
1) shall用于第一人称单数，如:shall i，shall we，常被will 所代替,二者都可以缩写成'll。
will 在陈述句中用于各人称，在征求意见时常用于第二人称。
Which paragraph shall I read first.
Will you be at home at seven this evening?
2) be going to +动词原形，表示将来。
a. 主语的意图，即将做某事。
What are you going to do tomorrow?
b. 计划，安排要发生的事。
The play is going to be produced next month。
c. 有迹象要发生的事。
Look at the dark clouds, there is going to be a storm.
3) be +不定式表将来，按计划或正式安排将发生的事。
We are to discuss the report next Saturday.
4) be able to +不定式，意为马上做某事。
He is able to leave for Beijing.
注意:be able to 不能与tomorrow, next week 等表示明确将来时的时间状语连用。
一般将来时用法
1) 表示将来的动作或状态
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一般将来时常与一些表示将来的时间状语连用，如: tomorrow(明天)， next week(下周)， from now on(从现在开始);in the future(将来);someday (未来的某一天) 等。 2)表示将来经常发生的动作。
一般将来时表示将来某一时刻的动作或状态，或将来某一段时间内经常的动作或状态。一般将来时由助动词shall(第一人称)，will(第二、三人称)+动词原形构成。美国英语则不管什么人称，一律用will。
还有以下几种形式。
1)―be going to+动词原形‖表示即将发生的或最近打算进行的事。例如:
?It is going to rain. 要下雨了。
?We are going to have a meeting today. 今天我们开会。
2)go， come，start，move，sail，leave，arrive，stay，live,fly,等可用进行时态表示按计划即将发生的动作，例如:
I'm leaving for Beijing.
我要去北京。
3)―be to+动词原形‖表示按计划要发生的事或征求对方意见。例如:
?Are we to go on with this work?我们继续干吗,
?The boy is to go to school tomorrow.这个男孩明天要去上学。
4)―be about to+动词原形‖表示即将发生的动作，意为:很快，马上。后面一般不跟时间状语。例如:
We are about to leave.我们马上就走。
5)某些词，如come， go， leave， arrive， start， get， stay ，live,fly等的一般现在时也可表示将来。
?The meeting starts at five o'clock.会议五点开始。
?He gets off at the next stop.他下一站下车。
动词不定式:
1(作主语
可以直接作主语。如: To see is to believe(
To get there by bike will take us half an hour.
但在英语中，常用it作形式主语，真正的主语即动词不定式放在后面。如:
It's wrong to play tricks on other people(
It's our duty to keep our environment clean and tidy(
其句型结构为:
A) IT IS，形容词(EASY, IMPORTANT, DIFFICULT, FOOLISH, INCONVENIENT,
UNNECESSARY, RIGHT, WRONG...)，( FOR/OF SB.)，不定式做真正的主语。
B) IT IS，名词(A PLEASURE, A PITY, A PLEASANT THING, ONE'S DUTY, AN HONOR, A SHAME, A CRIME, NO EASY JOB...)，不定式
C) IT TAKES (SB.) SOME TIME (HOURS, MONTHS, DAYS, A LOT OF TIME, PATIENCE...)
，不定式
2(作宾语
- 24 - a(want，decide ，agree等动词后面跟并且只能跟不定式。如:
We agreed to start early(
She wants to be a doctor(
b(love，like ，begin，start，hate ，prefer等词后面可以接不定式。 点击规律:上述动词后面除接不定式外，还可以接动名词，意思无很大区别。 提示板:like doing指经常性动作，而like to do指一次性的动作。如: I like swimming，but I don't like to swim now(我喜欢游泳，但我现在不想游。 c(stop，forget，remember，go on ，try等词或短语后面可以接不定式。 点击规律:上述动词后面接不定式和接动名词意思大不相同。
提示板:
1)stop to do sth(:停止一件事，去做另一件事。 stop doing sth(:停止正在做的事。 例句:When the teacher came in，the students stopped talking;when he came out，the
students stopped to talk(
当老师走进来时，学生们停止说话;当老师走出去时，学生们又开始说话。 2)思考:forget，remember，go on，try等词或短语后面接不定式和动名词用法有何区别, d(在find,feel，it，adj(，to do sth(句型中，it是形式宾语，真正的宾语是后面的动词不
定式。如:
The man downstairs found it difficult to get to sleep(
I feel it easy to recite the text(
某些动词或短语后面既可以接动词不定式作宾语，又可接动名词作宾语，二者用法上的区别
可以通过造句子加以区分，如上面stop例句。
3(作宾语补足语
a(tell，ask，want，order，teach，invite，warn，wish，help，get，wish，help等词后面
常接不定式作宾补。如:
I tell him not to go there by bus (
Edison's mother taught him to read and write(
b(let，make，have，see，hear，feel，watch， notice，observe, listen to, smell,feel,find
后面接不带to的不定式作宾补。如:
The boss makes them work 16 hours a day(
I heard her sing in the next room(
提示:若变成被动语态，在上述结构中，不定式符号to要加上。如:
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They are made to work 16 hours a day by the boss(
She was heard to sing in the next room(
4(作定语:放在被修饰的名词、代词后面
例句:I have a lot of work to do(
The doctor said he could do nothing to help the boy(
动词不定式若在句中作定语，常放在被修饰的名词、代词之后。 如果动词不定式和前面所修饰的词构成动宾关系，若动词是不及物动词，切记不要忘掉介词。
如:
I have a small bedroom to live in(
Have you got some pens to write with,
5(表语:放在连系动词be后面
例句:His wish is to become a scientist(
The first important thing is to save the soldiers' lives(
当务之急是抢救战士们的生命。
动词不定式在句中作表语时，通常对连系动词前面的名词进行诠释说明。 6(作状语
a(目的状语:放在go，come，use，live，in order等词后面。如: I come to see you(
He runs fast in order to get there in time(
b(原因状语:放在sorry，glad，surprised， disappointed，excited等词后面。如: I am glad to see you here(
I am sorry to trouble you(
c(作结果状语。如:
Some of the apples are hard to reach(
The room is large enough to hold 1000 people(
7(与what，who，whose，when，where， how等疑问词连用，作宾语、宾语补足语、主
语等。如:
I don't know what to do next((宾语)
He taught us how to use the computer((宾语补足语)
It's still a question how to get there((主语)
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Lesson 11 A Conversation 定义:情态动词不表示行为或者状态，而表示说话人对行为或状态的看法。
情态动词有can (could), may (might), must, have to, shall (should, will (would), dare (dared),
need (needed), ought to等。 情态动词无人称和数的变化，既不能加s或者es;不能单独使用，必须与其后的动词原形构成谓语。情态动词的疑问句形式则将这类动词提到句首,变成否定句时直接在后面加not即可。
一、 can, could
1) 表示能力(体力、知识、技能)。
Can you lift this heavy box?(体力) Mary can speak three languages.(知识) Can you skate?(技能)
此时可用be able to代替。Can只有一般现在时和一般过去式;而be able to则有更多的时态。 I‘ll not be able to come this afternoon.
当表示―经过努力才得以做成功某事‖时应用be able to，不能用Can。如: He was able to go to the party yesterday evening in spite of the heavy rain.
2) 表示请求和允许。
-----Can I go now?
----- Yes, you can. / No, you can‘t.
此时可与may互换。在疑问句中还可用could,
might代替，不是过去式，只是语气更委婉，不能用于肯定句和答语中。
---- Could I come to see you tomorrow? ---- Yes, you can. ( No, I‘m afraid not. )
3) 表示客观可能性(客观原因形成的能力)。
They‘ve changed the timetable, so we can go by bus instead.
This hall can hold 500 people at least. 4) 表示推测(惊讶、怀疑、不相信的态度)，用于疑问句、否定句和感叹句中。 Can this be true? This can‘t be done by him.
How can this be true?
二、 may, might
1) 表示请求和允许。might比 may语气更委婉，而不是过去式。否定回答时可用can‘t 或mustn‘t，表示―不可以，禁止‖。
----Might/ May I smoke in this room? --- No, you mustn‘t.
---- May/Might I take this book out of the room? ---- Yes, you can. (No, you can‘t / mustn‘t. )
用May I...,征徇对方许可时比较正式和客气，而用Can I...,在口语中更常见。 2)用于祈使句，表示祝愿。
May you succeed!
3) 表示推测、可能性(不用于疑问句)。
might不是过去式，它所表示的可能性比may小。
1(He may /might be very busy now. 2(Your mother may /might not know the truth. 三、 must, have to
1) 表示必须、必要。
You must come in time.
在回答引出的问句时，如果是否定的，不能用mustn‘t(禁止，不准)，而用needn‘t, don‘t have to
(不必).
---- Must we hand in our exercise books today? ---- Yes, you must.
---- No, you don‘t have to / you needn‘t.
2) must是说话人的主观看法， 而have to则强调客观需要。Must只有一般现在时， have to 有更多的时态形式。
1( he play isn‘t interesting, I really must go now.
2( I had to work when I was your age.
- 27 - 3) 表示推测、可能性(只用于肯定的陈述句)
1( You‘re Tom‘s good friend, so you must know what he likes best. 2( Your mother must be waiting for you now. 二:不定代词some,any,no的用法。
Some和any都是一些的意思，some一般用于肯定句当中，sny用于否定句和疑问句当中。 There are some students in the classroom. We don‘t have any money with us.
No可以代替not any.
由some, any ,no, every.构成的复合不定代词的用法
?由some;any ;no 和every 可以与one ,body ,thing构成复合不定代词，它们的用法与some. any 的用法相同。如:
-some -any -no -every -body Somebody(有人，某人) Anybody(任何人) Nobody(没有人) Everybody(每人，人
人) -one Someone(有人，某人) Anyone(任何人) No one(没有人) Everyone(人人，每
人) -thing Something(某事) Anything(任何事) Nothing(没有东西) Everything(一切，事
事)
学习时请特别注意以下几点:
1.以上不定代词做主语时,谓语动词用单数形式. Everyone is here. 2.不定代词被形容词、动词不定式修饰时, 该形容词、动词不定式要放在其后。 I have something important to tell you. 3.在表示请求、建议或邀请等期待一个肯定回答时，用some系列, 而不用any系列。 Can I get something to drink?
4. any系列一般用于否定句和疑问句中，但如有必要也可用于肯定句或if条件从句中，表示―任何人(物/事)‖的含义.
I don't have anything to say. I like our school library, I can read anything I like. If anyone kno
ws the answer, hands up.
5.当句中有little, few, seldom, hardly，never, without等半否定意义的副词、形容词、介词或如too…to等具有否定意义的其它结构时，通常用any系列词项。如:
I seldom eat anything in the morning, because of no time.
6.every系列一般用于肯定句中，如果用于否定句则表示部分否定(不完全否定)。如: Not everyone likes smoking.=Everyone doesn't like smoking.(并不是所有人喜欢抽烟.)
7.在everyone, everybody, nobody, no one(指人的不定代词)出现的上下文中，要用复数人称代词与之对应。everything，something等代替物的不定代词出现的上下文中，要用单数it来代替。
Everyone is here,aren't they? Yes, they are in the classroom.
Everything is OK, so it is!
8. 当陈述句的主语是指人的复合不定代词(-one,-body)时，其反意疑问部分的主语用they， 当陈述句的主语是指物的复合不定代词(-thing)时，其反意疑问部分的主语用it.(同第七条例子) 9.回答how many 或how much开头的问句用 none, 回答who开头的问句用 nobody 或no one;回答what 引导的问句用nothing。
如: How many books do you have /how much money do you have? None
Who is in the classroom? Nobody/No one. What can you see on the blackboard? Nothing. 10.注意none, nothing, no one的区别: none 可以和of 连用，其它的不能和of连用; None of us is/are right.
none 与all 反义。
作主语时，谓语动词可用单数,也可用复数。 None(指人或物)=nothing(物)+no one/nobody(人)
Lesson 12 the donkey‘s shadow
一般过去时 :概念:过去某个时间里发生的动作或状态;过去习惯性、经常性的动作、行为;常与表示过去的时间状语连用。
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She often came to help us in those days.
I didn't know you were so busy. 一般过去时表示(1)过去某个特定时间发生，并且一下子就完成了的动作(即:非持续性动作)，也可以表示(2)过去习惯性的动作。一般过去时不强调动作对现在的影响，只说明过去。
句式:主语+过去动词+其他
I talked with Julia this morning.今天早晨，我跟朱丽亚说了几句话。(1)
He smoked many cigarettes a day until he gave up. 他没有戒烟的那阵子，
抽烟抽得可凶了。
句子中谓语动词是用一般过去时还是用现在完成时，取决于动作是否对现在有影响。
Have you had your lunch? 你吃过午饭了吗,(意思是说你现在不饿吗,)
Yes, I have. 是的，我已经吃过了。(意思是说已经吃饱了，不想再吃了。)
When did you have it? 你是什么时候吃的,(关心的是吃的动作发生在何时。)
I had it about ten minutes ago. 我是大约十分钟以前吃的。
Used to do something 表示过去常做而现在已经停止了的习惯动作。
I used to work fourteen hours a day. 我过去常常一天干十四个小时。
I ate it at 6:45。我在六点四十五分吃了。
一般过去时的基本用法
1 带有确定的过去时间状语时，要用过去时
如:yesterday(昨天)、two days ago…(两天前…… )、last year…(去年…)、the other day
(前几天)、once upon a time(过去曾经)、 just now(刚才)、in the old days(过去的日子里)、before liberation(解放前…)、 When I was 8 years old(当我八岁时…)、at+一个时间点
Did you have a party the other day,
前几天，你们开了晚会了吗,
Lei Feng was a good soldier.
雷锋是个好战士。
注意:在谈到已死去的人的情况时，多用过去时。
2 表示过去连续发生的动作时，要用过去时
这种情况下，往往没有表示过去的时间状语，而通过上下文来表示。
The boy opened his eyes for a moment，looked at the captain，and then died.
那男孩把眼睛张开了一会儿，看看船长，然后就去世了。
3 表示过去一段时间内经常或反复的动作
常与always，never等连用。
Mrs. Peter always carried an umbrella.
彼得太太过去老是带着一把伞。
(只是说明她过去的动作，不表明她现在是否常带着伞。)
比较:Mrs. Peter always carries an umbrella.
彼得太太老是带着伞。
(说明这是她的习惯，表明她现在仍然还习惯总带着一把伞)
I never drank wine.我以前从不喝酒。(不涉及到现在，不说明现在是否喝酒)
4 如果强调已经终止的习惯时要用used to do
He used to drink.
他过去喝酒。(意味着他现在不喝酒了。喝酒这个动作终止了)
I used to take a walk in the morning.
我过去是在早晨散步。(意味着现在不在早晨散步了)
比较: I took a walk in the morning.
我曾经在早晨散过步。(只是说明过去这一动作)
5 有些句子，虽然没有表示过去确定时间的状语，但实际上是指过去发生的动作或存在的状态的话，也要用过去时，
I didn't know you were in Paris.
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我不知道你在巴黎。(因为在说话时，我已经知道你在巴黎了。这句话指的是说话之前，所以只能用过去时表示。实际上，这句话暗指:But now I know you are here.)
I thought you were ill.
我以为你病了呢。(这句话应是在说话之前，我以为你病了。但是现在我知道你没病)
介词为虚词，不能单独充当句子成分，必须同名词、代词、短语、句子构成介词短语，才能充当句子成分。介词短语在句中常作表语、定语、状语和补足语。
一、介词及介词短语
介词像个―游离体‖， 名前动后常出现，
一旦组成―某结构‖， 句中成分有一位。
―介+宾‖叫―介短‖，
―动+介‖——动词性， ―及、不及物‖谓语用。
注 ?介词后面的名词、代词或数词是介词的宾语，介词和介词宾语合成介词短语。介词短语在句中的语法作用相当于形容词或副词，在句中做宾(主)语、补足语、表语、定语或状语。 ?―动词+介词(副词)‖组成一个动词词组或短语动词，其语法作用相当于一个及物动词或不及物动词，在句中作谓语。
二、介词在句中的位置
before时空在之前， after之后 off远离。
直上 over， above斜， under， below下相反。
直到till， on表面， 穿过through， for因缘。
by表旁边 in里面， with伴随 by乘(车船)。
时间地点at、in、on， 二者between 多among，
behind后面 beside旁， 附近near 沿着along。
from来自 like像， 表示目的 for， to当，到。
of所属期 周围round， 向上up 向下down。
年前周前要用in， 具体日子要用on， 遇到几号也用on，
上午下午得是in ， 要说某日上下午 ，用on换in记清楚
午夜黄昏用at ， 黎明用它也不错 ，at用在时分前
说―差‖可要用上to 说"过''要用past
三，介语短语:介词和它后面所跟的名词或代词一起构成的短语，介语短语可以在句子中做定语，状语和表语。
A 作定语:
This is the map of Wuhan.
It‘s time for lunch.
The life in the country was very happy. B 作状语:
We usually go to bed at half past eleven.
We must work hard for a better future. C 做表语:
My classmates are from many different areas.
He is at work= he is working.
现在分词
一、现在分词的两个基本特点。
1. 在时间上表示动作正在进行。例如: a developing country. 一个发展中的国家， boiling water 沸水， rising sun 冉冉升起的太阳。(试比较: a developed country 一个发达国家， boiled water 白开水， risen sun 升起的太阳)
2. 在语态上表示主动。例如: the ruling class 统治阶级， the exploiting class 剥削阶级。(试比较: the ruled class 被统治阶级， the exploited class 被剥削阶级)
二、现在分词的作用。
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1. 现在分词作定语，表示正在进行的或主动的动作。也可以说明被修饰词的性质和特征，此时可换成相应的定语从句。例如:
? There was a terrible noise following the sudden burst of light.
表示主动的动作，句意是:雷声跟着闪电。此处的 following , which was following 。
? He saw a flying bird and raised his bow.
表示正在进行的动作，句意是:正在飞的鸟。此处的 a flying bird , a bird which was flying 。
? I was satisfied with the exciting speech.
表示被修饰词 speech 的性质和特征，此处的 the exciting speech , the speech that/which was exciting 。
2. 现在分词作状语时，可作时间、条件、结果、原因和伴随状语，表示正在进行的或主动的动作。此时分词的逻辑主语就是主句的主语，因此要注意人称、时态和语态的一致性。例如:
? The visiting minister expressed his satisfaction with the talks, adding that he had enjoyed
his stay here.
句意:来访的大臣表示了对谈判的满意，同时又补充说道他呆在这里很愉快。 adding 作伴随状语，表示主动的动作。所以应用现在分词作伴随状语。
? European football is played in more than 80 countries, making it the most popular sport
in the world.
句意:欧式足球在 80 多个国家开展，其结果是它使欧式足球成为世界上最受欢迎的体育运动。 making 是现在分词作结果状语。
? Seeing from the top of the hill, we can find that the city looks more beautiful.
句意:从山顶上看，我们发现这个城市更漂亮， Seeing 是逻辑主语就是主句的主语 we ，表示正在进行的主动动作。
3. 现在分词作补足语，表示正在进行的或主动的动作。例如:
? Soon they could see the steam rising from the wet clothes.
句意:不久他们就看到蒸气从衣服上升起来了。Rising作steam的宾语补足语。
Lesson 13 another chance? 状语从句 (Adverbial Clause)
状语从句指句子用作状语时，起副词作用的句子。它可以修饰谓语、非谓语动词、定语、状语或整个句子。根据其作用可分为时间、地点、原因、条件、目的、结果、让步、方式和比较等从句。状语从句一般由连词(从属连词)引导，也可以由词组引起。从句位于句首或句中时通常用逗号与主句隔开，位于句尾时可以不用逗号隔开。
种类 :用来修饰谓语动词、其它动词、定语、状语或整个句子的从句叫做状语从句。状语从句可分为:
1.时间状语从句;(adverbial clause of time)
2.地点状语从句;(adverbial clause of place)
3.原因状语从句;(adverbial clause of cause)
4.条件状语从句;(adverbial clause of condition)
5.目的状语从句;(adverbial clause of purpose)
6.让步状语从句;(adverbial clause of concession)
7.比较状语从句;(adverbial clause of comparison)
8.方式状语从句;(adverbial clause of manner)
9.结果状语从句。(adverbial clause of result)
一( 时间状语从句
常用引导词:when, as, while, as soon as, before, after, since , till, until
特殊引导词:the minute, the moment, the second, every time, the day，the instant, immediately , directly, no sooner … than, hardly …when, scarcely … when
I didn‘t realize how special my mother was until I became an adult.
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While John was watching TV, his wife was cooking.
The children ran away from the orchard(果园) the moment they saw the guard.
No sooner had I arrived home than it began to rain.
Every time I listen to your advice, I get into trouble.
When Mike touched his bed, it turned to gold
When Susan goes to town, she will visit her grandma.
We shall help them as soon as we finish our work
When, as, while引导时间状语的区别
一、when可以和延续性动词连用，也可以和短暂性动词连用;而while和as只能和延续性动词连用。
? Why do you want a new job when you‘ve got such a good one already,(get为短暂性动词)你已经找到如此好的工作，为何还想再找新的,
?Sorry，I was out when you called me((call为短暂性动词)对不起，你打电话时我刚好外出了。
?Strike while the iron is hot((is为延续性动词，表示一种持续的状态)趁热打铁。 ? The students took notes as they listened((listen为延续性动词)学生们边听课边做笔记。 二、when从句的谓语动词可以在主句谓语动作之前、之后或同时发生;while和as从句的谓语动作必须是和主句谓语动作同时发生。
1(从句动作在主句动作前发生，只用 when。
?When he had finished his homework，he took a short rest((finished先发生)当他完成作业后，他休息了一会儿。
?When I got to the airport，the guests had left((got to后发生)当我赶到飞机场时，客人们已经离开了。
2(从句动作和主句动作同时发生，且从句动作为延续性动词时，when，while，as都可使用。 ?When ,While ,As we were dancing，a stranger came in((dance为延续性动词)当我们跳舞时，一位陌生人走了进来。
?When ,While ,As she was making a phonecall，I was writing a letter((make为延续性动词)当她在打电话时，我正在写信。
3(当主句、从句动作同时进行，从句动作的时间概念淡化，而主要表示主句动作发生的背景或条件时，只能用 as。这时，as常表示―随着……‖;―一边……，一边……‖之意。
? As the time went on，the weather got worse((as表示―随着……‖之意)
? The atmosphere gets thinner and thinner as the height increases(随着高度的增加，大气越来越稀薄。
?As years go by，China is getting stronger and richer(随着时间一年一年过去，中国变得越来越富强了。
?The little girls sang as they went(小姑娘们一边走，一边唱。
?The sad mother sat on the roadside，shouting as she was crying(伤心的妈妈坐在路边，边哭边叫。
4(在将来时从句中，常用when，且从句须用一般时代替将来时。
?You shall borrow the book when I have finished reading it(在我读完这本书后，你可以借阅。 ?When the manager comes here for a visit next week，I‘ll talk with him about this(下周，经理来这参观时，我会和他谈谈此事。
三、when用于表示―一……就……‖的句型中(指过去的事情)。
sb(had hardly(,scarcely) done sth(when(((,Hardly , Scarcely had sb(done sth(when(((
?I had hardly ,scarcely closed my eyes when someone knocked at the door(,Hardly ,
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Scarcely had I closed my eyes when someone knocked at the door(我刚一闭上眼，就有人在
敲门了。
?I had hardly ,scarcely entered my room when the telephone rang(,Hardly ,Scarcely had I entered my room when the telephone rang(我刚一走进房门，电话就响了
二( 地点状语从句
常用引导词:where
特殊引导词:wherever, anywhere, everywhere
Generally, air will be heavily polluted where there are factories.
Wherever you go, you should work hard.
I will go where I am needed.
三( 原因状语从句
常用引导词:because, since, as, for
特殊引导词:seeing that, now that, in that, considering that, given that.
My friends dislike me because I‘m handsome and successful.
Now that everybody has come, let‘s begin our conference.
The higher income tax is harmful in that it may discourage people from trying to earn more.
Considering that he is no more than 12 years old, his height of 1.80 m is quite remarkable.
As,for,since,because 引导原因状语区别:
这四个词作为连词，都有―因为‖的意思，都可以用来作为一个动作或情况提供原因或理由，但
它们在用法上有区别:
because是从属连词，接表示直接原因的从句，往往放在句末(有时也放在句首)，直接明白地说
明因果关系。因此，在回答why的提问时或原句有just, only, not…but all等副词强调原因时必须
用because.
for是并列连语。直接表示间接原因的并列分句，for除此之外了表示因果关系外，还可以述说对
主句中的事实或看法的解释。for引导的句子一般放在句尾。试比较:
He isn't here today because he is ill.因为他病了，所以他今天没有来。
He must be ill, for he isn't here.他今天没来，看来一定是生病了。
It will rain, for it's getting dark, 要下雨了，因为天气越来越暗了。
It must be snowing, for it is so bright outside.一定在下雪，外面这么亮。
since和as是从属连词，说明的是已为人们所知和理由。since的语气比because弱，但比as
强。since和as引导的从句一般放在句子的开头。
Since he was busy, he didn't come.他因为忙，所以没来。
As I have a day off today, I'll write to you. 因为我今天有一天假，所以就给你写信。
此外，since也可以述说推断的理。
如: It must have rained, since the ground is wet. 一定下过雨，因为地是湿的.
As,for,since,because―因为，由于‖所表达意思的语气的顺序是be,cause，since，as，for
四( 目的状语从句
常用引导词:so that, in order that
特殊引导词:lest, in case, for fear that，in the hope that, for the purpose that, to the end that
The boss asked the secretary to hurry up with the letters so that he could sign them.
The teacher raised his voice on purpose that the students in the back could hear more
clearly.
五( 结果状语从句
常用引导词: so… that, such … that,
特殊引导词:such that, to the degree that, to the extent that, to such a degree that,
He got up so early that he caught the first bus.
- 33 -
It‘s such a good chance that we must not miss it.
To such an degree was he excited that he couldn‘t sleep last night.
六( 条件状语从句
常用引导词:if, unless,
特殊引导词:as/so long as, only if, providing/provided that, supposing that, in case that, on
condition that
We‘ll start our project if the president agrees.
You will certainly succeed so long as you keep on trying.
Provided that there is no opposition, we shall hold the meeting here.
七( 让步状语从句
常用引导词:though, although, even if, even though
特殊引导词: as(用在让步状语从句中必须要倒装)，while ( 一般用在句首 )，no matter …， in spite of the fact that, while, whatever, whoever, wherever, whenever, however, whichever
Much as I respect him, I can‘t agree to his proposal.
尽管我很尊敬他， 我却不同意他的建议。
The old man always enjoys swimming even though the weather is rough.
No matter how hard he tried, she could not change her mind.
He won‘t listen whatever you may say.
八( 比较状语从句
常用引导词:as(同级比较), than(不同程度的比较)
特殊引导词:the more … the more … ; just as …， so…; no … more than; as…as
She is as bad-tempered as her mother.
The house is three times as big as ours.
The more you exercise, the healthier you will be.
九( 方式状语从句
常用引导词:as, as if, how
特殊引导词:the way
When in Rome, do as the Roman do.
She behaved as if she were the boss.
Sometimes we teach our children the way our parents have taught us.
10. 状语从句的简化
?状语从句的省略
状语从句的"简化"现象常存在于以下五种状语从句中:?由if, unless等引导的条件状语从句;?由although, though, even if / though等引导的让步状语从句;?由when, while, as, before, after, until / till等引导的时间状语从句;?由as, as if等引导的方式状语从句;?由as, than等引导的比较状语从句。下面针对这五种情形作一归纳。
(1)当状语从句的主语是it,且谓语动词是be时,it和be要完全简化掉。例如:
If (it is) possible, he will help you out of the difficulty.如果可能的话,他会帮你摆脱困境。
You must attend the meeting unless (it is) inconvenient to you.除非情况对你来说不方便,否则你必须出席这次会议。
(2)当状语从句的主语和主句的主语一致时,从句可以将主语和be动词简化掉。常用于以下几种情形:
a.连词+形容词
As (he was) young, he learned how to ride a bike.他小时候就学会了骑自行车。
Whenever (she is) free, she often goes shopping.她有空就去逛商店。
Work hard when (you are) young, or you‘ll regret.少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲。
b.连词+名词
While (he was) a young boy, he was always ready to help others.他在孩提时代就乐于助人。
Although (he was) a farmer, now he is a famous director.尽管他曾是个农民,而现在是位著名
- 34 - 的导演了。
c.连词+现在分词
As (she was) walking along the river bank, she was singing a pop song.她沿着河堤边走边唱着流行歌曲。
Although (he is) doing his best in maths these days, he has still got no good marks.尽管近来他一直在学数学,但他仍然没有取得好成绩。
d.连词+过去分词
He won‘t go there with us unless (he is) invited.除非受到邀请,否则他不会和我们一道去那里。
The concert was a great success than (it was) expected.这场音乐会出乎意料地取得了巨大成功。
e.连词+不定式
He stood up as if (he were) to say something.当时他站起来好像要说什么。He wouldn‘t solve the problem even if (he were) to take charge.即使他来负责,他也解决不了这个问题。
f. 连词+介词短语
She looked anxious as though (she was) in trouble.她看上去很焦急,好像遇到了麻烦。
He had mastered the English language before (he was) in the USA.他到美国之前就懂英语了。
注意:当从句主语和主句主语不一致时,从句部分要么用完全形式,要么用独立主格结构来表达。例如:
When the meeting was over, all the people went out of the meeting-room.当会议结束时,人们都走出了会议室。(=The meeting over,
简单句，复合句和并列句:
英语句子按其结构可分为简单句，复合句，并列句和并列复合句。
1(简单句:只包含一个主谓结构的句子，如: I like it, Is this new? What a nice room this is.
Sit down, please!
2. 复合句:包含一个主句，一个或一个以上从句的句子，从句不能独立成句，在整个复合句中，从句可以作主语，宾语，表语，定语，或状语。
The teacher said that there was a dictation the next day.( 名词从句作宾语)
I bought the books which I loved.(从句作定语，修饰the books)
That is what I want.(从句作表语)
3( 并列句:包含两个或两个以上的主谓结构，常用and, but, or , for 等并列连词连接句子。
This is old and that is dull.
I like it, but he does not.
You can do it for me, or I‘ll do it myself.
It will be fine tomorrow, for there are stars in the sky.
4. 并列复合句:在两个或两个以上的并列句中，包含着一个或几个主从复合句。
You can do what you want, and I can do what I want.
Lesson 14 The Lost watch
一(现在完成时:结构:主语+ have+动词过去分词+其他
现在完成时的三种用法:
1( 表示一个已经发生，但对现在仍有影响的动作。
- 35 -
They have left.( 表明他现在不在这里)
Someone has turned off the light.( 表明现在灯是灭的)
I have read the book. (表明我已经了解了书中的内容)
2(表示从过去某时到现在这段时间发生的事情。
We have learned six hundred words this term.
They have built hundreds of houses in the past three years.
Great changes have taken place in China since 1949.
3. 表示一个由过去某时持续到现在的动作或状态。
I have lived here for four years.
He has worked for ten hours today.
二(现在完成时与一般过去时的比较
一般过去时和现在完成时所表示的动作都发生在过去时，一般过去时只表示过去发生的动作的本身，不涉及到与现在的关系，而现在完成时则强调发生在过去的动作对现在的影响，主要说明现在的情况。
I have seen the film.(现在还记得)
I saw the film yesterday. (昨天做过的一件事)
Who has opened the door? (门现在还开着)
Who opened the door?( 门可能关上了)
How long has she worked there?( 她到现在还在这里工作)
How long did she work there?( 她现在不在这里工作了)
有时，还可以从使用的时间状语来判断该用什么时态，如果时间状语是表示确定的过去时间，则不能用现在完成时，与现在完成时相关的时间状语有:
1) already, (not) yet, just, never, ever, 等表示不定时间的状语。
She has just come back from Australia.
I have not finished my work yet.
Have you ever seen that picture?
2) 表示包括现在在内的过去一段时间的状语。 Today, this morning, this week, since 1999, for +
时间段。
We have had two classes this morning.
They have not seen each other since 1999.
常用不规则动词的过去式与过去分词:
A. 原形与过去式和过去分词完全相同.
cost----cost----cost cut----cut----cut put----put----put
let----let----let set----set----set hit----hit----hit
shut----shut----shut hurt---hurt----hurt read---read----read 读音/e/ lie---lied---lied 说谎 lay---laid---laid 放置，下蛋 lay--- lain 躺下，位于，平放 B. 过去式与过去分词完全相同
1. 过去式和过去分词中含有ought, aught, 读音是, :t,
bright----brought----brought think----thought----thought
buy----bought----bought
catch----caught----caught
teach ---- taught ----taught
2. 动词原形中的e为o，变成过去式和过去分词。
- 36 -
get----got----got sell----sold----sold tell----told----told
3. 动词原形中i为a, …
sit----sat----sat spit----spat----spat 4. 动词原形中i为o, …
win----won----won shine----shone/ shined----shone / shined 5. 动词原形中an为oo, …
stand----stood---stood understand----understood----understood
6. 动词原形中的ay为ai,…
say----said----said pay----paid----paid 7. a)动词原形中的d为t,…
send----sent----sent lend----lent----lent spend----spent----spent build----built----built b ) 动词原形最后一个字母改为t , …
smell----smelt----smelt lose----lost----lost c ) 动词原形后加一个字母t, …
learn----learnt----learnt mean----meant----meant 读音/e/
d ) 动词原形中的ee去掉一个字母e, 然后在词尾加t. 字母e发音/e/
feel----felt----felt sleep----slept----slept sweep---swept----swept keep---- kept----- kept meet----met----met have----had----had hold----held----held make----made----made dig----dug----dug hear----heard----heard find----found----found hang----hung ----hung
C.原型与过去分词相同
come----came----come run----ran----run become----became----become
D. 原形，过去式， 和 过去分词完全不同
1. 把动词原形中i改为a变成过去式，改成u变成过去分词(
begin ---- began -----begun drink---drank----drunk ring----rang-----rung
swim----swam----swum sing----sang----sung
2. 把动词原形中o改为e变成过去式，在原形词尾加n变成过去分词(
blow----blew----blown
grow----grew----grown
know---knew---known
throw ---- threw ---- thrown
fly ----flew /flu:/ ----flown ( 和以上相似)
3. 以下动词的过去分词都以en结尾，故把它们分为一类(
a ) 把动词原形中i改为o变成过去式，在词尾加n变成过去分词(
drive----drove----driven
rise---rose---risen
write---wrote---written (双写t )
ride----rode----ridden (双写d )
b ) 把动词原形中ea改为o, 在词尾加e变成过去式，在过去式后加n变成过去分词(
speak----spoke----spoken
steal----stole----stolen
break----broke----broken
- 37 - c ) 把动词原形中的个别字母或字母组合改为o变成过去式, 在过去式后加n变成过去分词(
wake----woke----woken freeze----froze----frozen
choose----chose----chosen forget----forgot----forgotten (双写t，加en )
d) 其它过去分词以en结尾的动词
eat----ate----eaten beat---- beat ---- beaten fall----fell----fallen
give----gave----given see----saw----seen take----took----taken
mistake---- mistook----- mistaken hide----hid----hidden (双写d )
E. 没有过去分词的动词
can ----- could , may---- might , shall---- should, will ---- would ,
其它
am, is ---- was----- been are-----were----- been do-----did----- done draw-----drew----- drawn, go-----went----- gone show----showed----shown
wear--- wore ---- worn
Lesson 15 in the café
过去进行时:表示过去某时正在进行的动作。
主要用法
1.表示过去某一时间内(正在)进行的动作
如:I was doing my homework at 9 p.m. last Sunday.
2.表示一动作正在进行时，另一动作同时正在进行.
(1)用while连接(while只接doing)
eg:My mother was cooking while I was doing my homework.(可以持续动作时态一致)
(2)when表示(when可以接doing或did，when后动作时间长，用doing，时间短，用did)
eg:I was doing my homework when my mother came in.(间接表达了具体时间)
3.重复的动作
When he worked here, John was always making mistakes.
4.表示过去将要发生的动作(与短暂性动词连用)
She told us Mr.Lee was arriving here.
通常不能用于过去进行时的动词主要有:agree, is,am,are, believe, belong, care, forget, hate,
have(拥有), hear, know, like, love, mean, mind, notice, own, remember, seem, suppose,
understand, want, wish等。
Lesson 16 Sambo(1)
重点和难点:标点符号
1. 句号 Period [.]
用以表示一个句子的结束:
Hockey is a popular sport in Canada.
The federal government is based in Ottawa.
用在缩写中:
B.C. is the province located on the West Coast.
Dr. Bethune was a Canadian who worked in China.
The company is located at 888 Bay St. in Toronto.
It is 4:00 p.m. in Halifax right now.
2. 问号 Question Mark [?]
- 38 -
在句子的结尾使用问号表示是直接疑问句:How many provinces are there in Canada?
注意:在间接疑问句结尾不要加问号:
The teacher asked the class a question.
Do not ask me why.
3. 叹号 Exclamation Mark [!]
在句子的结尾使用叹号表示惊讶、兴奋等情绪:
We won the Stanley Cup!
The forest is on fire!
4. 逗号 Comma [,]
句子中的停顿:Therefore, we should write a letter to the prime minister.
在疑问句中引出说话人:"I can come today," she said, "but not tomorrow."
排列三个或以上的名词:Ontario, Quebec, and B.C. are the three biggest provinces.
引出定语从句:Emily Carr, who was born in 1871, was a great painter.
5. 单引号 Apostrophe [']
表示所有:This is David's computer.
These are the player's things. (Things that belong to the player)
Note: 对于复数形式的名词，只加'
These are the players' things. (Things that belong to the players)
缩写I don't know how to fix it.
6. 引号Quotation Marks ["]
直接引出某人说的话:
The prime minister said, "We will win the election."
"I can come today," she said, "but not tomorrow."
7. 冒号Colon [:]
引出一系列名词:There are three positions in hockey: goalie, defense, and forward.
引出一个较长的引语:The prime minister said: "We will fight. We will not give up. We will win
the next election."
8. 分号Semicolon [;]
将两个相关的句子连接起来:The festival is very popular; people from all over the world visit each year.
和逗号一同使用引出一系列名词:The three biggest cities in Canada are Toronto, Ontario; Montreal, Quebec; and Vancouver, B.C.
9. 破折号Dash [-]
在一个句子前作总结:Mild, wet, and cloudy - these are the characteristics of weather in Vancouver.
在一个句子的前面或后面加入额外的注释:The children - Pierre, Laura, and Ashley - went to the store. Most Canadians - but not all - voted in the last election.
表示某人在说话过程中被打断:The woman said, "I want to ask - " when the earthquake began to shake the room.
10. 连字符Hyphen [-]
连接两个单词:sweet-smelling; fire-resistant
将前缀:anti-Canadian; non-contact
在数字中使用:one-quarter; twenty-three
Lesson 17 Sambo(2)
英语句子成份
英语句子的组成部分,包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语、表语、同位语七种。
主语是句子叙述的主体，可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式、动名词和主语从句
等来承担。
- 39 - 谓语说明主语所发出的动作或具有的特征和状态。谓语由动词来承担。
宾语是动作的对象或承受者，常位于及物动词或介词后面。宾语可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式、动名词、宾语从句等来担任。
主语和谓语是英语句子的两大成分，除少数句子(如祈使句和感叹句等)外，一句话必须同时具有主语和谓语所表达的意思才能完整。主语是针对谓语而言的，是一句话的主题，谓语用来说明主语的情况，为主语提供信息。例如:They are working.主语是they(他们)，那么他们在做什么呢,没有谓语are working 是不行的。在正常情况下，英语的主语和谓语的位置与汉语一致，也就是说主语在前，谓语紧跟其后。
主语
定义:主语是句子陈述的对象，说明是谁或什么。表示句子说的是"什么人"或―什么事‖。主语是执行句子的行为或动作的主体。
哪些词可以充当主语
1,名词
例如:A mooncake is a delicious,round cake. The first truck is carrying a few baskets. The temperature will stay above zero. The doctor looked over Mrs. Brown very carefully. China does not want to copy the USA‘s example.
2,代词
例如: I don‘t know if it will grow.
That‘s a bit expensive.
You‘d better buy a new pair.
I‘m afraid we haven‘t got any black shoes.
3,数词
例如:One and two is three.
One is not enough for me. I want one more.
One of them is English.
Suddenly one of the bags fell off the truck.
Two will be enough.
4,不定式(常以 It‘s adj. to do sth. 形式出现)
例如: I found it difficult to get to sleep.
It‘s glad to see you again.
It was difficult to say.
But it‘s good to swim in summer.
5,IT 作主语，有如下情况:
1)指代刚刚提到的事物:What‘s this, It‘s a bus. (指代what)
2)指代一个你不知道或判断不清性别的人:Who‘s knocking the door? It‘s me. (指代 who)
Who‘s the baby in the picture? It‘s my sister. (指代 who)
3) 表示时间，天气，距离:
What‘s the time? It‘s eight o‘clock. (时间)
What‘s it going to be tomorrow? It‘s going to be rainy.(天气)
How far is it? It‘s about one kilometre away. (距离)
6(THERE 引起的There be 句型中，be 作谓语，主语位居其后。如:
There are many different kinds of mooncakes.
There will be a strong wind.
谓语
谓语由动词构成，依据其在句中繁简程度可把谓语分为简单谓语和复合谓语两类。不论何种时态，
- 40 - 语态，语气，凡由一个动词(或动词词组)构成的谓语都是简单谓语。例如:
I like walking.(一般现在时主动语态)
I made your birthday cake last night. (一般过去时主动语态)
It is used by travellers and business people all over the world. (一般现在时被动语态) 复合谓语也可分为两种情况:
第一种是由情态动词，助动词+动词原形构成的复合谓语:
What does this word mean?
I won‘t do it again.
I‘ll go and move away the bag of rice with Lin Tao.
You‘d better catch a bus.
第二种是由连系动词+表语构成的复合谓语。例如:
You look the same.
We are all here.
The weather gets wamer,and the days get longer.
Keep quite and listen to me.
He looked worried.
We have to get up early in the moming.
Is Bill in?
School Is over. Let‘s go home.
My pen is in my bag.
I feel terrible.
I fell tried all the time.
He seemed rather tired last night.
宾语
宾语是谓语动作所涉及的对象，它是动作的承受者，宾语可以由名词或起名词作用的成分担任，宾语一般放在谓语动词后面。
I saw a cat in the tree. 我看见树上有一只猫。
I want to go shopping. 我想去买东西。
He said he could be here. 他说他会来的。
We think you are right. 我们认为你是对的。
有些及物动词可以有两个宾语，其中一个宾语多指人，另一个宾语指物，指人的宾语叫做间接宾语，指物的宾语叫做直接宾语,可以带两个宾语的动词有 bring,give,show,send,pass,tell等。间接宾语一般放在直接宾语的前面，如果强调直接宾语可把直接宾语放在间接宾语的前面，但间接宾语前须加"to"。
My father bought me a book. 我父亲给我买了一本书。
Give the rubber to me. 把橡皮给我。
Please give the letter to XiaoLi. 请把这封信给小李。
定语:用于描述名词，代词，短语或从句的性质，特征范围等情况的词叫做定语，定语可以由名词，形容词和起名词和形容词作用的词，短语担任。如果定语是单个词，定语放在被修饰词的前面，如果是词组，定语放在被修饰词的后面。
That is a beautiful flower. 那是一朵漂亮的花。
The TV made in that factory is very good. 那个工厂生产的电视机很好。 There are more than twenty trees in our school. 我们学校里有二十多棵树。 I have a lot of things to do. 我有好多要做的事情。
Our country is a developing country. 我们的国家是一个发展中的国家。
状语
- 41 - 1(说明事物发生的时间，地点，原因，目的，结果方式，条件或伴随情况，程度等情况的词叫状语。
2(状语的功用:状语说明地点、时间、原因、目的、结果、条件、方向、程度、方式和伴随状况等。
3、状语一般由副词、介词短语、分词和分词短语、不定式或相当于副词的词或短语来担当。其位置一般放在句末，但也可放在句首或句中，修饰动词、形容词、副词等
A、副词一般在句子中做状语(
He speaks English very well. 他英语说得非常好.
He is playing under the tree.中的under the tree是地点状语.
B、不定式在句子中可以作目的状语。
I come specially to see you.我专门来看你.
C、介词短语
Ten years ago,She began to live in Dalian. The boy was praised for his bravery. D、从句作状语
When she was 12 years old,she began to live in Dalian.
If I am not busy tomorrow,I will play football with you.
E、分词作状语
Having had a quarrel with his wife,he left home in a bad temper。
补语
英语中补语的作用对象是主语和宾语，具有鲜明的定语性描写或限制性功能，在句法上是不可或缺的。补语是起补充说明作用的成份。最常见的是宾语补足语。名词、动名词、形容词、副词、不定式、现在分词、过去分词都可以在句子中作宾补。
1(主语的补语
它用在系动词后，是句子的一个基本成分。常用主,系,表结构。
I saw her with them,at least,I thought it was her. 我看到她和他们在一起，至少，至少我认为是她。(her做宾 语，them做介词宾语，her做主语补语)
2(. -- Who broke the vase? --谁打碎了花瓶,
-- Me. --我。(me做主语补语= It's me.)
3(John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she. (she做主语补语)
约翰希望那位乘客是玛丽，还真是她。
4.He was seen to come upstairs.
5. The dog is called Karl.
6. The classroom was found crowded with people.
宾语的补语
1(不定式(to do)
Father will not allow us to play on the street. 父亲不让我们在街上玩耍。
We believe him to be guilty. 我们相信他是有罪的。
We made him copy the sentence.
I felt my hands tremble.
2(名词
At the meeting we elected him monitor. I think your brother a clever boy. 3(形容词
What you said made Xiao Wang angry. I found the classroom empty
- 42 -
4(副词
Please call the students back at once.
He was seen to take his cap off.
5(现在分词
We hear him singing in the hall.
I found him lying in bed,sleeping.
6(过去分词
He saw his face reflected in the water. 表语
表语是用来说明主语的性质，身份，特征和状态。表语须和连系动词一起构成句子的复合谓语。表语
一般放在系动词之后。表语可以由名词，形容词或起名词和形容词作用的词和短语担任。
These desks are yellow.
这些桌子是黄色的。
I am all right.
我没事。
We are happy now.
我们现在很幸福。
It's over.
时间到了。
She is ten.
她十岁了。
My work is teaching English,
我的工作是教英语。
The dictionary is in the bag.
词典在书包里边。
My question is how you knew him.
我的问题是你如何认识他的。
同位语
当两个指同一事物的句子成分放在同等位置时，一个句子成分可被用来说明或解释另一个句子成分，
前者就叫做后者的同位语(appositive).这两个句子成分多由名词(代词)担任，同位语通常皆放在
其说明的名词(代词)之后。
This is Miss Chen,our English teacher.
这是陈小姐，我们的英语老师。
My parents both are teacher.
我父母俩都是老师。
We all like sports.
我们都喜欢运动。
Lesson 18 New York----A city of many faces
形容词，副词的原级，比较级和最高级
形容词比较级用于两者(人或事物之间的比较，表示其中一个比另一个"更……"或"较……"。例如:
this apple is bigger than that one.这个苹果比那个苹果大。
he is older than tom.他比汤姆年龄大。
最高级用于三者或三者以上的人或事物之间的比较，表示在众多人或事物中，其中一个"最……"。
例如:
kate is the shortest of the three.三人中凯特个子最矮。
- 43 - the red sweater is the cheapest of all the sweaters.在所有的毛衣中，那件红毛衣最便宜。 为了表示比较级的程度，可以用much,a lot,a little,a bit,even,still等作修饰词。 如: this box is much heavier than that one.这只箱子比那只箱子重得多。 另外，比较级后面往往用连词than连接另一个比较的人或事物，但在上下文明确的情况下，形容词比较级可单独使用。例如:
this ruler is very long,but that one is longer.这把尺子很长，那把尺子更长。 形容词最高级前通常要加the。但是，当形容词最高级前有序数词、物主代词、指示代词、名词所有格等限定词修饰时，最高级前不加the。如:
the chang jiang river is the longest river in china.长江是中国第一大河。
he is our best teacher.他是我们最好的老师。
最高级后面往往用of或in介词短语来表示形容词的最高级的比较范围。of短语所指的范围通常是一群人或一些事物，而不是一个场所;如果指一个场所，则用介词in。例如: he is the strongest of the three.他是三个人中身体最强壮的。
he is the strongest in our class.他是我们班里身体最强壮的。
四、当比较双方只出现一方(没有than及其后面的部分)，且句中含有of the two时，比较级前要加the。例如:
he is the taller of the two boys.他是两个男孩中较高的一个。
而形容词的最高级若在句中作表语，且又不与其它事物作比较时，前面不加the。例如: we are busiest on monday.我们星期一最忙。
五、表示一方随另一方的程度而变化时，用"the，比较级(主语，谓语)，the，比较级(主语，谓语)"结构，意为"越……，越……"。例如:
the busier he is,the happier he feels.他越忙，越高兴。
六、不同其它人或事物相比，表示本身程度的改变时，有"比较级，and，比较级"结构，意为"越来越……"。例如:
the weather is getting warmer and warmer.
Lesson 19 Man and the killers 定语从句(Attributive Clauses)在句中做定语，修饰一个名词或代词，被修饰的名词,词组或代词即先行词。定语从句通常出现在先行词之后，由关系词(关系代词或关系副词)引出。其作用是作定语修饰主句的某个名词性成分.
引导定语从句的关联词称为关系词，关系词有关系代词和关系副词。关系代词有that, which, who,
whom, whose, as等，绝对没有what;关系副词有where, when, why等。关系词常有3个作用:
?连接作用，引导定语从句。
?代替先行词。
?在定语从句中担当一个成分。
关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词，并在从句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。关系副词在从句中作地点状语(where)时间状语(when)，原因状语(why)。 1,who, whom, that这些词代替指人，whom作宾语指人，that既可作主语又可作宾语(作宾语可以省略)，可以指人也可以指物。在从句中所起作用如下:
(1) Is he the man who/that wants to see you? 他是那个想见你的男人吗,(who/that在从句中作主语)
(2) He is the man whom/ that I saw yesterday. 他就是我昨天见的那个人。(whom/that在从句中作宾语)
- 44 - (3)The man whom you spoke to just now is our English teacher 你刚刚说话的那个男人是我们的英语老师
2, whose表示谁(可以为人也可以为物)的(东西)
A child whose parents are dead is called an arphan.双亲都死了的孩子叫做孤儿。(whose表示那个孩子的双亲)
He lives in a room whose window faces south.他住的那个房子的窗户是朝南的。(whose表示那个房子的窗户)
3. that既可代表事物也可代表人，which代表事物;它们在从句中作主语或宾语，that在从句中作宾语时常可省略关系词，which在从省略。[eg:This is the book (which)you want. 关系副词: why (表示原因)，where(表示地点)，when(表示时间)在从句中作状语。 I don‘t know the reason why he became angry.
I can never forget the small town where I spent my childhood.
当从句的逻辑主语是some, any, no, somebody, anybody, nobody, something, anything,
everything或nothing时，常用there is 开头
There is somebody here who wants talk to you. 这里有人要和你说话。
作进一步说明，通常是引导词和先行词之间用逗号隔开，将从句拿掉后其他部分仍可成立. 非限制性定语从句
意义: 非限制性定语从句起补充说明作用，缺少也不会影响全句的理解。在非限制性定语从句的前面往往有逗号隔开,并由which 来引导。
This novel, which I have read three times, is very touching. 这本我已经读过三遍的小说很感人。 非限定性定语从句可将整个主句作为先行词, 对其进行修饰, 这时从句谓语动词要用第三人称单数，例如:He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me.他似乎没抓住我的意思，这使我心烦。
Liquid water changes to vapor, which is called evaporation. 液态水变为蒸汽，这就叫做蒸发。 区别:只能用which 不能用that 的情况
(a) 在引导非限定性定语从句时。
The tree, which is four hundred years old, Is very famous here.
(b) 介词后不能用。
We depend on the land from which we get our food.
We depend on the land that/which we get our food from.
只能用that 不可以用which的几种情况
1) 当先行词是:all , any , anything , everything , nothing或被它们修饰时。例如: Is there anything that I can do for you ? 有什么可以为你做的吗,
- 45 - All that can be done must be done .凡是能做的都必须做。
2)当先行词被形容词的最高级或序数词修饰时。例如:
That is one of the most interesting books that are sold in the bookshop .
那是这家书店出售的最有趣的书之一。
The first thing that we should do is to get some food .我们该做的第一件事是弄点吃的。
3)当先行词有:the only , the very , the same , the last 等修饰时。例如:
My necklace is not the only thing that's missing . 我的项链不仅是丢掉的东西。
4)当主句以who或which，that开头时，定语从句中引导词用that ,不用which 或 who 。以避免重复。例如:
Who is the girl that is wearing a red coat ?正穿一件红色外套的女孩子是谁,
Who is the man THAT is waiting at the school gate? Which is the car THAT ran over a dog yesterday? What did you see THAT made you so angry? 5)当先行词既有人又有物时，用that 。例如:
The writer and his novel that you have just talked about are really well known .
你刚才谈起的那位作家以及他的小说确实很著名。
6)当先行词是系动词be后面表语或关系词本身是从句的表语时
Shanghai isn't the city THAT it used to be 60 years ago. He is no longer the man THAT he used to be. 7) 当主句以There be…结构开头时，或关系代词在there be…结构中作实义主语，先行项为物 There is a seat in the corner that is still free. There are two books on the desk that are for you. 8) .当先行词是基数词时
Yesterday I caught two fish and put them in a basin of water. Now you can see the two THAT are
still alive.
Lesson 20 Attitude toward work 在句子中起名词作用的句子叫名词从句 (Noun Clauses)。 名词从句的功能相当于名词词组, 它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等，因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能，名词从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。
引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类:
连词:that(无任何词意),whether,if
连接代词:what, whatever, who, whoever, whom,
- 46 -
whose, which.whichever,whomever
连接副词:when, where, how, why
不可省略的连词:
1. 介词后的连词
2. 引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。
That she was chosen made us very happy.
We heard the news that our team had won.
whether与if 在作―是否‖的意思讲时在下列情况下一般只能用whether，不用if:
a. 引导主语从句并在句首时;b. 引导表语从句时;c . 引导从句作介词宾语时;d. 从句后有―or
not‖时;e. 后接动词不定式时。例如:
Whether there is life on the moon is an interesting question. 月球上有没有生命是个有趣的问题。
The question is whether she should have a low opinion of the test?
Everything depends on whether we have enough money. 一切要看我们是否有足够的钱。
I wonder whether he will come or not. 我想知道他来还是不来。
Can you tell me whether to go or to stay? 你能否告诉我是去还是留,
Whether he will come is not clear.
大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末，用 it充当形式主语。
It is not important who will go.
It is still unknown which team will win the match.
主语从句
作句子主语的从句叫主语从句。主语从句通常由从属连词that，whether，if和连接代词what，who，which，whatever，whoever以及连接副词how，when，where，why等词引导。that在句中无词义，只起连接作用;连接代词和连接副词在句中既保留自己的疑问含义、又起连接作用，在从句中充当从句的成分。例如:
What he wants to tell us is not clear. 他要跟我们说什么，还不清楚。
Who will win the match is still unknown. 谁能赢得这场比赛还不得而知。
It is known to us how he became a writer. 我们都知道他是如何成为一名作家的。
Where the English evening will be held has not yet been announced. 英语晚会将在哪里举行，还没有宣布。
有时为避免句子头重脚轻，常用形式主语it代替主语从句作形式主语放于句首，而把主语从句置于句末。主语从句后的谓语动词一般用单数形式。常用句型如下:
(1) It + be + 名词 + that从句
(2)It + be + 形容词 + that从句
(3)It + be + 动词的过去分词 + that从句
(4)It + 不及物动词 + that 从句
另注意在主语从句中用来表示惊奇、不相信、惋惜、理应如此等语气时，谓语动词要用虚拟语气―(should) +do‖，常用的句型有:
It is necessary (important, natural, strange, etc.) that …
It is a pity (a shame, no wonder, etc.) that…
It is suggested (requested, proposed, desired, etc.) that…宾语从句
名词句用作宾语的从句叫宾语从句。引导宾语从句的关联词与引导主语从句表语从句的关联词大致一样，在句中可以作谓语动词或介词及非谓语动词的宾语。
1. 由连接词that引导的宾语从句
由连接词that引导宾语从句时，that在句中不担任任何成分，在口语或非正式的文体中常被省去，但如从句是并列句时,第二个分句前的that不可省。例如:
He has told me that he will go to Shanghai tomorrow. 他已经告诉我他明天要去上海。
We must never think (that) we are good in everything while others are good in nothing. 我们决不能认为自己什么都好，别人什么都不好。
- 47 -
注意:在demand、order、suggest、decide、insist, desire, request, command等表示要求、命令、建议、决定等意义的动词后，宾语从句常用―(should)+ 动词原形‖。例如:
I insist that she (should) do her work alone. 我坚持要她自己工作。
The commander ordered that troops (should) set off at once. 司令员命令部队马上出发。
2. 用who，whom, which, whose, what, when, where, why, how, whoever, whatever,
whichever等关联词引导的宾语从句相当于特殊疑问句，应注意句子语序要用陈述语序。例如:
I want to know what he has told you. 我想知道他告诉了你什么。
She always thinks of how she can work well. 她总是在想怎样能把工作做好。
She will give whoever needs help a warm support. 凡需要帮助的人，她都会给予热情的支持。
3. 注意宾语从句中的时态呼应，当主句动词是现在时，从句根据自身的句子情况，而使用
不同时态。例如:
he studies English every day. (从句用一般现在时)
he studied English last term. (从句用一般过去时)
I know (that) he will study English next year. (从句用一般将来时)
he has studied English since 1998. (从句用现在完成时)
当主句动词是过去时态(could, would除外)，从句则要用相应的过去时态，如一般过去时，过去进行时，过去将来时等;当从句表示的是客观真理，科学原理，自然现象，则从句仍用现在时态。例如:
The teacher told us that Tom had left us for America(
4. think, believe, imagine, suppose等等动词引起的否定性宾语从句中，要把上述主句中的动词变为否定式。即将从句中的否定形式移到主句中。例如:
We don‘t think you are here. 我们认为你不在这。
I don‘t believe he will do so. 我相信他不会这样做。
表语从句 在句中作表语的从句叫表语从句。引导表语从句的关联词与引导主语从句的关联词大致一样，表语从句位于连系动词后，有时用as if引导。其基本结构为:主语 + 系动词 + that从句。例如:
The fact is that we have lost the game. 事实是我们已经输了这场比赛。
That‘s just what I want. 这正是我想要的。
This is where our problem lies. 这就是我们的问题所在。
That is why he didn‘t come to the meeting. 那就是他为什么不到会的原因。 It looks as if it is going to rain. 看上去天要下雨了。
需要注意的，当主语是reason时，表语从句要用that引导而不是because。例如: The reason why he was late was that he missed the train by one minute this morning.
whether 可引导表语从句，但与之同义的if却通常不用于引导表语从句。
同位语从句
同位语从句说明其前面的名词的具体内容。同位语从句通常由that引导，可用于同位语从句的名词有advice、demand、doubt、fact、hope、idea、information、message、news、order、problem、promise、question、request、suggestion、truth、wish、word等。例如:
The news that we won the game is exciting. 我们赢得这场比赛的消息令人激动。 The news that she would go abroad reached the town very soon.
There is an old saying that east or west, home is best.
The idea that he could get there by a short cut made him very excited.
同位语从句和定语从句的区别:
that作为关系代词，可以引导定语从句，充当句子成分，在从句中作宾语时可以省略; that引导同位语从句时，起连词的作用，没有实际意义，不充当句子成分，一般不能省略。 试比较下面两个例句:
I had no idea that you were here((that引导同位语从句，不能省略)
Have you got the idea(that)this book gives you of life in ancient Greece,(that引导定语从句，作宾语，可以省略)
- 48 -
Lesson 21 The lady of the lamp
被动语态
语态也是动词的一种形式，表示主语与谓语之间的关系。英语有两种语态:主动语态和被动语态。
主动语态表示主语是谓语动作的执行者，如:People grew rice in this area some years ago.被动
语态表示主语是谓语动作的承受者，如:A new swimming pool will be built on our school. (II)被动语态的构成
被动语态的形式是由―助动词be+动词的过去分词‖构成。助动词be随着主语的人称，数，时态和
语气的不同而变化。各种时态的被动语态形式如下:
1.一般现在时 am/is/are+V(p.p)
人们利用电能运转机器。People use electricity to run machines. Electricity is used to run machines.
Is electricity used to run machines? Yes, it is . / No, it isn‘t.
2.一般过去时 was/were + V(p.p)
昨天我们在山坡上种了许多树。We planted many trees on the hill yesterday. Many trees were planted on the hill yesterday.
Were many trees planted on the hill yesterday? Yes, they were. / No, they were not.
3.一般将来时 will/shall +be+V(p.p)
下星期我们将举行一场运动会。We will hold a sports meeting next week. A sports meeting will be held next week.
Will a sports meeting be held next week? Yes, it will. / No, it won‘t.
4.过去将来时 should/would +be+V(p.p)
他告诉我们人们将在他家乡建一个大水坝。He told us that people would build a big reservoir in his
hometown.
We were told that a big reservoir would be built in his hometown. Were you told that a big reservoir would be built in his hometown? Yes, we were./No, we
weren‘t.
5.现在进行时 am/is/are +being+V(p.p)
他正在油漆房子。He is painting the house. A house is being painted. Is the house being painted? Yes, it is. / No, it isn‘t .
6.过去进行时 was/were +being+V(p.p)
当我进厨房时，她正在做蛋糕。She was making a cake when I came into the kitchen. A cake was being made when I came into the kitchen.
Was a cake being made when I came into the kitchen? Yes, it was./ No, it wasn‘t.
7.现在完成时 have/has +been+V(p.p)
他已经结束工作了。He has finished his work. His work has been finished. Has his work been finished? Yes, it has. / No, it hasn‘t.
8.过去完成时 had +been+V(p.p)
到上个月为止，他们已经把这本书翻译成了英语。
They had translated the book into English by the end of last month. The book had been translated into English by the end of last month. Had the book been translated into English by the end of last month? Yes, it had./ No, it hadn‘t.
9.将来完成时will have +been+V(p.p)
The students will have learned 2,000 words by the end of next year. 2,000 words will have been learned by the end of next year. Will 2,000 words have been learned by the end of next year? Yes, they will./No, they won‘t.
10. 过去将来完成时would have +been+V(p.p)
- 49 - He told me that Mr. Brown would have taught them for two years by the next summer.
I was told that they would have been taught by Mr. Brown for two years by the next summer.
注:1.含有情态动词的谓语变成被动语态时，用―情态动词+be+V(p.p)‖构成。如:
You must operate the machine with care. The machine must be operated with care.
Must the machine be operated with care? Yes, it must. / No, it needn‘t
2.含有―be going to‖, ―be to‖等结构的谓语，变成被动语态时，分别用―be going to +be +V(p.p)‖和―be to
+be+V(p.p)‖。如:
We are going to discuss the problem at the meeting. The problem is going to be discussed at the meeting. Is the problem going to be discussed at the meeting? Yes, it is. / No, it isn‘t.
3.被动语态除常用be加过去分词构成外，还可用―get+过去分词‖结构。这种结构多用在口语中。如: The boy got hurt when he was riding to school. How did the glass get broken?
the man got hurt on his way home
4.被动语态没有完成进行时态，也没有将来进行时态，如果要将这些时态的主动结构变为被动结构，可以用完成时态或一般将来时态来表示。如:
他已被检查过了。He had been being examined.
通常用He has been examined.来代替。
当我们到那儿时他将正被检查。He will be being examined when we get there.通常用He will be examined when we get there.
Lesson 22 the woman who was too tall 过去完成时
过去完成时(past perfect)表示在过去某一时间或动作之前已经发生或完成了的动作或状态。 它表示句子中描述的动作发生在―过去的过去‖。
基本结构 :主语+had+过去分词(done)
?肯定句:主语+had+过去分词+其他.
?否定句:主语+had+not+过去分词+其他.
?一般疑问句:Had+主语+过去分词+其他?
肯定回答:Yes,主语+had.
否定回答:No,主语+had not .
?特殊疑问句:特殊疑问词或词组+一般疑问句(Had+主语+过去分词+其他),
基本用法
(1)表示在过去某一时刻或动作以前完成了的动作，也可以说过去的时间关于过去的动作。即―过去的过去‖。可以用by, before等介词短语或一个时间状语从句来表示，也可以用一个表示过去的动作来表示，还可能通过上下文来表示。
例如: By nine o‘clock last night, we had got 200 pictures from the spaceship.
到昨晚9点钟，我们已经收到200 张飞船发来的图片。
(2)表示由过去的某一时刻开始，一直延续到过去另一时间的动作或状态，常和for, since构成的时间状语连用。
如: I had been at the bus stop for 20 minutes when a bus finally came. 当车来的时候，我在车
站已等了20分钟。
He said he had worked in that factory since 1949. 他说自从1949年以来他就在那家工厂
工作。
(3)叙述过去发生的事情，在已叙述了过去发生的事情后，反过来追述或补述以前发生的动作时，常使用过去完成时。
- 50 - 如: Mr. Smith died yesterday. He had been a good friend of mine. 史密斯先生昨天去世了。他以前是我的好友。
I didn‘t know a thing about the verbs, for I had not studied my lesson. 我对动词一无所知，因为我没有好好学习功课。
(4)在含有定语从句的主从复合句中，如果叙述的是过去的事，先发生的动作常用过去完成时。 如: I returned the book that I had borrowed. 我已归还了我借的书。
She found the key that she had lost. 她丢失的钥匙找到了。
(5)过去完成时常常用在told,said,knew,heard,thought等动词后的宾语从句(或间接引语)中，这时从句中的动作发生在主句表示的过去的动作之前。
如: He said that he had known her well. 他说他很熟悉她。
I thought I had sent the letter a week before. 我认为我一星期前就把信寄出去了。 (6) 状语从句:在过去不同时间发生的两个动作中，发生在前，用过去完成时;发生在后，用一般过去时。 如when,before,after,as soon as,till/until引导的
如: When I woke up, it had already stopped raining. 我醒来时雨已停了。
She didn‘t go to bed until she had finished her work. 她直到把工作做完之后才睡觉。 (7)动词think, want, hope, mean, plan, intend等用过去完成时来表示过去未曾实现的想法，希望，打算或意图等。
如: They had wanted to help but could not get there in time. 他们本来打算去帮忙，但没有及时赶到那里。
We had hoped to be able to come and see you . 我们本来希望能来看看你。 (8)过去完成时还可用在hardly…when…, no sooner…than…, It was the first (second, etc) time (that)…等固定句型中。
如: Hardly had he begun to speak when the audience interrupted him. 他刚开始演讲，听众就打断了他。
No sooner had he arrived than he went away again. 他刚到就又走了。
It was the third time that he had been out of work that year. 这是他那一年第三次失业了。
Lesson 23 A time for courage
反身代词和what从句
反身代词是一种表示反射或强调的代词。它的基本含义是:通过反身代词指代主语，使施动者把动作在形式上反射到施动者自己。因此，反身代词与它所指代的名词或代词形成互指关系，在人称、性、数上保持一致。
如:(1)A marked bee fed itself from the dish and returned to the hive.
一只做了标记的蜜蜂从盘中喂饱自己以后就飞回蜂箱了(itself 与 bee 在人称、性质、数上保持一致)
(2)In 1955 Walt Disney himself opened the first Disney park.
1955年，沃尔特.迪斯尼亲自创办了第一个迪斯尼公园。(himself 与 Walt Disney 在人称、性质、数上保持一致)
反身代词和人称代词作宾语时具有不同的含义。
(3)He saw himself in the mirror.他在镜子里看见了他自己。(himself 和 he 为同一人)
(4)He saw him in the mirror.他在镜子里看见了他。(him 显然指另外一人) 常见的反身代词列表
I--myself you(单数)-- yourself you(复数)-- yourselves she--herself
he -himself
we--ourselves they--themselves it--itself one--oneself
1)做宾语
a. 有些动词需有反身代词
absent, bath, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave
- 51 -
We enjoyed ourselves very much last night. 我们昨晚玩得很开心。
Please help yourself to some fish. 请你随便吃点鱼。
b. 用于及物动词+宾语+介词
take pride in, be annoyed with, help oneself to sth.
I could not dress (myself) up at that time. 那个时候我不能打扮我自己。
注:有些动词后不跟反身代词， get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up等。
Please sit down. 请坐。
2) 作表语; 同位语
be oneself: I am not myself today. 我今天不舒服。
The thing itself is not important. 事情本身并不重要。
3) 在不强调的情况下，but, except, for 等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。如: No one but myself (me) is hurt.
what引导的是主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句，并且在从句中充当主语或宾语。如: I like what she likes.(what引导宾语从句，what在从句中作宾语)
I hate what she hates. (what引导宾语从句，what在从句中作宾语)
What she said made us surprised.(what引导主语从句，what在从句中作宾语) Tell me what made you do that.(what引导宾语从句，what在从句中作主语) This is what I like.(what引导表语从句，what在从句中作宾语)
what引导名词性从句的五种用法
一、用法归纳、
1. 表示―……的东西或事情‖:
They‘ve done what they can to help her. 他们已经尽力帮助了她。
He saves what he earns. 他赚多少，积蓄多少。
What Mary is is the secretary. 玛丽的职务是秘书。
2. 表示―……的人或的样子‖:
He is no longer what he was. 他已经不是以前的那个样子。
He is what is generally called a traitor. 他就是人们通常所说的叛徒。
Who is it that has made Fred what he is now? 是谁把弗雷德培养成现在这个样子的, 3. 表示―……的数量或数目‖:
Our income is now double what it was ten years ago. 我们现在的收入是10年前的两倍。 The number of the students in our school is ten times what it was before liberation. 现在我校学生的数量是解放前的10倍。
4. 表示―……的时间‖:
After what seemed like hours he came out with a bitter smile. 似乎过了几个小时他才苦笑着出来。
The young girl was too frightened to speak, standing there for what seemed like hours. 小女孩吓得不敢说话，在那儿站了几个小时。
5. 表示―……的地方‖:
This is what they call Salt Lake City. 这就是他们称为盐湖城的地方。
In 1492, Columbus reached what is now called America. 1492年哥伦布到达了现在所称的美洲大陆。
Lesson 24 and Lesson 25 直接引语变间接引语
定义:直接引语:直接引用别人的原话，并在原话前后加引号。
直接引语与间接引语相互转化时应注意的问题
第一:人称的变化。
下面有一句顺口溜―一随主。二随宾，第三人称不更新‖。―一随主‖是指在直接引语变间接引语时，
- 52 - 如果从句中的主语是第一人称或被第一人称所修饰。从句中的人称要按照主句中主语的人称变化如:
She said. "My brother wants to go with me." ?She said her brother wanted to go with her. ―二随宾‖是指直接引语变间接引语时，若从句中的主语及宾语是第二人称。或被第二人你所修饰。从句中的人称要跟引号外的主句的宾语一致。如果引号外的主句没有宾语。也可以用第一人称，如:
He said to Kate. "How is your sister now?" ?He asked Kate how her sister was then。 ―第三人称不更新‖是指直接引语变间接引语时。如果从句中的主语及宾语是第三人称或被第三人称所修饰从句中的人称一般不需要变化如:
Mr. Smith said: "Jack is a good worker。"?Mr. Smith said Jack was a good worker。 第二:时态变化
直接引语在改为间接引语时、时态需要做相应的调整。
现在时它需改为过去时态;过去时态改为完成时;过去完成时则保留原来的时态。 即:(1) 一般现在时变为一般过去时
(2) 现在进行时变为过去进行时
(3) 一般将来时变为过去将来时
(4) 现在完成时变为过去完成时
(5) 一般过去时变为过去完成时
(6)过去进行时不变，仍为过去进时。
(7)过去完成时不变，仍为过去完成时
(8)含有情态动词，can 需改为could, may 需改为might, must 需改为must 或had to.其他情态动词保持不变。
"l like English very much,"he said. ?He said that he liked English very much. He said, "It will rain soon."?He said that it would rain soon.
She said. "I have lost a pen." ?She said she had lost a pen.
She said. "We hope so." ?She said they hoped so.
She said. "He will go to see his friend。"?She said he would go to see his friend。 注意:在以下几种情况下。在直接引语变为间接引语时，时态一般不变化。 1.直接引语为客观真理时，间接引语时态不变，仍用一般现在时。
eg:Teacher told us:" The moon moves round the earth."
?Teacher told us the moon moves round the earth.
The teacher said to us,"Knowledge is power." ?The teacher told us that knowledge is power.
2. 直接引语为一般过去时并且与具体时间状语连用时，间接引语仍用一般过去时。即:直接引语中有具体的过去某年、某月、某日作状语，变为间接引语时，时态不变。如: eg:Xiao Wang said. "I was born on April 20, 1980。"
?Xiao Wang said he was born on April 20, 1980。
She said:" I went to England in 1998." ?She said she went to England in 1998.
3(直接引语是过去进行时，时态不变。如:
Jack said. ―John, where were you going when I met you in the street?‖ ?Jack asked John
where he was going when he met him in the street。
4. 如果直接引语所述事实在当时和目前同样生效，变为间接宾语时，一般现在时不改为一般过去时。如:
He said, "I‘m a boy, not a girl."
?He said that he is a boy ,not a girl.
5(直接引语是一般现在时，表示一种反复出现或习惯性的动作，变间接引语，时态不变。如: He
- 53 - said, "I get up at six every morning。"
?He said he gets up at six every morning。
6. 如果直接引语中的情态动词没有过去时的形式(例:ought to， had better, used to)和已经是过去时的形式时，(例:could, should, would, might)不再变。如:
Peter said. "You had better come have today。"
?Peter said I had better go there that day。
The teacher said to me . "You must pay more attention to your pronunciation."
?The teacher told me that I must (have to ) pay more attention to my pronunciation. He said , "I could swim when I was only six ." ?He said that he could swim when he was only six.
7.如果直接引语中含有since, when, while 引导的表示过去时间的状语从句，在变为间接引语时，只改变主句中的谓语动词，从句的一般过去时则不变。
He said to me, "I have taught English since he came here ."
?He told me that he had taught English since he came here.
第三，指示代词、时间状语、地点状语和动词的变化。
时间状语由―现在‖改为―原来‖(例:now变为then, yesterday变为 the day before)地点状语，尤其表示方向性的，或用指示代词修饰的状语，由―此‖改为―彼‖(例:this 改为that) 指示代词 this ---that
these--- those
表示时间的词 now --- then
today--- that day
tonight---that night
this week(month ,etc) ----that week (month ,etc) yesterday ----the day before
the day before yesterday-----two days before last week(month) --- the week(month) before three days(a year)ago---three days(a year)before tomorrow ----the next (following ) day next week(month)--the next(following)week(month) 表地点的词 here --there
动词 bring -- take
come –go
第四:句式上的变化
直接引语如果是陈述句，间接引语应改为由that引导的宾语从句。
如:She said, "Our bus will arrive in five minutes."
?She said that their bus would arrive in five minutes.
如:She said:" I am a girl."
She said that she was a girl. (that可以省略)
2. 直接引语如果是反意疑问句，选择疑问句或一般疑问句，间接引语应改为由whether或if引导的宾语从句.
如:He said, "Can you swim, John?"
?He asked John if he could swim.
ls everybody here?"the teacher asked ?The teacher asked if / whether everbody was there. "You have finished the homework, haven‘t you?" my mother asked.
?My mother asked me whether I had finished the homework.
- 54 - "Do you go to school by bus or by bike?"
?He asked me if I went to school by bus or by bike.
She asked me:" Are you Mr. Li?"
?She asked me if I was Mr. Li.
She asked us:" Do you want to go on a picnic?" ?She asked us if we wanted to go on a picnic.
直接引语如果是特殊问句，间接引语应该改为由疑问代词或疑问副词引导的宾语从句(宾语从句必须用陈述句语序)。
She asked me, "When do they have their dinner?" ? She asked me when they had their dinner. "How much have we spent on petrol this year," Susan asked her husband.
?Susan asked her husband how much they had spent on petrol that year.
She asked ,:"Where does he live?―
?She asked where he lived.
4 直接引语如果是祈使句，间接引语应改为"tell(ask, order, beg等) sb.(not) to do sth."句型。口诀如下:祈使句变间接引语，一改二变三加四去。
一改:said (to) 改为asked或told, ordered等
二变:said to 的宾语或呼语变为asked等的宾语
三加:即在动词原形前加to，使成为动词不定式
四去:去掉please
例:He said to her:" Don't take the book away." He asked her not take the book away. "Get up early tomorrow , Bill,"he said. ?He told Bill to get up early the next day.
"Don‘t make any noise," she said to the children.
?She told (ordered) the children not to make any noise.
"Bring me a cup of tea, please," said she. ?She asked him to bring her a cup of tea.
5直接引语如果是以―Let?s‖开头的祈使句，变为间接引语时，通常用―suggest +动句词(或从句)。‖如:有些表示建议、提议、劝告或要求的祈使句，可以用suggest ,insist等动词 加以转述。例如: He said, "Let‘s go to the theatre."
?He suggested (our )going to the theatre.或He suggested that we(should) go to the theatre.
He said, " Let‘s go to the film."
?He suggested going to the film.或He suggested that they should go to see the film.
(2) "Would you mind opening the window?" he asked. ?He asked me to open the window.
"Why don‘t you take a walk after supper?" he asked .
?he advised me to take a walk after supper.
"Shall we listen to the music?" he asked. ?He suggested listening to the music.
6、直接引语是感叹句时
间接引语为what 或how 引导，也可以用that 引导。
He said to me ,"What a beautiful park it is." ? He told me what a beautiful park it was.
She said, "What a lovely day it is !" ?She said what a lovely day it was .或She said that it was a lovely day. "What awful weather it is!" she said.
- 55 - She complained about the awful weather.
"What a bright girl you are." He said to me.
He praised me that I was a bright girl.
.练习题:
“I never eat meat.” he said.
He said that ______ never ______ meat.
2. “I’ve found my wallet.” he said to me.
He ______ me that he ______ ______ ______ wallet. 3. “I took it home with me.” she said.
She said that ______ ______ _______ it home with her. 4. The teacher said, “The sun rises in the east and goes down in the west.”
The teacher said that the sun ______ in the east and ______ down in the west.
5. “I met her yesterday.” he said to me.
He ______ me that he ______ met the day ______. 6. “You must come here before five.” he said.
He said that I ______ to go ______ before five. 7. “I bought the house 10 years ago.” he said.
He said that he _______ bought the house 10 years _______. 8. “Did you see her last week?” he said.
He ______ ______ I had seen her the week _______. 9. He said, “You can sit here, Jim.”
He ______ Jim that he ______ sit there
10. He asked, “How did you find it, mother?”
He asked her mother ______ ______ ______ found it. 11. “Where have you been these days?” he asked.
He asked me _______ _______ _______been _______ days. 12. “Do you know where she lives?” he asked.
He asked ______ ______ knew where she ______. 13. “Stop making so much noise, children.” he said.
He ______ the children ______ ______ making so much noise. 14. “Don’t tell him the news.” she said.
She told me _______ ______ ______ him the news. 15. “Are you intested in this?” he said.
He ______ ______ I was interestd in _____
Lesson 26 the glorious painter
一、基本概念
1. 分词的定义
动词的-ed分词即过去分词，是由动词的过去分词构成，一般只有一种形式。
2. 过去分词的语法作用:
过去分词一方面具有动词的性质，另一方面也相当于一个形容词或副词，在句中可以作表语、定
语、状语和补足语。
1) 过去分词作表语，主要表示主语的心理感觉或所处的状态。如:
Don‘t touch the glass because it is broken. 不要碰那个杯子，它是坏的。
He is quite pleased with the design of the dress. 她很喜欢那礼服的式样。
2) 过去分词做定语:
单个的过去分词作定语一般放在名词的前面，相当于一个定语从句。如:
- 56 - The excited people rushed into the building. 激动的人们奔进了大楼。
We need more qualified teachers. 我们需要更多合格的教师。
过去分词短语作定语通常放在被修饰的词后面，相当于一个定语从句。如: Is there anything planned for tomorrow? 明天有什么活动吗,
The suggestion made by the foreign expert was adopted by the manager. 外国专家提出来的建议被经理采纳了。
过去分词作定语也可用作非限制性定语，前后用逗号隔开。如:
The books, written by Lu Xun, are popular with many Chinese people.这些书是鲁迅写的，受到了许多中国人民的喜爱。
The meeting, attended by one thousand students, was a success. 这次会议获得很大的成功，共有一千个学生出席了。
3) 过去分词做状语:
过去分词和-ing分词作状语一样，也可以表示时间、原因、条件、让步、方式或伴随情况等。 ?表时间，相当于一个时间状语从句，有时过去分词前可加连词when或while来强调时间概念。如:
Seen from the top of the hill, the city looked like a big garden. 从山顶上看，这个城市就像一个大花园。
Accepted by the Party, he decided to devote his life to the cause of the Party.
入党以后，他决定献身于党的事业。
?表原因，相当于一个原因状语从句。如:
Deeply moved by the story, the excited people stopped quarrelling with each other.
激动的人们被那个故事深深地感动了，停止了争吵。
Encouraged by the speech, the young people made up their minds to take up the strug
gle.
受到了讲演的鼓舞，年轻人决定起来从事斗争。
?表条件，相当于一个条件状语从句，有时过去分词前可用if等词。如:
Given another chance, he will do better.再给他一次机会，他会做得更好。 Compared with your brother, you should make greater efforts to study English.
和你哥哥相比，你应该更加努力学习英语。
If heated, water can be turned into steam. 水如果被加热，会变成水蒸气。 ?表让步，相当于一个though/although引导的让步状语从句。如:
Exhausted by the running, they went on running after the robber.
尽管已经跑得筋疲力尽，他们还是继续追赶着那个强盗。
Laughed at by many people, he continued his study. 尽管被许多人嘲笑，他还是继续他的研究。
?表方式或伴随情况。如:
The old man went into the room, supported by his wife.那个老人在他的妻子的搀扶下走进了房间。
Seated at the table, my father and I were talking about my job. 我和父亲坐在桌子旁边讨论着我的工作问题。
4) 过去分词作补足语:
- 57 - 过去分词可以在see, hear, notice, watch, find, get, have, feel, make, leave, keep等词后与一名词或代词构成复合宾语，用作宾语补语。如:
When will you go to the hospital and have your tooth examined? 你什么时候去医院检查你的牙齿,
When you are making a speech, you should speak louder to make yourself heard.
当你在作报告时，你应该讲响一点使自己被人听清。
当这类句子变成被动语态时，过去分词用作主语补语。如:
One of the glasses was found broken. 有人发现其中一个杯子破了。
They should be kept informed of the situation there. 应该让他们知道那儿的形势。
二、特别提醒
1. 过去分词作状语时，它的逻辑主语一般必须和句子的主语相一致。如: When asked why he came here, the boy kept silent.当那个男孩被问到为何来这里时，他沉默不语。
Born and brought up in the countryside, he was interested in biology.
由于在农村出生并长大，他对生物很感兴趣。
如果过去分词的逻辑主语和句子主语不一致，必须使用过去分词的独立主格结构。 2. 动词have后所接的三种宾语补语:
have somebody/something do something 不定式作补语必须省去to, 不定式动作由宾语发出，表示一次性的动作。如:
I had the workers do the job for me. 我让工人们替我完成了工作。
Jim often has his father help him with his homework. 吉姆经常让他的父亲帮助做家庭作业。 have somebody /something doing something -ing分词作补语，分词动作也由宾语发出，强调动作的延续或正在进行。如:
They had the tractor working all the time. 他们让拖拉机一直工作着。
We won‘t have the child talking to his mother like that. 我们不能让那个孩子那样对他的妈妈说话。
have somebody/something done 过去分词作补语，宾语和补足语之间有逻辑上的被动关系，通常有两种情况:
?主语让别人做某事，强调主语的意志。如:
He had his hair cut yesterday. 他昨天理发了。
Later on the center had a great many new trees planted.后来，这个中心让人种了很多树。 ?主语遭到某种不幸或陷入恶劣的环境，说明宾语的一种无意识的被动行为。如: He had his leg broken in the match last month.他在上星期的比赛中摔断了腿。 He had one eye lost in the war. 在战争中，他失去了一只眼睛。
3. 非谓语动词的被动式作定语的三种形式:
the bridge to be built 将要建造的桥 (表示将来的动作)
the bridge being built 正在建造的桥 (表示正在进行的动作)
the bridge built 造好的桥 (表示完成的动作)
4. 过去分词和–ing分词作表语的区别:
过去分词作表语通常表示主语所处的状态或感受，而-ing分词作表语多表示主语所具有的特征，如:
Hearing the news, we felt very surprised. 听到那个消息，我们感到很惊讶 The news is very surprising. 这个消息很令人惊讶。
They were frightened to hear the frightening sound. 他们听到那可怕的声音很害怕。
- 58 -
At the sight of the moving scene, all the people present were moved to tears. 看到这么动人的情景，所有在场的人都感动得流下了眼泪。
英语中这样的分词还有很多，如:amusing, amused; encouraging, encouraged; disappointing, disappointed; exciting, excited; puzzling, puzzled; satisfying, satisfied; worrying, worried; tiring,
tired; pleasing, pleased; interesting, interested; astonishing, astonished等。
5. 过去分词和–ing分词作定语的区别:
过去分词作定语和-ing分词作定语有一定的区别。试比较下面几组短语:
boiled water开水 boiling water正沸腾的水
developed countries发展的国家 developing countries发展中国家
fallen leaves落叶 falling leaves 正在飘落的叶子
changed condition改变了的情况 changing condition变化着的情况
由此可见，过去分词作定语通常表示完成的或被动的动作;而-ing分词作定语可以表示正在进行
的主动的动作。
三、提高练习
1. I‘m going to have my car ________ .
A. to be fixed B. to fix C. fixed D. to fix
2. What‘s the language ______ in Germany?
A. speaking B. spoken C. be spoken D. to speak
3. ______ some officials, Napoleon inspected his army.
A. Followed B. Followed by C. Being followed D. having been followed by 4. He had his leg _______ in the match yesterday.
A. to break B. broken C. break D. breaking
5. Most of the people _______ to the party were famous scientists. A. invited B. to invite C. being invited D. inviting
6. ________ more attention, the trees could have grown better. A. Given B. To give C. Giving D. Having given
7. The murderer was brought in, with his hands _________ behind his back. A. being tied B. having tied C. to be tied D. tied
8. The computer center, _______ last year, is very popular among the students in this school.
A. open B. opening C. having opened D. opened
9. ________ in thought, he almost ran into the car in front of him. A. Losing B. Having lost C. Lost D. To lose
10. The Olympic Games, _________ in 776BC, didn‘t include women players until 1912.
A. first played B. to be first played C. first playing D. to be first played 11. Don‘t get _________ in the rain.
A. to be caught B. catching C. to catch D. caught
12. I found a car _________ in a pool by the side of the road. A. to be stuck B. stuck C. sticking D. stick
13. ---By the way, when did you get your bedroom _______ ? ---Last week. A. to paint B. painted C. painting D. to be painted
14. The children were found _________ in the cave.
A. trapping B. trapped C. to be trapped D. be trapped
15. They found a ______ old woman _______ on the ground when the door was broken down. A. dying, lying B. dead, lied C. death, laying D. died, lain 16. On a _____ morning the little girl was found _______ at the corner of the street. A. freezing, freezing B. freezing, frozen C. frozen, frozen D. frozen, freezing 17. No one enjoys ______ fun of in public.
- 59 - A. making B. being made C. to be made D. to make 18. Before he came to London, he had never heard a single English word _____.
A. speaking B. spoken C. to be spoken D. speak 19. ______ from space, the earth, with water _______ seventy percent of its surface, looks like
a blue ball.
A. Seen, covered B. Seen, covering C. Seeing, covering D. Seeing, covered
20. An _________ crowd is awaiting the arrival of the film star.
A. excited B. exciting C. excite D. excitedly
Lesson 27 the stock market 英语动名词用法
英语动名词是非谓动词的一种形式。从形式上 ,是在动词原形的末尾加上-ing，否定形式为not doing
动名词的形式:
主动语态 被动语态
一般式 doing being done
完成式 having done having been done
英语动名词有两个特点
1、它是从动词变化而来的，所以它保留了动词的某些特征，例如它能带自己的宾语、状语等，这时就叫动名词短语;2、顾名思义，动名词最大的特点是它相当于一个名词，因此，动名词可以在句中作主语、宾语、表语、同位语等。因为它作为名词来使用，所以动名词也有像名词一样的所有格形式
1、作主语
动名词是由动词变化而来，所以，动名词的意义往往是表示某个动作或某件事情。例如: Reading English aloud in the morning will do you a lot of good.
早晨朗读英文会给你带来许多好处。
Cheating on an exam ruins one's character. 考试作弊毁坏人的性格。
动名词作主语时，对于一些比较长的动名词短语，
一般采用
1."It is …"句式来表示
, It is no use waiting for him any longer.
等他是没有用的。
It is no good learning without practice.
学而不实践是没好处的。
, It is useless talking about it with him.
和他谈这件事是没用的。
, It‘s a waste of time arguing about it.
, 辩论这事是浪费时间
2."There is no …‖句式来表示
There is no joking about such matters. 这种事开不得玩笑。
There is no littering about.
不许乱扔杂物。
There is no holding back the wheel of history. 历史车轮不可阻挡。
- 60 - There was no knowing what he could do .他能做什么很难说。
There was no telling when this might happen again.没法预料这样的事什么时候会再发生 动名词作宾语
动名词作宾语通常是在某些动词后. 接动名词作宾语的常见动词:mind(介意), suggest(建议), enjoy(欣赏，), admit(承认), appreciate(感激，欣赏), avoid(避免), delay(推迟), escape(逃脱), finish(完成), forgive(宽恕), imagine(想象), keep(保持), miss(错过), practise(训练), resist(抵抗，抵制), risk(冒险), deny(拒绝，否认), consider(考虑)等
, Many people enjoy sunbathing on the beach in summer.
夏季，很多人喜欢在沙滩日光浴。
, I suggest doing it in a different way.
我建议用另一种方法做这件事。
动名词作介词宾语
动名词作介词宾语时，通常放在由动词或形容词与介词组成的动词短语或形容词短语后。此类短语有很多。如:look forward to(渴望，盼望), be proud of(以……自豪), be responsible for(对……负责), insist on(坚持), think of(考虑，想到), dream of(梦想), object to(反对，抗议), hear of(听说), prevent…from(防止，阻止), keep…from(防止，阻止), stop…from(防止，阻止), be engaged in(从事于), depend on(依靠，依赖), thank…for(因……而道谢), excuse…for(因……而道歉), aim at(目的在于), devote…to(献身于), set about(着手做), be/get used to(习惯于), be fond of(喜欢), be afraid of(害怕), be tired of(对……厌烦), succeed in(成功地做……), be interested in(对……感兴趣), be ashamed of(对……感到羞愧)等等。
, .We were used to getting up early in the morning.
, 我们以前习惯早起。
, I am against inviting him to dinner.
, 我反对邀请他来吃饭。
, They don‘t feel like walking that much.
, 他们不喜欢走那么多路。
注意:
(1)有些动词后面，如forget, remember, stop, try, mean, regret、go on等，既可跟动名词也可跟不定式作宾语，但是意义不一样。
, He forgot paying for the book.
, 他忘了曾经付了买书的钱。(他付过钱了)
, He forgot to pay for the book.
, 他忘了去付买书的钱。(他没有付过钱)
, Stop talking.(停止说话)
, I stopped to talk with Tom.(开始去说话
2)在有些句子中，介词常可省去
, I have no difficulty (in) communicating with foreigners.
, 我在和外国人交谈方面没有什么困难。
, He used to spend a lot of time (in) playing games.
, 过去他常花很多时间玩游戏。
, What can prevent us (from) getting married?
, 有什么能阻止我们结婚,
(3)动名词可以和一些介词如in, on, after, against, before, by, for, without, besides等构成短语，在句中作状语。
, He left ahead of time without saying a word.
- 61 - , 他一句话也没说就提前离开了。
, Besides cooking and sewing, she had to take care of four children.
, 除了做饭和缝纫以外，她还要照顾四个孩子。
, On hearing the news, all the pupils jumped with joy.
, 听到这个消息后，所有的学生都高兴得跳了起来。
(4)want(需要), need(需要), deserve(值得), require(需要)等词后，我们用动名词的
主动形式表达被动意思。
, Your car needs filling.
, 你这车要充气了。
, This city deserves visiting.
, 这座城市值得光顾一下。
, The problem requires studying carefully. , 这个问题需要认真研究。
, The trees want watering.
, 这些树需要浇水了。
动名词作表语
, His hobby is collecting stamps. , 他的爱好是收集邮票。
, Their task is exploring oil mines in the west.
他们的任务是在西部探查油矿。
, In the ant city, the queen‘s job is laying eggs.
, 在蚂蚁王国，蚁后的工作是产卵。
注意:这时，主语和表语可以互换位置
动名词作定语。
, I admired his skill at driving.我佩服他开车的技术。
, She couldn‘t invent a reason for not going.她编造不出不去的理由。
What‘s the advantage of using nuclear power?利用核能有什么好处,
动名词作同位语
, .His habit, listening to the news on the radio， remains unchanged. , 他收听收音机新闻节目的习惯仍未改变。
动名词的复合结构
, 动名词的复合结构指动名词前有其逻辑主语。复合结构通常由―物主代词、人称代词宾格、
名词所有格或者名词的普通格+动名词‖构成，在句子开头时必须用物主代词和名词所有
格，通常在句中作主语和宾语。
, His coming made us very happy. , 他的到来使我们大家都很高兴。
, I don‘t mind your opening the window.
, I don‘t mind you opening the window.
, 我不介意你开窗。
, I enjoyed listening to John‘s singing.
, I enjoyed listening to john singing. , 我喜欢听约翰唱歌。
动名词构成的合成名词
- 62 -
1)许多合成名词由―动名词+名词‖构成:
swimming pool 游泳池 swimming suit 游泳衣 boxing competition 拳击比赛 speaking contest 演讲比赛 sleeping bag 睡袋 sleeping pill 安眠药片 writing desk 写字台 writing paper 信纸 diving suit 潜水衣 diving board 跳板 watering can 洒水壶 filling station 加油站 drawing board 绘图板 drawing pin 图钉 washing machine 洗衣机 washing powder 洗衣粉 fishing pole (美)钓鱼竿 fishing line 钓鱼线 drinking water 饮用水 drinking fountain 饮水台 waiting room 候车(诊)室 waiting list 候选人名单 parking lot(space) 停车场(位) parking meter 停车计时器 checking account 活期账户 banking system 银行系统 sewing machine 缝纫机 printing-press 印刷机 hearing aid 助听器 operating table 手术台 2)还有一类合成词由―形容词(名词)+动名词‖构成:
deep-ploughing 深耕 close-planting 密植 physical training 体育(锻炼) job-hunting 找工作 weight lifting 举重 sight seeing 观光 window-shopping 逛商店(只看不买) tap dancing 踢跶舞 air conditioning 空调 shadow boxing 打拳 zebra crossing 斑马纹人行横道 data processing 数据处理 food poisoning 食物中毒 family planning 计划生育 water-skiing 滑水 house-warming 乔迁酒宴 fire fighting 消防 ice-skating 滑冰 money grabbing 不择手段的捞钱 roller skating 溜旱冰 【注】有些动名词已成为名词，有些为不可数名
boating 划船 bowling 打保龄球 yachting 乘坐游艇 surfing 冲浪 dancing 跳舞 mountaineering 登山 有些为可数名词:
painting 画 saying 俗话 warning 警告 meaning 意思 ending 结局 feeling 感觉 有些甚至经常以复数形式出现:
findings 调查结果 savings 积蓄 surroundings 环境 sufferings 苦难 earnings 挣的钱 belongings 财物
Lesson 28 Colour
虚拟语气
- 63 - 虚拟语气用来表示说话人的主观愿望或假想，而不表示客观存在的事实，所说的是一个条件，不一定是事实，或与事实相反。虚拟语气通过谓语动词的特殊形式来表示。在表示虚假的、与事实相反的或难以实现的情况时用虚拟语气， 表示主观愿望或某种强烈情感时，也用虚拟语气。即当一个人说话时欲强调其所说的话是基于自己的主观想法，愿望，假想，猜测，怀疑或建议，而不是根据客观实际，就用虚拟语气。
虚拟语气用法:
1) 虚拟语气用在简单句中，表示祝愿，命令。
May you be happy. 祝你幸福。
May you have a good time. 祝愿你玩的痛快。
May the friendship between us last long. 祝愿我们的友情天长地久。
Have a good journey! 祝愿你旅途愉快
2) wish 后宾语从句
a、表示与现在事实相反的愿望，谓语动词用过去式
eg. I wish I had your brains.
b、表示与过去事实相反的愿望，谓语动词:had+done
eg:.I wish I had known the truth of the matter.
其他宾语从句中: 一想要(desire一宁愿(prefer)二命令(order. command)三建议(advise. suggest. propose)四要求(demand. require. request. ask.insist)中，无论主句谓语动词为何种时态，从句的谓语动词都用:"should + do"。should可以省略。eg:
He suggested that we (should) take the teacher's advice.
He insisted that we (should) take the teacher's advice.
He demand that we (should) take the teacher's advice.
He ordered that we (should) take the teacher's advice.
insist意为―坚持某种动作‖才用虚拟语气;意为―坚持某种观点，某个事实‖则不用虚拟语气。
eg: He insists he is a student. 他坚持说他是个学生。
这个语句表示的是事实，因此在这个语句中不能使用虚拟语气。
suggest意为―建议‖才用虚拟语气，意为―暗示‖则不用虚拟语气。
eg: His face suggests that he looks worried .
他的表情暗含着他很担心。
这个句子本身是事实，因此它就没有用到虚拟语气。
C( 表示将来难以实现的愿望
谓语动词:should/would(情态动词) + 动词原形
eg. I wish I should have a chance again. 我希望我还能有一次这样的机会。(事实:很难再有这样的机会了)
虚拟语气用在状语从句中。
虚拟语气最多地用在表示条件的状语从句和表示结果的主句中。在表示与事实相反的虚拟语气时，动词有三种时态形式，即现在，过去和将来。
与现在事实相反的:
从句用过去式，Be 动词用were, 主句用 should, would, could,might + V原。
If I were you, I should buy it.
If I had time, I would study French. If she knew English,she would not ask me for help. If he were here, he would help you.
与过去事实相反的:
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从句用过去完成时(had+过去分词), 主句用 should, would, could,might + 现在完成时(Have+
过去分词)。
If you had got up earlier, you could have caught the train. We would have called you if we had known your telephone NO. If you‘d felt well, you would have gone with him.
与将来实现可能性不大或不确定的假设:
从句用should/were to+V原，主句用 should, would, could,might + V原
If she should come this afternoon,she could see the film. If I were to do it, I should do it some other way. If there were a heavy snow next Sunday,we would not go skating. If she were to be here next Monday,I would tell her about the matter. 有时，虚拟条件句中，结果主句和条件从句的谓语动作若不是同时发生时，虚拟语气的形式应作
相应的调整。这种条件句叫错综条件句。
? 从句的动作与过去事实相反，而主句的动作与现在或现在正在发生的事实不符
If I had worked hard at school,I would be an engineer,too. If they had informed us,we would not come here now. If it had rained last night, the ground would be wet now. You would be much better now if you had taken my advice. ? 从句的动作与现在事实相反，而主句的动作与过去事实不符。
If he knew her,he would have greeted her.
If he were free today, we would have sent him to Beijing. 目的状语从句
1) 在for fear that,in case,lest引导的从句中，若用虚拟语气时，从句谓语为:should + do。并且
should能省略 。
She examined the door again for fear that a thief (should) come in. He started out earlier lest he (should) be late. 2) 在so that,in order that所引导的目的状语从句中，从句中的谓语为:can / could / may / might / will / would / should + do。
He goes closer to the speaker so that he can hear him clearer.
He read the letter carefully in order that he should not miss a word.
其他用法
3) 虚拟语气用在主语从句中。
在句型 "It is important (necessary、important、impossible、natural、strange、surprising、funny、
right、wrong、better、a pity) that .... " 中，that 后面的从句中的谓语动词用: should + 动词原
形
It's necessary that we should have a walk now.
It's natural that she should do so.
It's important that we should take good care of the patient. It is strange that such a person should be our friend. 让步状语从句中:
在even if,even though 所引导的让步状语从句中; 主句、从句的结构与if所引导的条件从句结构
相同。
eg,even if he were here himself,he should not know what to do.
即使他亲自来也不知该怎么办。(事实:他没来)
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Nobody could save him even though Hua Tuo should come here.
即使华佗在世也救不了他。(事实:华佗不在世)
在whatever，whichever，whenever，whoever,wherever，however,no matter wh-等引导的让步
状语从句中，从句虚拟语气结构为:
指现在或将来:may +do。
eg:We will finish it on time no matter what may happen.
不管发生什么事，我们都要按时完成。
We will find him wherever he may be.
无论他在哪里，我们都要找到他。
I will wait for him no matter how late he may come.
不管他来的多么晚，我都会等他。
指过去:may +have done 。
eg: You mustn't be proud whatever great progress you may have made.
不管你取得了多么大的进步，你也不能骄傲。
We must respect him no matter what mistakes he may have made.
不管他犯过什么错误，我们必须尊敬他。
一般would rather,had rather,would sooner等之后的宾语从句常表示与客观事实不相符的一种
愿望，故使用虚拟语气。其虚拟语气的结构为:
过去 had + done
现在 过去时(be 用were )
将来 过去时(be 用were )
eg:I'd rather you had seen the film yesterday.
我倒想你昨天看过了这场电影。
I'd rather you were here now.
我倒想你现在在这儿。
We'd rather you went here tomorrow.
我们倒想你明天去那儿
虚拟语气还可用在定语从句中，表示:―早该做某事了‖时，定语从句中的谓语动词须用虚拟语
气，其虚拟语气的结构为:It is (high / about) time that + 主语+ 动词的过去式/ should + do，即
从句用虚拟过去式。
It is time that I went to pick up my daughter at school.
我该去学校接我的女儿了。
It is high time you should go to work.
你早该上班了。
当虚拟条件句的谓语动词含有were,should,had时，if可以省略，这时条件从句要用倒装语序，即
把were,should,had等词置于句首，这种多用于书面语。
Should he agree to go there,we would send him there. Were she here,she would agree with us
Had he learnt about computers,we would have hired him to work here.
Were I at school again, I would study harder.
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若省略的条件句中的谓语动词是否定形式时，不能用动词的缩略形式。如:我们可以说:Were it not for the expense, I would go abroad now. 但不能说:Weren't it for the expense, I would go abroad now.
非真实条件句中的条件从句有时不表达出来，只暗含在副词、介词短语、上下文或其他方式表示
出来，这种句子叫做含蓄条件句，在多数情况下，条件会暗含在短语中，如without…，but for…
等
But for his help,we would be working now.
Without your instruction,I would not have made such great progress.
We didn't know his telephone number,otherwise we would have telephoned him.
Without air,there would be no living things.
But for sunlight, there would be no moonlight.
Lesson 29 Ruthless
英语倒装句Inversion
主语和谓语是句子的核心，它们之间有两种语序:一是主语在谓语之前称为自然语序(Natural Order);二是主语在谓语之后则称为倒装语序(Inverted Order)。而倒装语序中又有全部倒(Full
Inversion)和部分倒装(Partial Inversion)两种情况。
首先，在全部倒装的句子中，要把整个谓语放在主语的前面去而构成倒装语序。
例如:There are large numbers of students in the lecture hall.
(在There be…的句式中，There只是个引导词而不是主语，真正的主语是后面作表语的名
词或者名词短语。因此，There be…的句式都是全部倒装的句子。)演讲厅里有大量的学生。
When he ran to the door, there stood a mid-aged man with a lantern in his hand .
(此句是为了"描述情节的需要"，把倒装当着修辞的手段而写成了全部倒装句。句子的主语
是a mid-aged man，谓语是stood 。)当他向房门跑去时，那儿正立着一位手里拿着一盏灯笼的
中年男人。
另外，在部分倒装的句子中，只把谓语的一部分(如情态动词、助动词、或是系动词be)放
到主语的前面去，构成倒装语序。例如:
Are you going to take part in the football match against Accounting Department on Friday
afternoon? (句子的谓语是are going to take part，are是句子的谓语的一部分;句子的主语是
you 。所以，此句是部分倒装的句子。疑问句都是部分倒装句。)你打算去参加星期五与会计系进
行的足球赛吗,
Hardly could he finish his test paper when the school bell rang .(它的自然语序应该是:
When the bell rang, he could hardly finish his test paper.)他还未做完试卷，下课铃就响了。
A. 在疑问句中:各种疑问句一般地说都是倒装语序。例如:
Will they come to see us this weekend ? 这个周末他们将来看我们吗,
Are you talking about the film you saw last Monday ?
你们是在谈论你们上周一看的那部电影吗,
Can you speak another foreign language except English?
除开英语，你还能说另一种外语吗,
Where did you buy the dictionary, in the book store nearby or in Xinhua bookstore?
你在哪儿买的这本词典，是在附近的书店还是在新华书店,
She is not a student, is she ? 她不是个学生，对吗,
B. 在感叹句中
某些感叹句也用倒装语序。例如:
Isn't it a beautiful garden ! 多么美丽的花园啊～
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What a beautiful garden it is ! 多么美丽的花园啊～(在这种句式中，主语在谓语之前，属于
自然语序。对于主语和谓语而言，语序没有倒装。)
Have you ever seen such a naughty kid like him !
你见过那个孩子像他这么调皮～
C. 在陈述句中
陈述句在一般情况下用自然语序;但由于英语语法的某些原因，陈述句也要使用倒装语序。
这些原因大致可以归纳如下:
1) 为了避免句子部分内容不必要的重复，常用"so + be动词(助动词、情态动词)+主语"或
"neither / nor + be动词(助动词、情态动词)+主语"的倒装句式。其中第一个句式表示"与前面所
述的肯定情况相同"， 第二个句式表示"与前面所述的否定情况相同"。例如:
His brother is a college student; so is mine.
他弟弟是大学生，我弟弟也是。
His brother is not a college student; nor is mine .
他弟弟不是大学生，我弟弟也不是。
He used to have his further study abroad; so did I.
他曾去国外深造过，我也去过。
He didn't use to have his further study abroad; neither did I.
他没去国外深造过，我也没有。
One of my friends can speak three foreign languages; so can his wife.
我的一个朋友会说三门外国语，他的妻子也会。
One of my friends cannot speak three foreign languages; neither can his wife .我的一个朋
友不会说三门外国语，他的妻子也不会。
They are now preparing for their final examinations; so are we .
他们正在为期末考试作准备，我们也一样。
They are not now preparing for their final examinations; nor are we .
他们没在为期末考试作准备，我们也没有。
2)具有否定意义的词或短语置于句首时(除否定词修饰主语外)，句子一般要写成部分倒装
句。这类词或短语常见的有:not, never, seldom, hardly, rarely, scarcely, by no means, under no
circumstances, in no way, at no time, no sooner … (than), hardly … (when), not only … (but
also), not until… ,等。例如:
Hardly had she sat down when she heard someone knocking at the door .
她还没来得及坐下来，就听见有人敲门。
Not until twelve o'clock did he go to bed last night .
他昨晚直到十二点钟才睡觉。
Never have my sisters been to Hong Kong before .
我的妹妹们以前从未去过香港。
No sooner had I returned home from New Zealand than I bought a house and went to live
there.我从新西兰一回国，就买了一栋房子并在那儿住下了。
So far as I know, seldom does Mary come back to see her mother.
就我所知，玛利几乎很难回来看她妈妈。
Scarcely a drop of rain fell here last fall . (否定词修饰主语时，句子不用倒装。) 去年秋天，
这儿几乎没下一滴雨。
3)当so, often, only等表示程度、频率的副词放在句首时，句子一般要倒装。例如:
Only in this way can you come up with a solution to the problem.
只有这样，你才有可能想出解决这个问题的办法。
So serious was the situation that everybody faced a test.
形势如此地严峻，每个人都面临着一场考验。
So hard did he overwork that he fell ill at last. 他太操劳过度以致最后病倒了。
4)当there, here, then, now等副词在句首，且谓语是come, go, be等动词时，句子一般要
- 68 - 全部倒装。其意义在于引起他人的注意。如果这类句子的主语是代词，则不用写成倒装句。例如:
Now, here goes the story.这个故事是这样的。
Look, there comes the taxi.瞧，出租车过来了。
Then came another question.然后又一个问题提出来了。
Then followed the four-year War of Liberation.接下来是四年的解放战争。
5) 当out, in, away, up, bang等表示方位或拟声词放在句首时，句子一般要全部倒装。这类子比自然语序的句子更为生动、形象。但如果这类句子的主语是代词，则不用写成倒装句。例如:
Bang goes my ace.我砰地一下打出了"A"。(扑克牌中的点数)
Away flew the bird.那鸟飞走了。
Suddenly, in came a man with a mask on his face.
突然进来一个蒙着面具的人。
6) 其他情况还有:省略了if的虚拟条件句、某些表示祝愿的句子、以及某些让步状语从句，等等也要用倒装句式。例如:(省略了if的虚拟条件句)
Had they not helped us, we could not have done it so successfully.
如果没有他们的帮助，我们不可能把那件事办的如此成功。
Should he come, say "Nobody in" to him.
万一他来了,对他说:"公司没人。"(某些表示祝愿的句子)
May our friendship last forever.愿我们的友谊常存～
May your company become prosperous.祝贵公司生意兴隆～(某些让步状语从句)
Try as I might, I couldn't lift the stone.无论我使多大的劲，我也无法搬起那块石头。
They said they would follow the Party's lead come what might.
他们说无论发生什么情况，他们都会跟党走的。
7) 由于修辞或是平衡句子的原因也可以用倒装句;也可以不用。这不是一条必须的规定。
Next to this one is another grand hotel which is beautifully decorated .
这家饭店隔壁还有一家装修华丽的大饭店。
On either side of the great avenue stood many block buildings.
这条大街的两侧都耸立着许多综合楼。(这类句子也可以不用倒装句。)
"I'm leaving for Beijing tomorrow," said Tom to his mother (OR: Tom said to his mother) .汤姆对他妈妈说:"我明天动身去北京。"
Many block buildings stood on either side of the great avenue.
许多综合楼耸立在这条大街的两侧。
Another grand hotel, which is beautifully decorated, is next to this one .
这家饭店隔壁还有一家大饭店，那家饭店装修十分华丽。
巩固练习
1._______ and caught the mouse.
A. Up the cat jumped B. The cat up jumped C. Up jumped the cat D. Jumped up the cat 2.______ and the lesson began.
A. In came Mr Brown B. Mr Brown in came C. In came he D. came in Mr Brown 3.Over _______ , dead.
A. rolling the goat B. rolled the goat C. did the goat roll D. the goat rolled
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4.—Where is my shirt, mum? —_________.
A. There is it B. There it is
C. There is D. Here is it
5. —Where is your father? —Oh, ________.
A. here he comes B. he here comes
C. here does he come D. here comes he
6.The door opened and there ________ .
A. enters an old man B. entered an old man
C. did an old man enter D. an old man entered
7. Now ______ your turn to recite the text.
A. will come B. comes C. has come D. there is 8.Often _____ them not to smoke here.
A. we advised B. advised me C. did we advise D. had we advised 9.________ playing soldiers.
A. Inside the room were two boys B. Inside the room two boys
C. Were two boys inside the room D. Inside the room was two boys 10. On the wall _______ two large portraits.
A. are hanging B. hanged C. hang D. hangs 11._______ who was wounded in the stomach.
A. Among them were a soldier B. Among them was a soldier C. Among them a soldier was D. Among they was a soldier 12. Next door to ours ________ , who is no less than eighty. A. that lives an old man B. does an old man live C. lives an old man D. where lives an old man 13.She plays the piano very well, ______.
A. so every one of us does B. every one of us does C. so does every one of us D. so do every one of us 14.You say he works hard, ______, and _____.
A. so he does; so you do B. so he does; so do you C. so does he; so do you D. so does he; so you do 15. —I thought you women were present at the meeting. —__________.
A. So we were B. So we did C. So were we D. So did we
16.I don‘t think Jack will come today, _____.
A. nor will Mary B. and Mary doesn‘t C. Mary will either D. or Mary does 17. She is fond of cooking, _____I .
A. so am B. nor am C. neither do D. nor do
18.Marx was born in Germany and German was his native language . A. So it was with Engles B. So was it with Engles C. So was Engles D. So did Engles 19.A fish needs water and without water it will die._______. A. So does a man B. So will a man C. So it is with a man D. So is it with a man 20. So absorbed _______ the work that she often forgot to _____ her meals. A. had she been in; do B. she was in; make C. was she in; take D. she had been in ; have 21.So loudly ______ that every one of the class could hear him. A. did he speak B. did he spoke C. spoke he D. he spoke
22. __________ his apperance that no one could recognize him. A. Strange so was B. So strange was C. Was so strange D. So was
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strange
23.Not once ______ their plan.
A. did they change B. they changed C. changed they D. they did change
24. Never ______ such a wonderful place as Hangzhou.
A. are seeing B. had I seen C. I have seen D. have I seen 25.Seldom ______ TV during the day.
A. they watch B. are they watching C. have they watched D. do they watch
26.Nowhere ______ as in my garden.
A. the flowers were so beautiful B. were the flowers so beautiful C. so beautiful were the flowers D. so beautiful the flowers were 27. Hardly ________ his homework when he went out.
A. finished he B. he had finished
C. did he finish D. had he finished 28.Scarcely _____ finished their homework ______ I came into the classroom.
A. had they; than B. they had; when
C. had they; when D. did they; when
29. Not only _______ a promise, but also he kept it.
A. has he made B. does he make
C. he made D. did he make
30. Not until his comrades criticized him _______ to admit his mistake.
A. had he begun B. began he
C. did he begin D. does he begin
一(词类
能够自由运用的最小语言单位叫词。根据词的形式、意义及其在句中的作用所作的分类叫词类
(parts of speech)。
英语的词通常分为十大类，即名词、冠词、代词、数词、形容词、副词、动词、介词、连词和感
叹词。现分别叙述如下:
(一) 名词
名词(n = noun)是表示人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。例如:
foreigner外国人 soap肥皂 Newton牛顿 law法律 freedom自由 peace和平
英语名词可分为两大类:
1.普通名词(common noun)是某一类人、事物、某种物质或抽象概念的名称。例如:
teacher教师 market市场 rice大米 magazine杂志 sound 声音 production生产
2.专有名词(proper noun)是特定的某人、地方或机构的名称。专有名词的第一个字母必须
大写。例如: Russia俄罗斯 New York纽约 United Nations联合国
名词又可分为可数名词(countable noun)与不可数名词(uncountable noun)两种。可数名词有单、
复数之分。绝大多数名词的复数形式的构成是在单数名词的后面加-s或-es。例如:
bus?buses 公共汽车 library?libraries图书馆 toy?toys 玩具 leaf?leaves树叶
英语中有一些名词的复数形式是不规则的。例如:man?men男人 tooth?teeth牙齿
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冠词(art = article)放在名词之前，帮助说明该名词所指的对象。冠词分为不定冠词(indefinite article)
和定冠词(definite article)两种。
不定冠词为a/an，用在单数名词之前，表示某一类人或事物的“一个”。a用在以辅音开头的名词之前，an用在以元音开头的名词之前。例如:
a hotel 一家旅馆 a chance 一次机会 a double room一个双人间 a useful book 一本有用的书an exhibition一次展览
an honest man一个诚实的人
定冠词只有一个，即the，表示某一类人或事物中特定的一个或一些。可用于单数或复数名词前，也可用于不可数名词前。例如:the TV programs 那些电视节目 the house那座房子 the Olympic Games奥运会
(三)代词
代词(pro = pronoun)是用来指代人或事物的词。代词包括:
1(人称代词，如:I, you, they, it等;
2(物主代词，如:my, his, their, our, mine, hers等;
3(反身代词，如:myself, yourself, itself, ourselves, oneself等;
4(相互代词，如:each other, one another等;
5(指示代词，如:this, that, these, those, such, same等;
6(疑问代词，如:who, whom, whose, which, what等;
7(关系代词，如:who, whom, whose, which, that等;
8(不定代词，如:some, any, no, all, one, every, many, a little, someone, anything等;
(四)数词
数词(num = numeral)是表示“数量”和“顺序”的词。
前者称为基数词，例如:one(一)，twenty (二十)，thirty-five(三十五)，one hundred and ninety-five(一百九十五)等;
后者称为序数词，例如:first(第一)，twentieth(第二十)，fifty-first(第五十一等。
(五)形容词
形容词(adj = adjective)是用来修饰名词，表示名词属性的词。例如:yellow(黄色的)，wonderful(惊人的)，strong(强大的)。
形容词一般放在它所修饰的名词之前，例如:busy streets(繁华的街道)，public relations(公共关系)，young men(年轻人)等。
形容词的比较等级可分为三种，既原级、比较级和最高级。原级，既未变化的形容词原形，例如:great, big, difficult等;比较级，既形容词+后缀-er或more+形容词，例如:greater, bigger,
more difficult等;最高级，既形容词+后缀-est或most+形容词，例如:greatest, biggest, most
difficult等。
(六)副词
副词(adv =adverb)可分为四种，包括:
(1)
1(普通副词，例如:together(一起)，well(好)，carefully(仔细地)等;
2(疑问副词，例如:when(何时)，where(何地)，how(如何)，why(为什么)等; 3(连接副词，例如:therefor(因此)，then(然后)，however(然而)，otherwise(否则)等; 4(关系副词，例如:where, when, why等。
副词的比较等级的构成和形容词一样。
(七)动词
动词(v = verb)是表示动作或状态的词，例如:sign(签字)，support(支持)，have(有)，exist(存在)
- 72 - 等。
动词根据起意义和作用可分为实义动词、系动词、情态动词和助动词。
实义动词有完全的词义，并能独立作谓语，例如:explain(解释)，stay(停留)，have(有)等。 系动词作谓语时，后面需接表语。常见英语系动词有:be(是)，seem(似乎)，look(看起来)，become(变成)，appear(显得)，get(变得)，feel(感到)，turn(变成)，remain(仍然是)等。
情态动词表示能力、义务、必要、猜测等说话人的语气和情感。情态动词只能和原行动词一起构成谓语动词。英语情态动词主要有can(能够)，may(可以，也许)，must(必须)及其过去形式could, might等。
助动词常和主要动词一起构成各种时态、语态、语气等动词形式，以及用于否定和疑问等结构中。英语助动词主要有shall, will, have, be, should, would, do等。
实义动词还可根据是否需要宾语分为及物动词和不及物动词。
及物动词(vt = transitive verb)后面要跟宾语，意义才完整。例如:
Have you received the letter? 你受到了那封信吗,(the letter是及物动词receive的宾语)
不及物动词(vi = intransitive verb)本身意义完整，后面不需跟宾语，例如:
The old man walked very slowly. 这老人走的很慢。(walked是不及物动词)
不及物动词需要跟宾语时，要加适当的介词。如:
He is listening carefully. He is listening to the teacher carefully.
动词有四中基本形式，即动词原形、过去式、过去分词和现在分词。例如:live –lived—lived—living
(八)介词
介词(prep = preposition)又叫前置词，放在名词、代词或相当于名词的词前面，表示它后面的词与句子中其它成分之间的关系。介词在句中一般不重读，也不能单独作句子成分。
介词根据其构成，可分为简单介词，如:in, at, for, since等;复合介词，如:into(进入), as for(至于), out of(出自);二重介词，如:until after(直至...之后), from among(从...当中);短语介词，如:according to(根据), because of(因为), in front of(在...之前), in the event of(如果);分词介词，如:regarding(关于), considering(考虑到), including(包括)。
介词后面的名词或代词叫做介词宾语。介词和介词宾语合称为介词短语(prepositional phrase)。
(九)连词
连词(conj = conjunction)是连接词、短语、从句或句子的词。连词是虚词，在句中一般不重读，也不能在句中单独作句子成分。 根据连词本身的含义及其所连接的成分的性质，可分为并列连词和从属连词。
并列连词是连接并列关系的词、短语、从句或句子的连词，例如:and(和), or(或者、否则), but(但是), for(因为), not only...but also(不仅...而且), neither...nor(即不...也不)。
从属连词是连接主从复合句的主句和从句的连词，例如:that, if(如果), whether(是否), when(当...时候), although(虽然), because(因为), so that(结果)。
从连词本身的结构形式看，又可分为:
简单连词，如:but, because, if;关联连词，如:not only...but also, as...as(和...一样);分词连词，如:supposing(假如), provided(倘若);短语连词，如:as if(好象), as soon as(一旦...就), in order
- 73 - that(以便)。
(十)感叹词
感叹词(interj = interjection)是表示喜怒哀乐等感情的词，例如:oh, well, why, hello等。
上述十大词类中，名词、代词、形容词、副词、动词、数词等都有实义，故称为实词(notioal word);而介词、冠词、连词、感叹词等没有实义，故称为虚词(form word)。
不少词可以属于几个词类，例如:smoke(烟尘)n.， (吸烟)n.;own (自己的)adj， (拥有)v.;just (刚才)adv， (正义的)adj;key (钥匙)n.， (主要的)adj，等。
二、句子成分
由不同词类的单词，按照一定的语法规则组合在一起，能表达一个完整意思的语言单位叫做句子。一个句子由各个功能不同的部分构成，这些部分叫做句子成分(members of the sentence)。英语的句子成分有八种:主语、谓语动词、表语、宾语、定语、状语、主语补足语和宾语补足语。现分述如下:
(一) 主语
主语(subject)是句子所要说明的人或事物，是句子的主体。
主语的位置通常在句首，一般不省略。可以担当主语的有名词、代词、数词、动词不定式、动名词和主语从句。例如:
Walls have ears. 隔墙有耳。(名词做主语)
He will take you to the hospital. 他会带你去医院。(代词做主语)
Three plus four is seven. 三加四等于七。(数词做主语)
To see is to believe. 眼见为实。(动词不定式做主语)
Smoking is not allowed in public places. 公共场所不允许吸烟。(动名词做主语)
Whether or not they will come depends on the weather. 他们来不来取决与天气。(从句做主语)
(二) 谓语动词
谓语动词(predicate verb)是说明主语的动作或状态的句子成分。
谓语动词的位置一般在主语之后。谓语动词由实义动词或系动词担任。助动词或情态动词加其他动词的适当形式也构成谓语动词。例如:
Action speaks louder than words. 百说不如一干。
The chance may never come again. 这样的机会恐怕不会再来。
Tom was very sick at heart. 汤姆心里非常难过。
Mary has been working at the dress shop since 1994. 自1994年以来，玛丽一直在那家服装店工作。
(三) 表语
表语(predicative)是用来说明主语的身份、特征和状态的，它的位置在系动词之后。 可作表语的有名词、代词、形容词与分词、数词、动词不定式、介词短语、副词以及表语从句等。例如:
My father is a professor. 我父亲是一位教授。(名词作表语)
Who's that? It's me. 是谁呀,是我。(代词作表语)
Everything here is dear to her. 这里的一切她都感到亲切。(形容词作表语)
The match became very exciting. 比赛变得很紧张。(现在分词作表语)
The story of my life may be of help to others. 我的生活经历对别人可能有帮助。(介词短语作表语)
Three times five is fifteen. 三乘五等于十五。(数词作表语)
His plan is to look for work in the city. 他的计划是在城里找工作。(动词不等式短语作表语)
My first idea was that you should hide your feelings. 我最初的想法是你应当掩饰你的感情。
- 74 - (从句作表语)
(四) 宾语
宾语(object)表示动作的对象，是动作的承受者。宾语一般放在及物动词之后。英语介词后也会跟宾语。
可作宾语的有名词、数词、代词、动名词等。不定式也可作及物动词的宾语。例如:
she covered her face with her hands. 她用双手蒙住脸。(名词短语作宾语)
We haven't seen her for a long time. 我们好长时间没看到她了。(代词作宾语)
Do you mind opening the window? 打开窗户你介意吗,(动名词短语作宾语)
Give me four please. 请给我四个。(数词作宾语)
He wants to dream a nice dream. 他想做一个好梦。(动词不定式短语作宾语)
We need to know what others are doing. 我们需要了解其他人都在干什么。(从句作宾语)
I lived in Japan in 1986. 我1986年住在日本。(名词和数词作介词的宾语) (五)定语
定语(attribute)是修饰名词或代词的词、短语或句子。单词作定语时通常放在它所修饰的名词之前;短语和从句作定语时则放在它所修饰的名词之后。
作定语的有名词、形容词、数词、分词及其短语、不等式及其短语、介词短语以及定语从句等。例如:
They are women workers. 她们是女工。(名词作定语)
Tom's father didn't write home until yesterday. 汤姆的父亲直到昨天才给家里写信。(所有格名词作定语)
Equal pay for equal work should be introduced. 应当实行同工同酬。(形容词作定语)
(3)
The play has three acts. 这出戏有三幕。(数词作定语)
This is her first trip to Europe. 这是她首次欧洲之行。(代词、数词和介词短语作定语)
China is a developing country. 中国是一个发展中国家。(现在分词作定语)
You haven't kept your promise to write us often. 你没有遵守给我们经常写信的诺言。(动词不定式短语作定语)
My cat has a good nose for milk. 我的猫对牛奶嗅觉灵敏。(介词短语作定语)
Those who want to go to Tibet are to sign their names here. 想去西藏的人须在此签名。(从句作定语)
(六)状语
状语(adverbial)是修饰动词、形容词、副词等的句子成分。状语表示地点、时间、原因、目的、结果、条件、让步、程度、方式、伴随情况等。
作状语的有副词、名词、介词短语、分词及其短语、动词不定式及其短语、状语从句等。例如:
These products are selling quickly. 这些产品现在十分畅销。(副词作状语)
He is knee deep in snow. 他踩在齐膝深的雪里。(名词作状语)
The best fish swim near the bottom. 好鱼居水底。(有价值的东西不能轻易得到。)(介词短语作地点状语)
She sat there doing nothing. 她坐在那里无所事事。(现在分词短语作伴随状语)
We'll send a car over to fetch you. 我们将派一辆车去接你。(动词不定式短语作目的状语)
She was slow to make up her mind. 她迟迟不能下决心。(动词不定式短语作状语)
Strike while the iron is hot. 趁热打铁。(从句作时间状语)
(七)宾语补足语和主语补足语
英语有些及物动词，除了要有宾语之外，还要加上宾语补足语(object complement)，才能使句子的意义完整。宾语和宾语补足语一起构成复合宾语。如果上述结构变成被动语态，原宾语成为主语，原宾语补足语相应地变为主语补足语(subject complement)。可以担当补足语的有名词、形容词、介词短语、动词不定式、分词等。例如:
They elected me captain of the team. 他们选我当队长。(名词短语作宾语补足语)
He made me ashamed of myself. 他使我感到惭愧。(形容词短语作宾语补足语)
- 75 -
We found everything there in good order. 我们发现那里的一切井井有条。(介词短语作宾语补足语)
I should advise you not to miss the chance.我劝你不要错过机会。(不定式短语作宾语补足语)
I could feel my heart beating fast. 我可以感觉出自己的心跳得很快。(现在分词短语作宾语补足语)
Some goods are left unsold. 有些货物剩下未出售。(过去分词做主语补足语)
She was elected director of public relations.她被选为公关部主任。(名词短语做主语补足语) 词类与句子成分既有区别又有联系。词类是孤立的单词的分类;而句子成分则指单词、词组、短语或从句在句中的作用。句子的各种成分总是由属于一定词类的单词(或词组、短语、从句)来担当的。因此在词类和句子成分之间存在着某种对应关系。现将这种对应关系列表如下:
主语 宾语 表语 定语 状语 宾(主)语补足语
名 词 ? ? ? ? ? ?
代 词 ? ? ? ? ?
形容词 ? ? ?
副 词 ? ?
数 词 ? ? ? ? ?
不定式 ? ? ? ? ? ?
分 词 ? ? ? ?
动名词 ? ? ? ?
介词短语 ? ? ? ?
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