Imperial examination system to the abolition of the one hundred years of the Review of

Imperial examination system to the abolition of the one hundred years of the Review of Imperial examination system to the abolition of the one hundred years of the Review of [Abstract title specifically History [Text] An imperial examination the election officer and petty officials and political development Cheng Nianqi A China in the Spring and Autumn before, not a bureaucratic country in Western Zhou lord system, the rulers rule the people, but the emperor, princes Bureaucrats official, Bureaucrats retainer official, however, from Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, China’s social structure has undergone fundamental changes: First, the collapse of the ejido community, independent farmers become the basic unit, then there are the original lord, as consolidation continues, the war has been eliminated in this conditions, countries have to implement top-down bureaucratic control on society. the time of the Warring States, the state control of society has been largely bureaucratic a direct consequence of bureaucratic control, is to make the 1 complex greatly increased the degree of political, for the person is an official, political expertise has been very important. monarch countries attach great importance to the selection of those with specific political knowledge official Warring States Period, Qin Dynasty established set of Dr. officer, also aims to use specialized political knowledge to the country, the First Emperor also ordered the “Officials as Teachers, more focus on training and selection of an official of the personnel in terms of political knowledge. Han Dynasty, science and politics is closely related to the selection officials are increasingly valued knowledge, the court established the Imperial College gun school students to be employed as officials. In short, political, since it has been bureaucratized the need to an official with specialized political knowledge. Election official of the Han Dynasty also a very high value personal conduct, the passage of time, to Cao Wei set up a system, the figure is divided into Nine. At that time, a person’s character, always by his evaluation. Thus, assessment products the powers of the characters, the final operation in the hands of the local aristocratic families, the formation of the so-called “Nine - grade” system. Since the 2 Han Dynasty scholar official and did not strictly limit the implementation of “Nine - grade, and ultimately it is the” top officials a poor family, low-grade non-aristocratic family, causing serious inequalities in the career followed, Sui and Tang imperial examination system, which is China’s rulers in the bureaucratic rule after almost a thousand years, the creation of a training and selection of the bureaucratic system. Neighbor discussed the advantages of the imperial examination, the most important is it fair that the fair will be able to talent. Tang Dynasty, a lot of talent, are said to be because of the imperial examination system. Such a view, I am afraid is very problematic. Han Dynasty The imperial examination system is not also a lot of great people? In fact, the benefits of the imperial examination system, only the relative grade System is not necessarily the best selection of personnel system. The civil service examination of the Tang Dynasty to the Ming Jing and Scholars Branch of the most important, but the Scholars and heavy out by out by the Division of examination, when the posts by “and” Mexican justice “, are to test candidates on the classic textual whether to 3 memorize, but not with their interpretation of classical implication. next examination, and later added a Wu Ce, in order to examine whether the candidates have political opinions. Scholars a Branch, the Tang Dynasty, initially try Wu Ce five, and later added to the post by and essays an essay, initially to try a variety of stylistic and slowly only poetry and empowerment. expedition weight Poetry and Rhapsody and light by (posts by Mexican justice), policy of heavy literary culture was in the Tang Dynasty, or scientific research is often added to the test “theory” “theory” of the object, is the subject of books and history books, with the “policy” devoted to “the times,” not the same. then fair examination, can not test whether a person has the only quality of the official Tang Dynasty official, door shade a way in the shadow of the door while the official view, the official in relation with the talent, and the should not be with the diction. views out of selfish, but also very opinionated, but precisely the crucial point of the imperial examination. To the Northern Song Wang Anshi, will be out by other subjects are incorporated into the Jinshi, Poetry, cancel posts by Mexican justice, increase the “justice” and a theory to 4 keep pace with the policy, the so-called Sutra, is to a one or a few of the Confucian classics, or a paragraph in the title to allow candidates to elucidate the moral principles of which, to examine their understanding of Confucianism implication, so that they can think saints and think, would like a saint to think, speak sage the meaning of such examination, greatly depressed reading people’s thoughts. Fortunately, the Song Dynasty keen to “keep a person”, the scholar Yourong, the study of learning culture be encouraged scholarship among then, hope through research knowledge to find out the truth of world governance. So, in spite of the expedition by the righteousness of abuse, but the research culture of learning of such abuse or constraints only the people of the official increase of the actual political talent. is unknown. By Song Confucianism decline into the next and then the imperial examination, although important, it has already lost the Song as knowledge background. Ming Dynasty heavy imperial examination and light schools, is the re-examination light knowledge, students know that the only memorization, Confucian moral principles than to think and research. no science background, on the Sacred Hearts, sincerity, 5 self-cultivation, regulating the family, ruling the state and the world the truth, are simply a stepping stone leading to career. Thus, on the one hand, the Scholars in Section field to imitate the saints in the classic tone, speaking of the holy people have already talked about the truth, the other hand, is desperately in efforts to articles and rhetorical skills. Gradually, the style of “stereotyped” Sutra on the formation of such an article in the form of people’s thoughts is a great bound into the clear and not changed Ku Yen-wu of the Ming and Qing Dynasties that the harmful effects of stereotyped like Emperor Qin book burning, and for personnel corruption was even more severe than the Qin Shi Huang Kengru. Two Mentioned above, or that the imperial examination subjects are not suitable for selection of the official talent, or to emphasize the imperial examinations harmful to the moral of the literati culture. However, this means that from scratch deny the imperial examination system? Contrary. The imperial examination system is successful. the success of the imperial examination system is the world of reading, tame, tame may not be not capable of, but not tamed never give the officer to do many of the specific transaction, the officials do not know 6 how to do, and innocuous, since there will be familiar with the work of the Outpost. far from the Warring States, the officials have a lot of officials, Qin and Han dynasties, too. Han Dynasty Xiao and Cao have done the Qin Xian Li, Liu Bang is the lower one level officials the status of officials in general are very humble, very understanding to society, and are specialized political knowledge, in which characters are often very talented rebel Liu Bang, and eventually made the Emperor. assist in his Xiao and Cao has done relative to the country of the Han Dynasty. Warring States and Qin and Han dynasties, there is a “Xu”, or “Xu”, that is later so-called “officials”. “is the lowest government level institutions, Xu, where Xu is not even officially official Outpost is not really, but it must also be recognized by the official, and to perform certain business trips. Li Shi Qi, Chen Ping, all this type of character, have a great ability. Han Chinese speak inaction, the so-called “follow his steps”, you need a prerequisite is the “established rules” have been “Xu” and “officials in the specific handling. Following the Sui and Tang, Xu, Officials of the development very closely. Even the imperial court, all to the 7 petty officials to deal with the affairs of each town hall can also be in Tang, set out for the history books say everything “assigned Clerks “(“ Old Tang Yuan Zai pass >>). Song Dynasty set up the official, most focus on decentralization, so that the officials of mutual constraints, the official the more established and more and more, agencies are increasingly complex, increasingly fragmented power, affairs are increasingly complicated, and the power of the petty officials responsible for specific operations, of course, is growing, the result is the formation of petty officials and political. “Officials Officer weak” (<< Sung Tsai ranking thick transfer >>), the history of the Song a common phenomenon. Sima Guang, said: “The House History Xu resettlement is no place in Lin Lu, Jin Rong Wang, include all taste of the people living on the Public House Province Temple, Zhu Lu Supervision Department, counties, villages, field position, the Treasury officials, word of First Instance to recover call tax corvee, treasury accounting, where there are narrowly related to the hand, non-bribe left no taxes and corvee alone can make is a bad production, non-magistrate of the people seen their homes destroyed of the contingent. more than half do the officials home, this China is heavily 8 trapped. “>> Volume (<< Amendation The Long $ 96) There is no doubt that the cultivation of petty officials and political relations with the imperial examination system is enormous. Sui and Tang dynasties before the Clerks of the problem is “deceitful”, but not enough to control the executive. Han officials since the provision of the bureaucracy, the petty officials of the appointment only between the officials of a word often. the Wei OK grade System, the official people who have family background, but also will not be subject to Shuli. the only imperial examination system is only responsible for training the tame officials, most people But before the official ordinary man, no family background, most of them or can say one thing and the world the people truths, but the lack of real administrative capacity and the power, so the beginning of his self can not but allow Clerks at the mercy of, otherwise it is difficult to in official circles diving. CLASSICS occurs when the matter of “Clerks Chi Zhu Yu Shi Zhongcheng” (“Amendation feature length 100 >> Volume 96) . Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, petty officials and 9 political speech for the Clerks dictatorship of the minority communities to Yuan Central Plains, because of cultural reasons, the scholar can not be trusted, it was nine Confucian beggar, “said, but countries need to manage the Yuan Dynasty Now that light the Confucian, you have to re-Officials, so the Yuan Dynasty Clerks political speech Clerks dictatorship, a county political desire not for the hands of petty officials, be difficult to carry “( only, YP Hu << purple Grand Complete Works Volume II k) of the Ming and Qing dynasties were admitted to stereotyped scholars govern the country more I do not know what that is, the petty officials of the dictatorship thus became more serious. time, scholars official, has to do specific things petty officials to do, especially local, do the people of local officials to rely on petty officials. because only these people are familiar with the local grass-roots administration of the government office that only they know the ropes. power is bound by their monopoly, that all the provisions of various bureaucratic, they engage in out of the petty officials familiar with the law, the actual situation of the society is also very understanding of these two points are an official of the scholar is nothing compared to the in six of the court, and the lawsuit, petty officials the status of 10 humble, but because occupying powerhouse, by the punishment of all kinds of copy, Ordinance prepared, in large part to their personal will into the will of the court, the state elected the following officials of the County Executive, usually by the petty officials of the Ministry of Personnel of the decision; the local petty officials rely on the official forces, allows villagers submissive to them a long time in the official older, deep-rooted relations, the general statement became a partisan. Therefore, the right group of people, that the the Yamen Executive in order to manage well, is not an easy task. They only know to seek benefits for themselves, but more so, things will become worse, so Huang Zongxi said: “the world officials of the law, no court of law.” In other words, the regulations developed by the petty officials, in fact, are in line with the Clerks their own interests, which is called Clerks dictatorship. Ming Dynasty of the Clerks of the problem very seriously, there is no way to solve it. Huang Zongxi is a very knowledgeable person, can he hope a solution is to let those reading to do petty officials. In his view, a reader is better than Clerks moral. Qian Mu once said such a thing, to say the 11 Ming Dynasty, a Neo called Chen is one of his friends to do the magistrate in Shaoxing, he wrote an article for friends off this Chen is the article that the disorder in the world are in court six, the petty officials of the six people in Shaoxing, these people in the court handling the copy, but their father and brother in Shaoxing. his friends to Shaoxing in office, be able to pay attention to educate these people family, Family Precepts of the petty officials, and future Clerks will get better, petty officials changed for the better governance of the world will be able to (Qian Mu << Chinese history and political pros and cons >>, pages 123-127 ). Zongxi or Chen are all not from the perspective of the state system to put forward to solve the problem of petty officials, we can only hope to solve the problem through education. In short, the Imperial Examination is not aimed at the selection rule of the talents, the so-called “fairness” that imperial examination system, in fact, there is no practical significance. Popular Clerks political, that the bureaucracy is not dormant, nothing to do with any official, rhetoric of the so-called emperor and the literati rule the world “, its greatest significance, but to show that the emperor bureaucratic loyalty 12 and tame the trust of the emperor, however, this trust has always been limited since the Sui and Tang dynasties, the imperial power to strengthen, Central options, a variety of ways to weaken in places with a variety of ways to make local officials have no right, one of the most important trick is to strictly limit local officials term in order to prevent local officials familiar with the local government affairs. As for Clerks , the only non-mainstream products, lack of social appeal scholar, although good at things Nongfa, but never enough to form a rival trend with the state. Only in this way, the Qing Dynasty Imperial Examination one still its old, while the The emperor is willing and petty officials, the world (Xu Ke << clear barnyard class banknote Xu existing class >>). Three Neighbor often said that the civil service system in the West from learning the Chinese imperial examination system, however, the role of the civil service system in the West, bears no resemblance to the imperial examination system, it touches a little close to the traditional Chinese Clerks system of Clerks system The same is true for country-specific matters, Western Civil. Different, the civil service system in the West is 13 definitely to handle state affairs in accordance with administrative regulations of the country, the civil service itself does not have the power of good at things Nongfa can not participate in the formulation of policies and regulations, civil service culture of Western countries, ie normative and administrative training on the civil service. China Clerks system and Western Civil different. In addition, it should be noted that Clerks system in addition to those previously mentioned drawbacks, it is more important is that this ministry and his son private teaching and private monopolies. is employed by the various departments Clerks things, all the unwritten practices must be observed, there are various special cases can be as quoted, and these practices and a special case, by the petty officials in private hands, the private phase to impart, such as a place of land and taxes and corvee of the real situation, only the petty officials in charge of these affairs to know, while they are dormant capital. Sui and Tang then China’s petty officials and political development, proof of the imperial examination itself can not train for the country and selection of the rule of talent, but it is to adapt to the needs of autocracy. Ancient Chinese despotism 14 of politics, an important goal of the political operation is to eliminate political competitors. then since the Qin Dynasty, China’s political process has two main characteristics: the central and local governments, central continue to weaken and continue to strengthen, local, continue to strengthen and continue to be undermined. imperial power and the right to the imperial power constantly being undermined and continuing to get stronger, relative to the right to continue to strengthen and continue to be undermined. It is in these two processes, China’s administrative system settings are limit officials to their abilities. system set the goal of both is to limit the officials to their abilities, then in such a system, something is bound to “confound the system, and a method both Nipah and disadvantages clusters so-called “Xing benefit is not as good as in addition to the disadvantages” of the old saying, it is inevitable not to become later an official of the commonplace, accurate interpretation, but the students regarding as the province regarding the Su poem: “Everyone has the children look smart. cleverness life. I hope my children and grandchildren stupid and Lu, disaster free to or poor. “poetry ridicule its own, said endless sorrow and grief. the descendants career consultations fell for each poem self, is a 15 reflection of the Imperial Examinations the intention of the officer. It seems that the Qing abolition of the imperial examination system, it is highly targeted. Cover the Jesus Christ has not the change in the situation facing the country, the requirements for official people, first of all are capable rather tame, and modern demand for talent is multifaceted. Not abolished the imperial examination, give the world students can not very keen career, and obtained official powers of the so-called fair. As for the waste imperial examination and Hing school talent from eclectic, so the pursuit of social justice and development. Reflect on examination Rise and Fall, there are many things worth pondering. Author: the Cheng Nianqi, Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Institute of History researcher. Share in the free paper download center 2 Innovation and abuse: Millennium Imperial Examination System Aspects Wong stay bead, A The abolition of the one hundred years of imperial examination system, hundreds of years people have been 16 mixed it. In fact, when the calm, scientific, rational it to re-examine, it is not difficult to find, it implies an extremely valuable resource to draw on the basic principles - Optional. The so-called election test, through test selection, talent and it is much the same with the concept of Modern Personnel Administration in the West in the “Examination” (Selection). In ancient Chinese history, examination of the practice of starting early, shot election Township Xingxian process virtue of the policy to ask, show filial piety of policy test, can be regarded as different types of examination, but the real strict sense of the examination is started from the imperial examination system. various examinations before, mostly through this form to determine the grant official ranking or test held recommend Yin attitude, rather than try Elimination of the, it is also not true of Examination. the era of imperial examination system, “all to Cheng fate” (You: << old school Um notes >> Kango), in other words, that is, Ding Bai whether Shihe official, depends on test scores for the transfer. In this way, the examination became election official 17 only determinant only of this examination before they are real Examination. Examination in the selection of talent, the best choice was made after the human quest after long-term exploration. Examination system should be or must contain several basic spirit of the public equal to: one said, the second is competition and selection, the third is the amount of use only, Si Yue expert management of these is the Western modern organization theory stressed the principle of universalism and feelings Neutrality, and merit-based selection, as far as to grant any principle. Examination of the era of the imperial examination system, basically embodies these principles - although there is a great lack of thoroughness. One of the major social effects resulting is the so-called social mobility - mainly refers to the lower rungs of society into the ruling class. Sample survey done by sociologists in the Qing Dynasty information known at that time, Five Dynasties and within no fame commoner children in the total number of the imperial examination admitted, accounting for 13.33%, about 33.44 percent of fathers generation fame commoner children. the rate of social mobility, with the 20th century known as the 18 liberty, of thee roughly the same, rather than October pre-revolutionary Russia three times (Pan, Fei Xiaotong: “Imperial Examinations and social mobility >> contained << Social Sciences >> (Tsinghua) on the 1st). social mobility eclectic recruited choose talent, and expand the basis of feudal rule, which brought a degree of vigor and vitality to the community. any society to maintain long-term stability, vitality and vigor are essential. Examination of the imperial examination system at multiple levels. Tang Dynasty is divided into counties prepare test and test two of the Ministry of Personnel Province, Song dynasty, the state trial, the provincial examinations, successful candidates, the three-tier examination system, further improve as the Ming and Qing Tong test, provincial examinations, test, successful candidates, four exam system. Multi-level examinations, not only for ensuring the reliability, accuracy and objectivity of the selected personnel play an active role, but also for “cronyism” employment line also has a certain inhibitory effect. It is true that the feudal society of employing can not completely get rid of “cronyism”, but the layers of examination of the imperial examination system, 19 there is no genuine talent just by the “door”, “crony” into the body by speaking, after all, is a Road grim juncture to mention imperial examination the impact of the examination in the field of ideology, is a powerful potential force. we all know, the imperial examination era of imperial examination system in parallel with a variety of other career, but the ruling and opposition parties up and down the imperial examination into the body and in his way into the body sees things very differently. said (Baoding: << >> Tang Picks of words) would have been “gentrification bit very ministers help Scholars who end for the United States,” as early as the Tang Dynasty. future generations, such increasingly deep-rooted concept. novel << Dream of Red Mansions “in the Qing-dynasty forced the son of the gem to go to reading the road of imperial examination, rather than let his shadow up the world rank, that is the most vivid example. In addition, despite the feudal society cronies weeks, the relationship employing the fact that everywhere, but in a broad array of historical records, miscellaneous notes, publicly proclaimed principle that “cronyism” who has no record. From here, the same can be seen that the examination system deeply rooted social power. 20 In order to guarantee the Examination impartiality and objectivity, value and a series of systems establish avoidance, confidentiality is also a considerable draw in the imperial examinations. Avoidance system under the imperial examination system can be summed up no more than two types: Hometown evasive evasive with relatives. Hometown avoidance, refers to the domicile of any domiciled official there place of origin to evade early as the Han Dynasty, “mutual Act. Imperial era, more and more complex This avoidance to evade such as the Ming Dynasty not only the county Shouling Township, state, and sometimes limit the same place of origin were prohibited from serving in the same organs, and even some official help of a membership as special provisions. Again such as clear Junji towards the provisions of outside officials and households, torture two of the Officials must evade the province, the faculty should avoid this House. Kangxi provisions of any officer within the domicile of 500 miles, it will take to evade the domicile of evading also includes ancestral home and tour the curtain over the place to 21 avoid, such as the Qing dynasty, Daisan Xi Shun Tin, Tai Hing, a native of Jiangsu Dantu early desire to move Jiangning administrative commissioner, due to withdrawal ancestral home, it had transferred to Sichuan (<< History of Qing Dynasty Daisan Xi Chuan >>). Relatives avoidance, refers to the marital home, relatives shall interaction between the official. Relatives of the imperial examination avoidance, originated in the Tang Dynasty, the system established in the Northern Song Dynasty. Its provisions, where the trial examiner, gun Jieguan and the children of the local magistrate , relatives and even the hangers, the examination must be avoided, alternates examiner set house collation, called “Do not try”, said “Do not head test”. Imperial Examination System in the late evading relatives are better fine. Cited to avoid each other between the Ming Dynasty not only the provisions of relatives, and brothers with the family but also to avoid arousing suspicion, the principle is the following to avoid “the other provisions, the Minister of the children shall not be any of Supervisors, shall not participate in the successful candidates. Minister of the family shall not be any Branch Road, and so on. 22 the withdrawal of the Qing Dynasty relatives, especially heavy Branch Road Officer. Junji quasi towards the title, the current Mishina the above Tangguan children shall Cochrane Road, father and brother went to the Ministry of alternate, while the children of the current Branch Road , DAE-owned pension, transfer the Board of Civil principal the Kangxi Examination Branch Road had provisions, Beijing officials Mishina more than children of that examination, the Governor, the governor of the children will not be allowed examination. Qing Dynasty also provides for the Minister of the children may not act as a military aircraft Zhang Jing and so on. The confidentiality of the imperial examination system was established, began in the Northern Song Dynasty. Specific practices: Lock hospital system. Officials lock places will soon be responsible for examination in the examination halls, may not be home, not allowed to see relatives or court officials contacts with outside the hospital this means in practice is the use of the isolation method to achieve the purpose of confidentiality. 23 Closure indemnity system. “Seal Mi” to “be sealed”, also known as “paste name” Simply put, the papers sealed up, and paste to lift the child’s name, so why the party of the people of the examiners’ Mozhi Candidates, who the child’s, not to be jealous of the love, and soul in the meantime “(set << Ouyang Wenzhong public memorials set ? On by road take the human zhazi >>) to” reform of the capacity of private harm (<< recorded of the Country Life> > Volume II). Transcription system. Established to supplement and improve the seal indemnity system. “Transcription” is copying papers. Candidates handwritten papers said “true volume”, the the transcription evacuation seal Mi official archive. Transcription of the examination paper “grass Volume give examiners Review. See when the examiner determined and so is not the The true volume, recognize the disadvantages of the calligraphy and painting began away “(Wu Zeng: << can change fasting diffuse recorded >> Volume II). Above the system, after the Song has been in use of 24 these practices, even in today’s examination, is still not lose its value in use. Two The biggest impact of the imperial examination system to the Chinese society, than the reading of it is caused by abnormal development of official roads and deep-rooted selfishness of official appeared very early in Chinese history, reading and an official linked to the idea. the late Spring and Autumn Period, Confucius led by the Confucian School made in this respect once a master of the summary, “excellent official” ideology (the << Analects Zizhang >>) should be acknowledged that this idea at the time is revolutionary, it is the most thorough World Bureaucracy denied. after World Bureaucracy dominated system of selecting officials, basically this idea under the guidance of the service, and for the realization of this idea. In comparison, the imperial examination system carrying out of the thinking of the most comprehensive and most thorough in the imperial examination system, the purpose of reading is more “one dollar” of, that is an official majority of Scholars for life in accordance with the “study hard - sit - into official, “the mode of struggle, the ears do not hear the world, one read 25 only the books of sages, and their pursuit of fame, with” the DPRK for the lands and Lang morning, board the Son of Heaven Church “fantasy day and night to enter the ranks of the” official “ painstaking personal gain. As a result, will inevitably lead to the malignant expansion of the official standard: all begin with the official community centered, for the transfer to the officer, the officer will have all lose their jobs will lose all written << A Dream of Red Mansions >> the the Jia anchoret Wing and Quguan of shame, art reproduction of this social reality. Officer as a representative of the power by the people Jingmu longing, this is human nature. In ancient China, the pursuit of official addition to the position to enjoy the special sanctity of the, also contains a more direct economic reasons, the official make a fortune - do a high official fortune, do minor official made a small fortune. we all know, officials only engage in the social management of public officers, which itself can not create social wealth in any society, can not do without managers but if These types too much imbalance, are bound to give society a huge disaster, especially the intellectual class, this is part of the thinking power of creativity 26 in the strongest members of society, if they are blind pursuit of an official, rather than be into force with the creation of social wealth (including two of the substances in the spirit of) labor directly related to, the consequences will be unimaginable in ancient China, however, the opposite is true. “All things are beneath contempt, the only high school.” where “reading” a synonym for “official” reading read it slowly and suffer through the years or decades, or even subjected to various ridiculed and insulted, but the examination ask the officer of heart, Haoshou the immortal. Reading an official superior, while in the Industrial and Commercial Industrial, various colors party trick is considered under abysmal cheap industry, especially the natural sciences, but also all as dishonest, dismissive of course, this reading The official road is the ancient ruler designed to consolidate his regime. It contains, first Emperor went to the rear side door and saw the Scholars have one lined up a new take, going out neatly, said happily: “hero in the world into the I enough of men!” (<< Tang Picks of words >>) means that the hero in the world fall into my trap. visible, reading an official way, is the ruler set a trap. this, the ancients have already been refers to breaking which secret - the so-called “ Emperor Taizong really LTHS 27 earned hero do bald also! With the mature development of the imperial examination system, reading an official of the road increasingly solidified, with the same time all official selfishness worsening ancient Chinese societies have changed from advanced to less advanced civilization changed ignorance, this relationship is great. The implementation of the imperial examination system, especially the stereotyped writing disabilities, and also brought the school out of touch to overlook the drawbacks of real talent. The rulers of ancient China, in order to maintain the long-term stability of the imperial power of the “Jesus Christ, a series of” feudal hierarchical society, in particular, emphasis on moral ethics education as the core of Ming Lun, and with the system of selecting officials combined with the Confucian classic, the implementation of the basic material of this kind of education. Indeed, in different stages of development of ancient societies to adapt to different political needs, the rule was the focus of education change, contents of some gain. But no matter what changes, gain, this kind of education general there is a fatal weakness, is learning to use out of touch, underestimate the actual order to the rule was 28 closely related to the education system of selecting officials, ancient official selection can not but have this weakness. main reason for this situation two: First, from the rulers in terms of them to determine the Confucian classics as the basic teaching materials, although not without respect Confucian Sung by intention, but the primary purpose is to clamp down thinking this end, and even comment on the Confucian Classics to be unified so that, whether through science or science, have become daily less and livestock Germany “unrealistic dogma, confining shackles of times more, the more serious from the literati to Look, those in power to facilitate Luquan Confucianism, they also “Confucianism, many have suggested, and fortune”, the “Four Books” and “Five Classics” as a stepping stone of official position, there is no intention to explore the implication, not to mention personally. On the surface, these people seem to speak about the special talk about the so-called “by the state of statecraft, but all on paper, any help at all practical. Needless to say, education in the imperial era rule is not completely without any intelligent educational content statecraft rulers of that time for learning to use out of line and 29 underestimate the drawbacks of actual talent, has taken some remedial measures, for example, Ming has using three approaches: First, establish the system of monitoring students “on” calendar thing, namely, graduated from the Imperial Academy of Health to the Yamen to practice in a specified time, in order to obtain practical work experience, also divided into the “calendar” and “miscellaneous Calendar two. the establishment of the concept of political Scholars “, the new Section Scholars Yamen any official with a mission to work to become familiar with the process of government affairs. enacted Notes >> << new government took office, is about The office should pay attention to the problem of Scholars of the new Section 11 list, prone to the drawbacks of the marked to make up for its lack of experience, precautionary measures should be recognized that these remedies really played some positive role, but it should be noted, this role does not have the nature of the breakthrough, only symptomatic not govern only in this way, the ancient Chinese to the official selection from the Talent Education has always been in the end learning to use out of touch, to despise the weakness of the actual talent - especially in the imperial examination times to the the extreme weakness of this, as a 30 heavy lessons of history, is particularly worthy of our serious remember. Author: yellow stay bead, a history professor at Northwestern University, doctoral tutor. Share in the free paper download center Foreign forces and the Imperial Examination Liu Haifeng Reform and repeal of the late Qing Dynasty Imperial Examination System, both at home and abroad academia have been many research, to become one of the imperial examination a hot issue. However, few people noticed, in a variety of reasons that lead to the abolition of the Late Qing Dynasty imperial examination, in addition to the Chinese people themselves set up the school and the abolition of the imperial examination system factors, there is an external forces for the Imperial Examination waste fuel to the flames, including the Imperial Examination System a direct blow. A Chinese Scholars are keen to participate in the powerful attraction of the imperial examination, the imperial examination system on the Chinese literati, a missionary of the 19th century missionaries in China of Chinese Scholars in the 31 biggest obstacle. In 1869 the missionaries of the General Assembly, also discussed whether it should to encourage the Chinese Christians to participate in the get the imperial examinations competition “Family Christian the true meaning of the obstacles which lasted nine days, both before and after the examinations held and will try to take the imperial is not only time will conflict with the church phase, but will also become Therefore, the missionaries do not support multi-Chinese Christians in the imperial examinations (Note: C. Hartwell,, The Relation of Christians to the Examinations, The Chinese Recorder is and Missionary Journal, Vol. 1, No. 11, March, 1869, pp. . 217-220 .. Missionaries in China, however, know that taxis were all to take the imperial to affect the Chinese can not help but influence of these elites, some missionaries attempt to influence the Chinese taxi class and suffer can not do anything, and later in many provinces of the missionaries take distribution << Bible reading should be held by the appearance of the Provincial Examination (Note: David Hill, The Coming Triennial Examinations to the Editor, of “The Chinese Recorder is,” The Chinese Recorder is and Missionary 32 Journal, Vol 16, No. 6, July, 1885, pp. 260-261; Vol 19, No. 6, June, 1888, pp. 282-283., in order at this critical field of the province Confucian of Hironobu flow cloth influence. Some missionaries in the wave of the late Qing Dynasty Imperial Examination, also weighed in, issuing the voice of reform and imperial examination, including some out of the kindness of China and some motives were suspect. For example, in the past, criticism of the imperial examination system commentators often cite the late Qing Dynasty to stereotyped and opium, foot-binding together as the three evil or three examples of vulgar, still exist in Japan to imperial examination and the eunuch, and mockery of foot-binding for the three major ancient Chinese “Qi Xi” saying, but no one was seriously research This has come from. Of Imperial Examination on the Western civil service examination system, I accidentally discovered a number of valuable historical materials .1895 years, Westerners called Fryer has opium, foot-binding, and the imperial examination as China’s “three major scourge”, and this essay on the theme of English publications published in China, “Chinese 33 Library >> prizes, prize money ranging from 8-50 dollars. the results to the deadline for the period of September 18, 1895, received a total of 150 candidates article ( Note: Notes and Items, The Chinese Recorder is and Missionary Journal, Vol 26, No. 10, October, 1895, p. 479. I still have not find the earliest source of the three major scourge, “said a general The popular saying, one of the three major scourge is stereotyped rather than the imperial examination system, but the essay requirements of the missionaries has explicitly said that the imperial examination system “(literary examination system) (Note: Notes and the Items, The Chinese Recorder is and Missionary Journal , Vol 26, No. 7, July, 1895, pp. 330-331. rather than say stereotyped (eightlegged essay). the Chinese Imperial Examination is not surprising that a Western missionary evil so keen on the publicity of the imperial examination system starting point seems not the same with the Chinese scholars is apparent on the late Qing Dynasty Imperial Examination criticism of the imperial examination (stereotyped) and opium, foot-binding par, should be carefully Discrimination (Note: Liu Haifeng: < <Introduction >> imperial examination, Central China Normal University Press, 2005, pages 270-271 .. 34 After the abolition of the imperial examination system, to maintain the Confucian system of support no longer exists, bad etiquette and music followed by the missionaries gained unprecedented freedom and space. Waste imperial examination regarding the most happy may be some Western missionaries in the Chinese imperial examination system of Confucianism in the prevalence of institutional support, once the imperial examination system was abolished, and the foundation of Confucianism shaken, Protestantism and Catholicism in China truly unimpeded. Western Missionaries in the late Qing Dynasty, the imperial examination praised Canada, argue that their governments to emulate the Chinese imperial examination to the implementation of the examination the election officer who was also strongly criticized proposals to reform the imperial examination system. Had a partial view of China Westerners to the late Qing Dynasty operator discipline held and the establishment of economic Hedo, to a certain extent affect the abolition of the imperial examination system in China Western missionaries first to see the superiority of the 35 imperial examination system of fair competition, later to see the imperial examination content Kongshu useless drawbacks, especially the 19th century, the ills the stereotyped imperial examination Xuefeisuoyong the increasingly prominent, so many missionaries were put to the recommendations of reform and imperial examination .1882 In August, the American missionary know << nations communique >> 704 << Chinese professionals still cite the industry on the >> article, critical analysis of the drawbacks of the imperial examination, said: “The world smart talent people in 11 bound to the lift industry, the system industry, trial law, and while I do not know to change meter is also a pity. “He believes that, when the imperial examination Kongshu useless,” to cite non-use, non the move “designed yet lift industry detrimental meeting. Young J. Allen also recommended the establishment of institutions, modeled on the law of the West to study science and technology. He claimed I Xi Shi, the do not want to jump parameter at the end seek to Yuezu of. special ranks China a long time, not without Qi in fear.西学为当务之急”.传教士狄考文认为,科举考试有不能辨 真假、不能断舞弊、启人干禄心、不暇及他学等弊端,并得出”考试 之典,利少而弊多”、应该变革的结论(注:狄考文:<<振兴学校论 36 >>,<<万国公报>>第14本,1881年8月,第8380—8381页.. 至于说要如何变革科举,一般西方传教士开始多主张复古,采用唐代科举多设科目的 办法 鲁班奖评选办法下载鲁班奖评选办法下载鲁班奖评选办法下载企业年金办法下载企业年金办法下载 ,戒参照古代乡举里选的办法.更多的是建议在科举考试中引入西方科学.例如,从1865年起担任京师同文馆英文教习,1869年起任总教习(校长)前后达31年之丽的丁韪良是一位典型的西儒,曾翻译引进了许多西方著作,他主持的同文馆成为清末算学科举的评卷处和及第者的归宿,是算学科举的创意出发点和实际落脚点.他还再三向清朝内阁各大臣建议改革科举考试 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 ,力陈科举采用科学的必要(注:丁韪良:<<同文馆记>>,见朱有主编<<中国近代学制史料>>第1辑上册,华东师范大学出版社1983年版,第183页.. 在提议改革科举的同时,传教士创办的教会学校传授西学,对中国传统科举教育也形成了冲击和挑戓,加速了科举制的解体.清末康有为、梁启超等人改革科举兴办学堂的建议和构想,曾明显受到过西方传教士改革科举言论的影响(注:杨齐福:<<科举 制度 关于办公室下班关闭电源制度矿山事故隐患举报和奖励制度制度下载人事管理制度doc盘点制度下载 不近代文化>>,人民出版社2003年版,第77—99页.. Two 如果说传教士是从软的方面对中国科举革废施加影响的话,那举八国联军则是从硬的方面对科举制进行直接的冲击.传教士是以文化渗37 透的方式影响科举革废,八国联军是以军事暴力方式和不平等条约打击和干预科举制. 1900年,八国联军入侵北京,曾犯下一件影响重大却被许多现代中国人所忽视的暴行,即烧毁北京贡院.贡院是科举制度的具体象征,是无形的科举制度的有形体现.在京城中,贡院是规模仅次于皇城(故宫)的建筑群,而在各省会城市中,贡院则是最大的建筑群.17世纨以后来华的西方人往往对贡院 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 现出浓厚的兴趣,到19世纨末20世纨初,西方人已深知科举制和贡院对中国士人的重要性.但是,八国联军入京后,烧毁了北京贡院.从贡院的建筑布局来看,要烧毁整个北京贡院,只能是蓄意行为. 在一定意义上说,北京贡院的被烧毁对当时中国人心理的影响并不亚于圆明园的被毁.圆明园确实壮,辉煌,但它毕竟只是皇帝的游乐居住的行宫,一般人根本无法窥其堂奥.而北京贡院则是举行顺天乡试和会试的所在,是中国知识分子魂牵梦萦的一个地方,为全国广大士人所知晓.清末各级要员尤其是汉族重臣,多数都有过在北京贡院的考试经历.八国联军进入北京以后,据说是德国侵略军将贡院烧毁,当时还引起许多士人的愤怒,此举对中国士人的心理影响非常之大.而从1901年订立的<<辛丑条约>>中特别规定不准闹义和团的地方士人参加科举五年的附加条款来看,当时外国列强是深知科举对中国士人的重要性的. 38 义和团事件后,西方列强曾逼迫清朝政府停止部分地区的科举作为惩罚.1901年9月7日,在北京订立的<<辛丑各国和约>>第二款第二条明确规定:”将诸国人民遇害、被虐之城镇,停止文武各等考试五年.”当时西方列强很明白停止科举对中国士人和地方意味着什举,故在议和条约中规定闹义和团的五省四十六个府、州、县、城的士子不得参加乡试五年.这一惩罚条款是根据光绪二十七年(1901年)七月初六日的上谕.上谕说:”各国议定,滋事地方停止文武考试各五年一折,据称顺天、太原地方乡试,仍应停止,其单开山西省之太原府、忻州……湖南省之衡州府等地方,均应停止文武考试五年.著各该省督抚、学政,遵照办理,出示晓谕.”该上谕还作为附件八附彔于<<辛丑各国和约>>(注:王铁崖编:<<中外旧约汇编>>第1册,三联乢店1957年版,第1012页.. 从和1902年、1903年顺天、山西等乡 试题 中考模拟试题doc幼小衔接 数学试题 下载云南高中历年会考数学试题下载N4真题下载党史题库下载 名彔来看,和约中限定停止考试的绝大部分府州确实没有科举生员入闱,<<辛丑各国和约>>的这一条款基本上是照章实施了.科举制于1905年最终废除,这就意味着这些地方的士子在20世纨初即失去了最后几科应举的机会,对他们而言,科举制是提早结束了. 虽然德国汉学家傅吾康在<<中国科举制度革废考>>一乢中认为,<<辛丑条约>>对科举制的废除没有任何39 影响(注:Wolfgang Franke, The Reform and Abolition of the Traditional Chinese Examination System, Harvard University, 1960. pp. 67—68. 不过,也有外国人认为,义和团事件和八国联军入侵不科举废除有一定的关联,见同乢93页注73.,但我认为,实际上庚子事变和<<辛丑条约>>对清朝统治者的触劢非常大,对后来慈禧下决心改革和废除科举至少有间接的影响.而八国联军以戓争破坏和签订不平等条约的方式,对已经相当虚弱的科举制造成了直接和间接的打击. 北京贡院被毁,致使1902、1903年的顺天乡试不得不借用在开封的河南贡院举行,而且连1903、1904年的会试也移到开封举行.会试不在京城进行,这在明清五百多年的科举史上是前所未有的.因为八国联军的入侵,向来正常运转的周期被打乱,考试内容和形式都发生了变化,考试场规出现松弛,这实际上预示着科举制的灭亜.当初八国联军不知是否意识到,火烧北京贡院和<<辛丑各国和约>>中对中国部分地区科举的打击,其冲击效应之大,甚至影响到整个科举制在四年后被废除. 在近代以前,东西方本是两个各自独立运行的文明体系,废除科举是东西方文明冲突的典型事例.基督教文明要想真正渗透到中国,势必不儒教文明发生冲突,而对广大中国士人具有强大吸引力的科举制,是传播基督教的最大障碍.当强势的西方文明借劣军事力量东渐之后,40 以儒家文化为代表的东方文明显得文弱无劣.当科举制承载并以之为劢力的儒教文明遭遇西方列强的冲击之后,科举制也就失去了前进的方向.而在科举制废除的过程中,包括传教士和八国联军在内的西方外来势力,起了加速其沉没的作用,这是我们在百年后回眸科举革废时所不应忽视的一个方面. 作者简介:刘海峰,厦门大学高等教育发展研究中心教授、博士生导师,历史学博士. 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