情感社区理论

BarbaraH.RosnwinProblmsandMthodsinthHistoryofEmotionsAbstractWhatarsomofthgnralmthodologicalissusinoldinwritingahistoryofthmotions?Bforanswringthisqustion,wndtoaddrssamajorproblm.Ifmotionsar,asmanyscintiststhink,biologicalntitis,unirsalwithinallhumanpopulations,dothy—inddcanthy—hamuchofahistoryatall?Oncitisdtrmindthatthyarlssunirsalthanclaimd(withoutdnyingthirsomaticsubstratum),ahostofproblmsandopportunitisforthhistoryofmotionsmrg.Inthispapr,Iproposthatwstudythmotionsofthpastbyconsidring“motionalcommunitis”(brifly:socialgroupswhosmmbrsadhrtothsamaluationsofmotionsandthirxprssion).Iarguthatwshouldtakintoconsidrationthfullpanoplyofsourcsthatthsgroupsproducd,andIsuggsthowwmightmostffctilyintrprtthossourcs.Finally,Iconsidrhowandwhymotionalchangtaksplac,urgingthatthhistoryofmotionsbintgratdintoothrsortsofhistoris—social,political,andintllctual.PassionsinContxtI(12010)2“Unirsalist”and“prsntist”iwsofmotionsToday,asignificantproportionofthpsychologicallitraturisdominatdbythworkofPaulEkmanandhisassociatsonthunirsalfacialxprssionsofmotion.1Ekman’soriginalhypothsis,“thatparticularfacialbhaiorsarunirsallyassociatdwithparticularmotions,”hasbnraffirmdinnumrousstudis,oftnusingstsofphotographsoffacsprpardbyEkman.2Th“particularmotions”thatEkmanidntifid—happinss,sadnss,disgust,surpris,angr,andfar—arnowgnrallyassumdtobth“basicmotions”commontoallhumanbings.“Normal”poplarxpctdnotonlytoxprssthsmotionsasthyarxprssdinEkman’sphotographsbutalsotocorrctlysandintrprtthsmotionsonthfacsofothrs.Thus,sompsychologistsassociatmntalabnormalitiswithanindiidual’sfailurtocorrctlyidntifymotionsfromEkman’sprototyps.31ThclassicpaprisPaulEkmanandWallacV.Frisn,“ConstantsacrossCultursinthFacandEmotion,”JournalofPrsonalityandSocialPsychology17(2)(1971),pp.124–39.Forarcntraffirmation,sMarcD.Plltal.,“RcognizingEmotionsinaForignLanguag,”JournalofNonrbalBhaior33(2)(2009),pp.107–120:“Exprssionsofbasicmotions(joy,sadnss,far,disgust)canbrcognizdpanculturallyforthfac.”(fromtharticlAbstract,p.107).Forarcntcritiqu,sRuthLys,“HowDidFarBcomaScintificEntityandWhatKindofEntityIsIt?”Rprsntationsno.110(2010):66104.IwishtorcordmythankshrtoRüdigrZillofthEinstinForum;tommbrsofthMaxPlanckInstitutfürBildungsforschung,whohostdalcturdridfromthispaprinJuly2009andwhooffrdxtrmlyprtinntcommnts(IhrrcordparticulargratitudtoJanPlamprandUtFrrt);andtothisjournal’sanonymousradr,fromwhossuggstionsIhaprofitd.2E.g.inPaulEkmanandWallacFrisn,PictursofFacialAffct(PaloAlto:ConsultingPsychologistsPrss,1976).3PhotographsfromEkmanandFrisn,PictursofFacialAffct,wr,forxampl,rcntlyusdtodiffrntiatbtwnpatintswithmildfrontotmporaldmntia(FTD)andcognitilyhalthysubjcts(HC):thoswithFTDwrsaidtob“impairdinthrcognitionofbasicmotions”bcausthydidnotcorrctlyidntifythmotionsrprsntdbythfacs.SJaninDihlSchmidatal.,“ThEkman60FacsTstasaDiagnosticInstrumntinFrontotmporalDmntia,”ArchisofClinicalNuropsychology22(4)BarbaraRosnwin:ProblmsandMthodsinthHistoryofEmotions3Inthlasttnyarsorso,nurobiologistsandgnticistshaadddthirtchniqustosuchstudis.Thy,too,hatnddtoworkwithinEkman’sparadigm.ElizabthCartrandKinPlphry,forxampl,rcntlypublishdastudyusingfunctionalmagnticrsonancimaging(fMRI)toassssbrainactiationwhnsubjctsrcognizdhappyandangryfacs.4Thyfoundthatangryfacsactiatdxpctdarasofthbrain(thamygdalaandsupriortmporalsulcus)aswllasunanticipatdaras(thlatralfusiformgyrus,forxampl),whilhappyfacsactiatdothrbrainrgions.GnticrsarchrCathrinHaysandhrcollagus,manwhil,foundthatcarrirsofthHuntington’sdisas(HD)gnwrimpairdinthfacialxprssionofdisgust.5Similarly,MarcoBattagliaandhiscorsarchrsassociatdcrtaingnticariationswiththariablabilityofyoungchildrntocorrctlyintrprt“othrchildrn’sfacialxprssionsofmotions.”6Itistruthatsomnurobiologicalandgnticstudishanothingtodowithfacialxprssions.Howr,thisdosnotobiatthirgnrallyuni(2007),pp.459–64,www.scincdirct.com.Ekman’sassociationofparticularfacialxprssionswith“gnuin”motionshasbnusdtoidntifyliarsincourtandpotntialtrrorists,whosflingsarsaidto“lakout”throughthfacialmusclsandmaybspottdbytraindobsrrs:sthnoticonanxhibitofEkman’soriginalphotographsatSanFrancisco’sExploratorium:JaschaHoffman,“HowFacsSharFlings,”Natur452(7186)(2008),p.413.4ElizabthJ.CartrandKinA.Plphry,“FrindorFo?BrainSystmsInoldinthPrcptionofDynamicSignalsofMnacingandFrindlySocialApproachs,”SocialNuroscinc3(2)(2008),pp.151–163.5CathrinJ.Hays,RichardJ.Stnson,andMaxColthart,“ProductionofSpontanousandPosdFacialExprssionsinPatintswithHuntington’sDisas:ImpairdCommunicationofDisgust,”CognitionEmotion23(1)(2009),pp.118–134.6MarcoBattagliatal.,“EffctofthCatcholOmthyltransfrasalsuprscript1sup5sup8mtGnotyponChildrnʹsEarlyPhassofFacialStimuliProcssing,”Gns,BrainBhaior6(4)(2007),pp.364–374,quotatp.354(thAbstract).Foranothrstudyofgnsandfacialxprssions,sUdoDannlowski,tal.,“5HTTLPRBiassAmygdalaActiityinRsponstoMaskdFacialExprssionsinMajorDprssion,”Nuropsychopharmacology33(2)(2008),pp.418–24.PassionsinContxtI(12010)4rsalizingtndncis.7Almostallsuchstudisaralsoinclindtob“prsntist”;thysuggstthattoday’smotionswrthmotionsofthpastandwillrmainthosofthfutur.8Eolutionarypsychologistshathpotntialtochallngthisiw.Butthmostimportantthoristsoftholutionaryprspcti,LdaCosmidsandJohnToobyandthirfollowrs,failtodoso.9Thyarguthat,“thmindisastofinformationprocssingmachinsthatwrdsigndbynaturalslctiontosoladaptiproblmsfacdbyourhuntrgathrrancstors.”10Thmindhas“spcializdcircuits,”or“moduls,”achwithaparticularfunction.Thrar,forxampl,amatfindingmodulandamodulforhuntinganimals.11ThsmodulswrcratdinthPalolithicpriod,anrathatCosmidsandToobyconsidrtohabnquitstatic.Eachmodulrprsntsanadaptationbyhuntrgathrrstorlatilysimplandconstantlyrcurringdmands:“findingmats,huntinganimals,gathringplantfoods,ngotiatingwithfrinds,dfndingourslsagainstaggrssion,raisingchildrn,choosingagoodhabitat,andsoonThoswhoscircuitswrbttrdsigndforsolingthsproblmslftmorchildrn,7Considrthrcntstudyofthrlationshipbtwnattntionto“wordsrlatdtoanxiousanddysphoricmotionalstats”and“thshortalllinaariablrpatsquncofthpromotdrgionofthsrotonintransportrgn(5HTTLPR)”inChristophrG.Brstal.,“SrotoninTransportrGnticVariationandBiasdAttntionforEmotionalWordStimuliamongPsychiatricInpatints,”JournalofAbnormalPsychology116(1)(2007),pp.208–12.8TypicalisPaulEkman,EmotionsRald:RcognizingFacsandFlingstoImproCommunicationandEmotionalLif(NwYork:TimsBooks,2003),pp.196–7,whoidntifisanItalianadjctiforproud,fièro,asxprssing“pridinachimnt”andclaimsthat“thdsirtoxprincfiro[sic]hasbnssntialthroughouthumanhistory,asithashlpdtomotiatgratffortsandgratachimnts.”9LdaCosmidsandJohnTooby,“EolutionaryPsychology:APrimr.”http:www.psych.ucsb.dursarchcpprimr.html.10CosmidsandTooby,“EolutionaryPsychology:APrimr.”11Forasomwhatmorlaboratdiscussionofthisissu,sBarbaraH.Rosnwin,“ThUssofBiology:ARsponstoJ.CartrWood’s‘ThLimitsofCultur?’”CulturalandSocialHistory4(2007),pp.553–58.BarbaraRosnwin:ProblmsandMthodsinthHistoryofEmotions5andwardscnddfromthm.”12CosmidsandToobyassumthatthhumanmindhasnotchangdsincthispriod;poplhadnotimtoadapttothconditions—rlatilypopulousandprmanntcommunitis—ofthNolithicandsubsquntpriods.HncCosmidsandTooby’sstartlingconclusion:“ourmodrnskullshousastonagmind.”Whilnot,strictlyspaking,“prsntist,”thisiwfrzshumanmotions(andothrrsponss)intoonform—thformthatwhatodayandthatwasformdduringthprhistoricra.13ChallngingthprsntistsandunirsalistsScholarshaconfrontdthsstudisintwomainways:bycritiquingthxprimnts(ofpsychologists)andthassumptions(oftholutionists)thathaproducdthunirsalistprsntistpositions;andbyassrtingthsocialconstructionistthoryofmotions.Somscintistshachallngdthunirsalistprsntistrsarchonitsownground.AnthropologistE.RichardSornson,forxampl,wasprsntwhnEkmandidhisinitialworkonfacsamongthForpoplofNwGuina.AlthoughEkmanconcluddfromthiswork“thatparticularfacialbhaiorsarunirsallyassociatdwithparticularmotions,”infact,hisprotocolwastohaatranslatorassistanttllachsubjctan“motionstory.”Eachstorywasintnddtoconnotaspcificmotion.Thsubjctwasthnaskdtochoosfromamongthrphotographsoffacsthonthatbstxprssdthatmotion.Forxampl,for“happinss,”Ekman’sassistanttoldthsubjctthfollowingstory:“His(hr)frindshacom,andh(sh)ishappy.”AsSornsonobsrd,“ItwasliklythatatlastsomrsponsswrinfluncdbyfdbackbtwntranslatorandsubjctTh12CosmidsandTooby,“EolutionaryPsychology:APrimr.”13Summarizingthisiw,towhichhsubscribs,KithOatlymaksxplicitthconnctionbtwnunirsalismandprsntism:KithOatly,Emotions:ABrifHistory(Oxford:Blackwll,2004),p.28:“IfwtakthadagofToobyandCosmids—‘thpastxplainsthprsnt’—andrunitbackwards,wcanlookatwhatwrcognizasmodrnmotions—happinss,lo,sadnss,angr,andsoon—andprojctthmbackintothpast.”PassionsinContxtI(12010)6suggstionthatfrxchangofinformationwas‘chating’wasquitincomprhnsibltothForandalintothiriwoflanguagasanlmntofcoopratiintractionamongclosassociats.”14Riwingthtstingsituation,psychologistJamsA.RussllpointdoutthatthForpoplmayhathoughtthatthfacswrrspondingtosituations,notxprssingmotions.15Inthatcas,thxprimntwasnotparticularlyaboutmotions.WhnSornsonshowdEkman’sphotographstoForsubjctsandaskdthmtonamanmotiondirctlyfromthapparancofthfac,“manydisplayduncrtainty,hsitationandconfusion.Somwrcompltlytongutid;othrstrmbldandprspirdprofuslyorlookdwildlyabout.”16AtablproidingthrsultsofthisintrrogationshowsthatthForsubjctswhohadhadthlastcontactwithWstrnrsgamany“wrong”rsponss.Forxampl,allrspondntsusdthquialntsofthwords“angr”or“happinss”todscribthfacintnddtodmonstratdisgust.Thsamwastruforth“sadnss”fac.17ThatEkman’smthodproducdmorpositirsultsmaybdutothfactthatitwasa“forcdchoic”tst.18SompsychologistsnotthatthfacsinEkman’sphotographsdonotshowspontanous,rallifmotions,butrathrarposd.Thythrforthylack“cologicalalidity.”19Somstudissuggstthatinralliffw14E.RichardSornson,ThEdgofthForst:Land,ChildhoodandChanginaNwGuinaProtoagriculturalSocity(Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitutionPrss,1976),p.140.15JamsA.Russll,“IsThrUnirsalRcognitionofEmotionfromfacialExprssion?ARiwofthCrossCulturalStudis,”PsychologicalBulltin115(1994),pp.102–141,hr127.Russllcontinus:“Itisundoubtdlyinformatithatpoplinisolatd,illitratcultursassociatthsamfacialmomntswithgrtingafrind,fighting,andsmllingsomthingbad,asdow,”butitgostoofartoassociatthssocialbhaiorswithmotions,ltalonunirsalmotions.16Sornson,ThEdgofthForst,p.140.17Sornson,ThEdgofthForst,Tabl8,p.141.Furthrcompoundingthproblms,thrsponsswrithrinPidgnorForlanguag.18Russll,“IsthrUnirsalRcognition?”,p.123.19LsliR.Brody,“GndrDiffrncsinEmotionalDlopmnt:ARiwofThorisandRsarch,”JournalofPrsonality53(1985),pp.102–149,hrp.117.ThdbatonthBarbaraRosnwin:ProblmsandMthodsinthHistoryofEmotions7facialxprssionsofmotionrsmblthosinstagdphotographsand,furthr,thatmostfacialxprssionsarambiguous,rquiringcontxtualclustomakthmintlligibl.20PaulTurk,anolutionistwhotaksissuwithCosmidsandTooby,challngsthidathatmotionswrformdoncandforallinthOldStonAg.HpointsoutthatitisanmpiricalissuwhthrornotprhistoricculturwasstablwhilchangsinthNolithicpriodwr“toorapid”toallowforadaptation.21Moror,wknowrathrlittlaboutthPalolithicpriod,andhypothssaboutitar(ironically)larglyinformdbywhatwknowaboutmotionsinourowntim.22EnifthPalolithicrawrthonlypriodofhumanadaptation,itisnotclarthatwwouldthrforha“stonagminds.”AccordingtoolutionarybiologistRichardAlxandr,thsocialandculturalchallngsofthOldStonAgwrrybitascomplx(andchanging)asthosofourown,andthkindsofadaptationrquirdthn—slctingindiidualswhohadthbstskillsforngotiatingstatus,maskingslfintrst,andformingalliancs—madforcologicalalidityofEkman’sfacswaspointdlyraisdbyJamsA.Russll,“ThContmptExprssionandthRlatiityThsis,”MotiationandEmotion15(2)(1991),pp.149–68.Thiswasmtbyarjoindr:PaulEkman,MaurnOʹSullian,andDaidMatsumoto,“ConfusionsaboutContxtinthJudgmntofFacialExprssion:ARplyto‘ThContmptExprssionandthRlatiityThsis,’”MotiationandEmotion15(2)(1991),pp.169–76,followdbyRussll’srplyandytanothrrjoindrfromEkmantal.Forastudyoffacialxprssionsinthirsocialcontxt,sRobrtR.Proin,“Yawns,Laughs,Smils,Tickls,andTalking:NaturalisticandLaboratoryStudisofFacialActionandSocialCommunication,”inThPsychologyofFacialExprssion,d.JamsA.RussllandJoséMigulFrnándzDols(Cambridg:CambridgUnirsityPrss,1997),chap.7.20JamsA.Russll,“RadingEmotionsfromandintoFacs:RsurrctingaDimnsionalContxtualPrspcti,”inPsychologyofFacialExprssion,chap.13.21PaulW.Turk,“WhichHumansBhaAdaptily,andWhyDositMattr?”EthologyandSociobiology11(1990),pp.305–39,hr316.22Turk,“WhichHumansBhaAdaptily?”,p.317.Forxampl,thmodulfor“dtctingsocialchats”isbasdonthrsultsofamodrnpsychologicaltstgintomodrnsubjcts;sLdaCosmids,“ThLogicofSocialExchang:HasNaturalSlctionShapdhowHumansRason?StudiswiththWasonSlctionTask,”Cognition31(1989),pp.187–276.PassionsinContxtI(12010)8wlladaptdhumanstoday.23Inaddition,asTurknots,“olutionarypsychologistspaylittlattntiontothfindingsofnuralscintiststhatdmonstratthatthstructurofthbrainrmainsplasticatallstagsoflif.”24RobrtTurnrandCharlsWhithadcitstudisusingfMRIandMEG(magntoncphalography)imagingtoshowthatthry“functionalanatomyandmicrostructurofthbrain”ar“shapdbyxprinc.”25Nwapproachstothbiologyofhrdityalsosuggstthatcontmporaryhumanbingsarunliklytoharborstonagminds.EaJablonkaandMarionJ.Lambprsuasilyarguthatolutionslctsforplasticity,for“thcapacitytoadjustinrsponstoconditions.”26Ourcurrntnironmntaffctsgnxprssionandinsominstancs(inrysimplorganismsandatspcializdclllls)inducsnonrandommutationsingns.27Mostimportantly,muchofhumanolutionhasnothingtodowithgns:cllular,bhaioral,andsymbolicinhritancsystmsarpigntic.Adaptiolutionthroughthsmchanisms—whicharongoing—isfarmorrapidthangnticolution.28Thsobsrationsgiballasttothidathatmotionsmaychangortimandthatahistoryofthmotionsisnotonlypossibl,butssntialtoundrstandingthhumancondition.Socialconstructionismhasthpotntialtoscondthisconclusion.Brifly,thisthoryholdsthatmotions—howthyarxprincd,xprssd,and23RichardD.Alxandr,ThBiologyofMoralSystms(Hawthorn,N.Y.:A.dGruytr,1987);idm,“EolutionofthHumanPsych,”inPaulMllarsandChristophrStringr,ds.,ThHumanRolution:BhaiouralandBiologicalPrspctisonthOriginsofModrnHumans(Princton,N.J.:PrinctonUnirsityPrss,1989),pp.455–513.24Turk,“WhichHumansBhaAdaptily?,”p.315.25RobrtTurnrandCharlsWhithad,“HowCollctiRprsntationscanChangthStructurofthBrain,”JournalofConsciousnssStudis15(10–11)(2008),pp.43–57,quotatp.45.IthankBobTurnrforsupplyingmwithprtinntbibliographyonthistopic.26EaJablonkaandMarionJ.Lamb,EolutioninFourDimnsions:Gntic,Epigntic,Bhaioral,andSymbolicVariationinthHistoryofLif(Cambridg,Mass.:MITPrss,2005),pp.76–78.27JablonkaandLamb,EolutioninFourDimnsions,pp.52,63–71,92–101.28JablonkaandLamb,EolutioninFourDimnsions,p.184.BarbaraRosnwin:ProblmsandMthodsinthHistoryofEmotions9intrprtd—arshapdbythsocitisinwhichthyarmbddd.29Thidaisanoffshootofcognitipsychology,whichssmotionsastypsofappraisals.30Althoughfwcognitiistsworkonthtopic,thirthorisshowthatitispossibl—inddlikly—fordiffrntculturstoncouragdiffrntsortsofmotionalassssmnts.ThisidaistakntoitslogicalconclusionbysocialconstructionistslikSarahTarlow,forwhommotionsar“unboundd,xistingonlythroughculturalmaning,culturallyspcific,andsubjcttotransformationordisapparancthroughtim.”31Infact,howr,nsocialconstructionistsrarlylookatmotions’historicaldimnsions.Rathr,thirworkhasldaboalltofinmicrostudisofculturswhosmotionsdiffrfromourown.CathrinLutz’sbookonthIfaluk(inhabitantsofanatollinthCarolinIslandsofMicronsia)isagoodxamplofthis.NotingthatthsislandrshadwordsformotionsthatcorrsponddrypoorlytoWstrntrms,Lutzrjctdthnotionthatmotionswrbiologicalor,inhrword,“natural.”32Thflingoffago,forxampl,couldbdscribdonlyryinadquatlybythoddcombinationof“compassion,lo,andsadnss.”33ButLutznraskdwhthrfagohadalwaysbnanmotiontrmforthIfalukor,nifithadbn,whthrithadalwayshadthsammaningforthm.Shwasnotintrstdinitshistory.Socialconstructionismandbiologicalapproachstomotionshaopposittndncis.Butthirdiffrncsarnotinsuprabl.ThrisnothorticalrasonwhyanIfalukinththrosoffagocouldnotundrgoanfMRItsttoswhatarasofhisorhrbrainhabnactiatd.Onmightn29ThclassicstofstudisisThSocialConstructionofEmotions,d.RomHarré(Oxford:BasilBlackwll,1986).30ArcntoriwisGraldL.ClorandAndrwOrtony,“AppraisalThoris:HowCognitionShapsAffctintoEmotion,”inHandbookofEmotions,d.MichalLwis,JannttM.HailandJons,andLisaFldmanBarrtt(3dd.;NwYork:GuilfordPrss,2008),pp.628–44.31SarahTarlow,“EmotioninArchaology,”CurrntAnthropology41(5)(2000),pp.713–46.32CathrinLutz,UnnaturalEmotions:ErydaySntimntsonaMicronsianAtollandThirChallngtoWstrnThory(Chicago:UnirsityofChicagoPrss,1988).33Lutz,UnnaturalEmotions,p.144.PassionsinContxtI(12010)10hypothsizthatfagoshouldbassociatdwiththryrgionsthatartodaycorrlatdwithloandsadnss,bothofwhichhabnstudidwithbrainscans.34ThsocialconstructionistapproachtononWstrnpopulationshasthpotntialtobafruitfulsourcofbiologicalandanthropologicalcollaboration,though,asofnow,rathrlittlhasbndon.35TowardahistoryofthmotionsThunirsalistandprsntistiwsofthmotionsarthusproblmaticnoughtoopnthwayforahistory(or,nodoubt,multiplhistoris)ofthmotions.Suchahistorymustnotdnythbiologicalsubstratumofmotions,sincitisclarthatthyarmbdddinboththbodyandthbrain.Atthsamtim,ahistoryofmotionsmustproblmatizthflingsofthpast,addrssingthirdistincticharactristics.Enbodis(and,aswhasn,brains)arshapdbycultur.3634E.g.S.Ortigutal.,“ThNuralBasisofLoasaSubliminalPrim:AnEntRlatdFunctionalMagnticRsonancImagingStudy,”JournalofCognitiNuroscinc19(7)(2007),pp.1218–1230;CynthiaH.Futal.,“NuralRsponsstoSadFacialExprssionsinMajorDprssionFollowingCognitiBhaioralThrapy,”BiologicalPsychiatry64(6)(2008),pp.505–512.Notthathrasinothrstudisofsadnss,“dprssion”istaknasasynonym.This,howr,isnotEkman’sdfinitionofsadnss,forhthinksthatmotionsarofshortduration.SPaulEkman,“AllEmotionsarBasic,”inThNaturofEmotion:FundamntalQustions,d.PaulEkmanandRichardJ.Daidson(NwYork:OxfordUnirsityPrss,1994),pp.15–19.SofarasIcantll,“compassion”hasnotbnmappdinbrainscanstudis.35SthsimilarrmarksofTurnrandWhithad,“CollctiRprsntations,”p.54.36Forbrains,sn.24abo.Forbodis,sTarlow,“EmotioninArchaology,”p.718.ThintroductionbyMichalFhrtoFragmntsforaHistoryofthHumanBody,d.MichlFhr,RamonaNaddaff,andNadiaTazi(3parts;NwYork:ZonBooks,1989),part1,p.11claimsthat“thhistoryof[thbody’s]modsofconstructioncanturnthbodyintoathoroughlyhistoricizdandcompltlyproblmaticissu.”Thisiswhathismultipartitbookisabout,andFhrcontrastsittothhistoryofthbody’s“rprsntations”–thbodythatthnaturalscincsstudy—which,hthinks,“alwaysrfrstoaralbodyconsidrdtob‘withouthistory.’”Butnthnaturalscincshaundrstoodth“ralbody”quitariously—i..,thy,too,haconstructdit.S,forxampl,OtnilDror,“CratingthEmotionalBody:Confusion,Possibilitis,andKnowldg,”inAnBarbaraRosnwin:ProblmsandMthodsinthHistoryofEmotions11Iwishtosuggsthrthatthnotionof“motionalcommunitis”canguidthcrationofahistoryofthmotionsinfruitfulways.37