Degradation and restoration of forest ecosystems in China

Degradation and restoration of forest ecosystems in China Li Wenhua Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Beijing, China Abstract China is a vast country with a diverse physical environment, rich biodiversity and complex forest types. Old China has left us with few forests and a poor base for forestry. Owing to the rapid growth of population, coupled with the development of agriculture and urban construction, as well as improper forest management, the degradation of forest resources in China has been accelerating. As a result of forest degradation, environmental problems including soil erosion and loss of biodiversity are being experienced and natural hazards are occurring with increasing frequency. The Chinese government has increased its focus on conservation of forests and restoration of degraded forest ecosystems. Particularly in recent years, a series of measures have been put in place. This paper presents a general introduction to the technical as well as policy aspects involved in the restoration of degraded forest ecosystems and the approach to sustainable forestry in China. # 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V. Keywords: Sustainable forestry; Forest resources; Ecosystem management; Shelterbelts; Nature reserves; Degradation and restoration of ecosystems; Reforestation; Afforestation; Agroforestry 1. Introduction China is a vast country with a diverse physical environment. The country has a long geological his- tory and most of its lands had been formed as early as the end of the Mesozoic era. These characteristics provide unusually favourable conditions for the sur- vival and development of a large number of plants, animals and vegetation types. It is estimated that there are over 27,000 species of higher plants (including ferns) belonging to 353 families and 3184 genera, of which more than 7000 species are woody plants. With few exceptions, China contains almost all the main forest vegetation types of the northern hemisphere (Administrative Centre for China’s Agenda 21, 1994). However, before the foundation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the country had few remaining forests and consequently a poor base for forestry. China’s very limited forest resources are mainly distributed in the northeastern and southwes- tern regions. At present, forests cover an area of 130 million ha with a timber volume of 9000 million m3. This is only 3–4% of the total forest area of the world. National forest cover is about 16%. The available per capita forest area is only 0.11 ha and the total stock volume is 860 million m3, or 11.7 and 12.6% of the world average, respectively. The distribution of forests in China is very uneven. More than half of the forest area lies in the northeast and southwest, where the land area accounts for only one-fifth of total Chinese territory. In contrast, in the northwestern region, with 30% of the total territory, forestland only comprises 2.55% in the country (China Ministry of Forestry, 1995; Compilation Group of China’s Biodiversity, 1998). Although the government has increasingly addressed the protection of forest resources, degrada- tion of forests caused by unsound exploitation, forest Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 33–41 E-mail address: liwh@public.bta.net.cn (L. Wenhua). 0378-1127/$ – see front matter # 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.06.010 fires and pests and diseases is still a serious threat. Rapid population growth, coupled with the develop- ment of agriculture, industry and construction, the over-exploitation of forest resources and subsequent cultivation on steep slopes have led to the deterioration of forest ecosystems and a reduction in biodiversity. As a result of these changes, China has faced a series of hazards and disasters including soil erosion, deser- tification and floods. During the 1990s, eroded lands continued to increase by more than 10,000 km2 annually, with the result that 38% of China’s total land area is now considered badly eroded (Li and Lai, 1994; Ming et al., 2000). Although a large-scale increase of plantation-style forests in nonforested areas increased total forest coverage in China from 5.2% in 1950 to 16% in 2004, natural forests declined to 30% of the total forest area in China and unit-area in China and unit-area stocking of natural forests decreased by 32%. The sharp decline in the quantity and quality of natural forests resulted in loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. At least 200 plant species have become extinct in China since the 1950s, and more than 61% of wildlife species have suffered severe habitat losses (Li and Xianying, 1995). Valuable and rare species, such as ginseng (Panax ginseng), are threatened with extinction. Changes in forest composition have also caused severe ecological and environmental disasters. Insect infestations have damaged over 9.3 million ha of forests annually, causing the loss of more than 10 million m3 of timber. Flash flooding, in part the result of loss of natural vegetative cover, caused a total loss of 166.6 billion Yuan renminbi (RMB, US$ 20 billion) in the summer of 1998 alone. Facing such serious ecological environmental pro- blem, China bares very heavy responsibility and has very arduous tasks in forest protection and ecological improvement in the 21st century. In concrete actions, the Chinese Government had formally approved and started to the implement 6 key State Forestry develop- ment programs including: 1. Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP); 2. key shelterbelt construction pro- gram; 3. program for transforming farmland into for- ests or grasslands; 4. desertification control program; 5. conservation of biodiversity and nature conservation construction program; 6. establishment of fast-growing and high-yielding timber plantation. Based on the experiences and lessons gained in the passed 50 years of forest management, a strategy of forest development under the framework of the sustainable development of the country was published. The main points for restora- tion of degraded forest ecosystems in this strategy are summarized as followings. 2. Conservation and management of natural forest resources In 1998, in an effort to promote forest management activities to prevent forest destruction and further deterioration, the Chinese government established the National Forest Conservation Programme (NFCP), which articulated the new forest policy. Its purposes are to: (i) restore natural forests in ecologically sensitive areas; (ii) plant forests for soil and water protection; (iii) increase timber production in forest plantations; (iv) protect existing natural forests from excessive cutting; (v) maintain a multiple-use policy in natural forests. The NFCP applies in 18 provinces and autonomous regions, which shelter the upstream regions of major river systems, including the Yellow and Yangtze Riv- ers, and which have suffered massive ecological and environmental degradation during the past 50 years. The targeted regions are divided into two priority areas. The state forest regions are classified as the first priority for NFCP. The two priorities receive different levels of financial support from the central government, ranging from 20 to 100% of all costs. The central government invested 4 billion RMB (US$ 500 million) in 1998, 6 billion RMB (US$ 750 million) in 1999, and 7 billion RMB (US$ 875 million) in 2000 for NFCP. Timber harvests from China’s natural forests were reduced from 32 million m3 in 1997 to 29 million m3 in 1998 and to 23 million m3 in 1999. It was projected that timber harvests in 2000 would be 14 million m3, with still lower harvest levels thereafter. In 1999, another massive program was initiated for the revegetation of forest and grassland in arable areas where the slope is more than 258 or threatened by 34 L. Wenhua / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 33–41 desertification. This program initially started in Sichuan, Sahnxi and Gansu Provinces and, according to the general development plan, will cover 22 pro- vinces; most of them are concentrated in the western part of China. Within the next 10 years, this program is intended to convert an additional 5.33 million ha of marginal farmland to forestland for soil erosion con- trol and to regenerate an additional 39 million ha of forest plantations and natural forests in degraded areas. The goal is to raise forest cover to 19% of total land area. More natural forests will be protected to increase wildlife habitat protection areas to 8% of the nation’s total area. The process of land conversion has begun in 174 counties in 14 provinces. In 2000 alone, nearly half a million hectares of farmland were allo- cated for conversion (Ming et al., 2000). 3. Control of forest fire and protection of forests from pests and insects Forest fire poses the greatest danger to forest resources and causes enormous destruction. Forest fire control is crucial to the protection of forest resources and promotion of forestry development. China plans to enhance its overall capability for fire prevention and control; emphasis will be placed on prevention. Publicity will be strengthened in forested areas to enhance public awareness of fire prevention. A fire prevention target responsibility system will be strongly implemented by government officials at var- ious levels. Prevention will be strengthened on the basis of controlling fire sources and guarding key areas that are vulnerable to fire. Furthermore, an organiza- tion and command system for forest fire prevention will be established with increased focus on key pro- jects of prediction and forecasting, forest fire mon- itoring and look-out, radio communication systems, airstrips for surveillance planes and establishment of firebreaks. In addition, professional or semi-profes- sional fire fighting teams, consisting mainly of regio- nal forest employees and local militia, will be expanded and professional forest fire fighters will be supplied with the necessary equipment for fire control. Forestry policy will be modified to allow implementation of these changes. In China, the problem of forest pests and diseases remains extremely serious with an increasing number of pests and diastases, expansion of affected areas and a reduction of intervals between outbreaks. At present, there are many problems facing prevention and con- trol. It is necessary to establish a control system, with its major goal to lower the frequency of incidences and to increase the coverage of prevention, quarantine and monitoring activities. In practice, forestry agencies are required to increase their awareness of prevention and control of forest pests and diseases, and to establish and improve organizations for scientific research in these two fields. A complete system for prevention, control and monitoring of forest pests and diseases must be established and implemented in major affor- estation areas where there are national shelterbelt programs and in the worst affected areas. 4. Rational felling and regeneration In the past, forest felling was carried out by forest industry enterprises owned by local governments. Forest felling is in a chaotic state and does not give priority to regeneration. An indiscriminate system of exploitation of resources has caused an acute reduc- tion in forest cover and a deterioration of forest resources. Inhabitants of the mountainous areas have suffered environmental degradation and a great loss of their possessions from natural disasters such as land- slides, debris flow and floods. In recent years, govern- ments have strictly controlled forest felling and a planned felling program is followed. Clear-cutting is forbidden and selective cutting is encouraged. China will implement a forest felling quota system by plan- ning the total cut through restricted management and supervision of felling, timber transporting and market- ing and the issuance of timber felling licenses. Laws and regulations will be drafted and adopted to prevent illegal felling activities that destroy forest resources. Regeneration is the key means of restoring forests and is required immediately after felling. In 1998, felling of natural mountain forests in southwestern China was completely banned in order to conserve the existing forest resources and protect the environ- ment of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. Workers in the forestry enterprises of the region are assigned to regenerate the logged areas and carry out thinning. Fast-growing and productive planted forests and ecological and economy-oriented shelterbelts are L. Wenhua / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 33–41 35 encouraged for afforestation in order to satisfy the demands for timber resources. 5. Strengthening the development of protective shelterbelts in the key environmental fragile regions In order to preserve the environment of ecologically fragile areas, China has successfully carried out five ecological forest projects: (1) The Three Northern Regions (northeastern, northwestern and northern China) Shelter Forest System Project. This project started in 1978 and involves 551 counties in 13 provinces. The total area is 4.06 million km2 (42.4% of the land area of China). By 2050, the planned afforestation area will be 30.58 million ha, of which 18.51 million ha has been completed, thus transforming 1.3 million ha of sandy land into farmland and pasture, bringing 12% of the abandoned land under control, and protecting 11 million ha of farmland with shelter forests. (2) The Upper and Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River Shelter Forest Project. This project relates to 271 counties in 11 provinces. Under the project plan, there was to be an increase of 6.67 million ha of forest between 1989 and 2000 (thus raising the forest cover from 19.9 to about 40%). After 7 years of implementation, 6 million ha had been afforested. (3) The Coastal Shelter Forest System. This project involves 195 counties in 11 provinces. The planned afforestation area is 3.56 million ha. By 1996, 2.06 million ha had been afforested, 11,000 km of primary shelter forest belt were established (i.e. 90% of the potential coastal afforestation area), and 18,000 km of coastal forest belt had been set up. The regional forest cover was raised from 21.7% in 1987 to the present 29.1%. (4) The Taihang Mountains Afforestation Project. This project involves 110 counties in Beijing, Hebei, Henan and Shanxi Provinces. It is planned to plant 3.56 million ha of forests by 2050. Since 1993, 1.31 million ha have been afforested. (5) Farmland Shelter Forest Projects. The combina- tion of shelterbelt, forest networks and forested area projects with plains farmland shelter pro- jects focus on establishing shelterbelts, inter- cropping with trees, and planting trees around farmland (or in tracks). At present, 34.2 million ha of farmland is surrounded by forest networks and 84% of plains counties have met the national afforestation standard. In addition to these five major projects, in 1995 new projects were started in the Huaihe River Basin, Taihu Basin, Zhujiang River Basin, Liaohe River Basin, and the middle reaches of the Yellow River. These shelter forest projects involve 609 counties in 16 provinces and the planned afforestation area is 12.35 million ha. The future development of protective shelterbelts will be concentrated on establishing ecological and economic-oriented forests with multiple forest types, tree species structures and benefits. The Chinese government will raise funds from various sources and encourage investment from local forestry agencies and residents. A favourable subsidy policy will be formulated to protect the benefits of investors. To ensure the implementation of the ecological program, the administration of program development will be strengthened. Intensive management and supervision will be enhanced and intensified. Scientific research will be required and research results will be put into practice and applied to production. 6. Conservation of biodiversity and establishment of nature reserves China has one of the most diverse ranges of wild fauna and flora species in the world and is also one of the world’s three major sources of cultivated plants. For this reason, it attaches great importance to the conservation and utilization of biodiversity, wild fauna and wetlands, and consequently has promulgated the Forestry Law and Wild Animal Protection Law and acceded to the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES and the Ramsar Convention. The multiple functions of forests will be maintained by establishing natural forest reserves designed to protect and save rare and endangered animal and plant species, and by establishing centres for breeding and raising endan- gered animals. Considerable effort has been made to 36 L. Wenhua / Forest Ecology and Management 201 (2004) 33–41 actively rescue endangered species, and vigorously strengthen the development of nature reserves. By 1993, the Chinese government had set up 433 nature reserves within various ecosystems, covering an area of 47 million km2, and accounting for 56.7 and 71.1%, respectively, of the total number and area of China’s nature reserves. These nature reserves have efficiently promoted the conservation of China’s environment, natural resources and biodiversity. In 1993, 371 forest ecosystem nature reserves had been established, cov- ering an area of 14.29 million km2. In addition, 180 nature reserves have been set up in forest habitats for conserving wildlife. In all, forest-based nature reserves cover an area of 17.76 million km2 and occupy 13.3% of China’s forest area. In recent years, the establishment of nature reserves has progressed rapidly. By 2002, the total number of nature reserves of various categories had increased to 1551, covering 14% of total land area. Ongoing action will be focused on intensive research into the rational conservation and sustainable development of nature reserves, strengthening education about nature reserves, train- ing management staff from nature reserves, enhancing management of the nature reserves and strengthening the economic value of nature reserves. Further, China will advocate better protection of natural forests and natural forest areas, encourage eco- tourism in virgin forests to increase public awareness of forest protection and provide additional funds for conservation and utilization of non-timber forest pro- ducts (People’s Republic of China, 1997). 7. Afforestation and mandatory conservation of marginal farmland to forest lands Afforestation is a crucial way to utilize and reha- bilitate mountain areas, highlands, abandoned land, degraded cultivated lands and dry and semi-dry areas by planting trees in order to prevent further deteriora- tion of the ecosystem and to rehabilitate degraded lands. Since last years, a program for transforming farmland into forests or grassland (known as ‘‘grain for green’’) was launched. It covers a trail area in 17 provinces and with a target to control 22.67 million ha of soil erosion area and control 26.67 million ha of sand affected area by 2010. The central government offers free food to farmers who lose their farmlands, which is intended to be equal in amount to the max- imum quantity they would have obtained from the land they lost and also provides financial support to cover the cost of land conversion. This policy is effective for 30 years after land conversation starts. The Chinese government has promulgated a series of afforestation regulations relating to technology and set