浅谈非言语交际及其在交际中的影响（英文版）

浅谈非言语交际及其在交际中的影响 [Abstract] Since language has been come into being, it plays a commanding role as a means of communication, but not the only means of it. Nonverbal communication takes place with verbal one at the same time in the communication. However, verbal communication conveys the message in a convenient and direct way which makes people depend more on such communicative means while neglect the nonverbal one. So it is not surprising that traditionally language studies have emphasized verbal and written forms, but recently nonverbal communication has received more and more attention and become a young science which is related to many other subjects.   After briefly reviewing achievements made in the study of nonverbal communication, this thesis introduces the definition, classification, function, and cultural differences on cross-cultural nonverbal communication. Aiming to point the significance of nonverbal communication, it focuses on the influence of nonverbal communicative approach in communication, especially in teaching with the implication to it. In reality, nonverbal communication has been widely used in many fields, so it is necessary to learn something about it in order to improve our communicative quality. [Key Words] nonverbal communication; cultural difference; function; influence; teaching 【摘 要】 自从语言产生以来，言语交际便在人类交际中扮演最主要的角色，但并非是交际的唯一手段。在传播过程中，非言语交际与言语交际是同时进行的，然而言语交际较为快捷地传递信息，因此人们较多依赖于此种交际手段而忽视非言语 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 达。难怪对于语言的研究，传统上较重视口语及书面语这两种言语交际形式，而很少顾及非言语交际形式；然而近年来，非言语交际手段越来越受到语言学家们的关注，成为一门跨学科的新兴科学。本文简述了非言语交际的研究成果，从定义、基本分类、功能、跨文化非言语交际的文化差异这几方面对其作了简要介绍。为了指出非言语交际的重要性，着重论述非言语交际在交际中的影响尤其对教学产生的影响，从而得出对教学的启示。在现实生活，非言语交际被广泛应用于许多领域，因此为提高交际质量有必要对非言语交际作一些了解。 【关键词】 非言语交际；文化差异；功能；影响；教学 Introduction Since language has been come into being, it becomes the most important communicative tool for human being, but not the only one. When we are involved in communicating, we need to mobilize our facial expression, body movement, intonation, temperature, color, smell, clothing and body decoration, time, space and many other ways to communicate with each other, besides using language to transmit information. These means for communication without words are so-called nonverbal communication. Traditionally Language studies have emphasized verbal and written forms, and recently nonverbal communication has received more and more attention. In my paper I’ll present some basic conceptions, functions, cultural difference，and influence on teaching especially. 1. A brief review of nonverbal communication studies The earliest study of nonverbal communication could be traced back to that of various schools of thinkers in pre-Qin Dynasty and Greek philosopher Aristotle. Confucius paid more attention to appearance and posture in different occasions and Aristotle analyzed expressive ways of behaviors in his works. [1](P10) The scientific study of nonverbal communication primarily started after World War II. One of the most influential pre-twentieth century works was Darwin’s Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals in1872. This work spawned the modern study of facial expression, and many of his observations and ideas have been validated by other researchers. In the first half of the twentieth century, the study of nonverbal communication still remained unsystematic for there were only isolated studies of voice, physical appearance, dress and facial expressions. The three influential works during this period were Kretschmer’s book Physique and Character in1925, Sheldon’s book The Variations of Human Physique in1940, and Efron’s book Gesture and Environment in 1941. In 1950s, there was a significant increase in the number of nonverbal research efforts. Birdwhistell’s Introduction to Kinesics in1952 and Hall’s Silent Language in 1959 were two milestones of this decade. In 1956, Ruesch and Kees produced a book entitled Nonverbal Communication: Notes on the Visual Perception of Human Relations. This was the first book to use the term nonverbal communication in its title. 1960s produced a “nuclear explosion” of nonverbal studies. During this time, the classic theoretical piece was Ekman’s and Friesen’s article on the origins, usage, and coding of nonverbal behavior. The 1970s proved to be a time of summarizing and synthesizing on nonverbal studies. It began with Julius Fast’s Body Language in 1970. This book was the best-selling volume at that time and it has now been translated into several Chinese versions. The1980s were a time of further development of nonverbal communication studies. Some nonverbal researches of this decade focused on identifying the ways a variety of nonverbal signals work together to accomplish common communicative goals. The research on nonverbal behavior in our country began from 1980s. Scholars such as Hu Wenzhong, Bi Jiwan, Deng Yianchang and Liu Runqing have done some research work. [2](P40-41) Why we began the research on nonverbal communication later than western countries, so far as I know, there’re some reasons for it. Since Joseph Stalin had criticized the “gesture” of Mar in 1950, the scholars in our country who studied linguistic theory considered it as guiding principle to confirm the function of language communication absolutely without considering the position and function of nonverbal communication in communication. As a result, the range of study is only limited to language and communicative tool based on language. [1](P1) And during 1960s-1970s Cultural Revolution happened in our country bringing a disaster to the study of this field. 2. Definition and classification of nonverbal communication     There are various definitions for nonverbal communication among different scholars. According to Knapp [2](P41) the phrase nonverbal communication refers to communication effect by means other than words (assuming words are the verbal element). When defining nonverbal communication, Samovar and Porter propose that “nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver”. In this definition, the role of the environment, the message value of nonverbal stimuli and the communication setting are emphasized as three important factors in nonverbal communication. [2](P41) In short, nonverbal means for communication, which is considered as “silent language”, expresses meanings or feelings without using words.     As different linguists describe nonverbal communication in different dimensions, there is no general agreement in classification as yet. Here we only propose some of the common topics most communication theorists address themselves to: “Nonverbal communication consists of all signaling systems that do not use words.”[3](P181) 1) body modes of nonverbal communication(kinesics): posture, gestures, eye contact, facial expressions, appearance, smell, shifts in skin color, uses of clothing and body decoration, body orientation, any other movement of any other part of the body; 2) space language(body distance or proxemics): body touch and body distance; 3) paralanguage(voice modulation): speed, pitch, volume, pause, intonation, etc; 4) time language: time orientation (past, present, and future), monochromic (M-time) and polychromic (P-time); 5) environmental communication (interrelationship between people and their environments): architecture, object, color, lighting, odors etc;  6) communication of genetic characteristics, which are considered by some scholars as nonverbal communication; 7) various art forms and media such as painting, architecture, music, film, ballet, and mime 3. Functions of nonverbal behavior in communication     In some types of communication people express more nonverbally than verbally. “One study done in the United States showed that in the communication of attitudes, 93% of the message was transmitted by the tone of the voice and by facial expressions, whereas only 7% of the speaker’s attitude was transmitted by words.”[4](P122) Nonverbal communication is significant in human interaction because it is usually responsible for first impression. Think for a moment for how often your first judgments are based on the color of a person’s skin or the manner in which he or she is dressed. More important, those initial messages usually influence the perception of everything else that follows.     Nonverbal behaviors and verbal communication interact in communication process. For simplicity, nonverbal communication serves to repeat, complement, reinforce, substitute, regulate or even contradict our verbal behavior. [4](P137-139) 3.1Repeating     Nonverbal communication can simply repeat what was said verbally. For instance, verbal statements of agreement or disagreement are often accompanied by a nod or shake of the head to convey positive or negative feelings. We might hold up our hand in the gesture that signifies a person to stop at the same time we actually use the word “stop”. Or we might point in a certain direction after we have just said  (when tell a person the way to the railway station, you generally add a little information by pointing in the proper direction.). These could be considered repetition because they indicate the same meaning as the verbal messages. 3.2Complementing Closely related to repeating is complementing. Although messages that repeat can stand alone, complementing generally adds more information to messages. Nonverbal signals can modify or elaborate on verbal messages. The actors or actresses of comedy or skit or short crosstalk are good at performing body language to make their performance lively and more easily attract the attention of audiences. If you tell your friend that you have no money to lend him, you may turn out your pockets to show your sincere regret. You can tell someone that you are pleased with his or her performance, but this message takes on extra meaning if you pat the person on the shoulder at the same time. These important actions help us to complement, complete our verbal behavior. You can see how an apology becomes more forceful if your face, as well as your words, is saying, “I’m sorry.” This function of nonverbal communication indicates that nonverbal communication is supplementary to verbal behavior in communication. If it separates from verbal language, the message conveyed by nonverbal symbols will fail to be understood which results in failure of performing normal human communication. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill stressed the art of speech. Once in his speech, he said, “The level of our life now has exceeded any time in history, for we eat so much.” To this point, he stopped on purpose looking at the audiences for a while. Then he continued with the finger pointing to his huge stomach, “this is powerful evidence.” Churchill used nonverbal approach twice to assist verbal language. At first, he intentionally used pause to attract the attention of the mass; then he skillfully used the body language----pointing his beer belly to receive vivid effect. [5](P17) So only when linguistic communication system mixes with nonverbal communication can it form a complete communicative system. If it breaks away from the cooperation and assistance of nonverbal behavior, it is hard to attain effective goal of communication. 3.3Reinforcing     Nonverbal signals may be used to emphasize a portion of the verbal message. People frequently use movements of the head and hands such as nods, blinks, squints, and shrugs, to help accent or punctuate the verbal message. If you say “I love you” to someone you care about, a hug or kiss is usually followed. Reinforcing can also be achieved by changing the pitch or stress on a word or group of words. Our entire meaning relies more heavily on words that are accented. For instance: (1) I want to talk with him. (The sentence meaning lays emphasis on the person who wants to talk.) (2) I want to talk with him. (The sentence meaning relies on the action that the person wants to perform.) (3) I want to talk with him. (The sentence meaning puts stress on the conversational partner with whom the person wants to communicate.) 3.4Substituting     We use substitution in nonverbal communication when we perform some action instead of speaking. Quite a few nonverbal messages are commonly use to take the place of words. If you see a very special friend, you are apt to enlarge the size of your smile and throw open your arms to greet him or her, which is a substitute for all the words it would take to convey the same feeling. If a group of people is boisterous, you might place your index finger to your lips as an alternative to saying, “Please calm down so that I can speak.” Sometimes, when we are too sad or excited to say anything, we just keep silent. Our silence may replace any verbal messages. In some situation verbal words are unnecessary for silence at the moment surpasses words. [6](P12) Before Iraq was intruded by the US, Iraqi ex-president Saddam Hussein fired toward the sky in the presence of the mass to show the anger and the decision of fighting against the US. (from TV report) The action the president showed would be more powerful than words that called on the Iraqi people to counterattack American troops. For deaf-mutes, born to be unable to communicate verbally like normal people, the sign language or gesture provides opportunity for them to communicate with others in the silent world. In this case, nonverbal communication replaces the function of verbal one.     For nonverbal communication to act as substitution, it must be interpreted in specific culture. Here are some examples: If we try to use our culture’s nonverbal substitutes in another culture, misunderstandings may occur. Arab men often greet by kissing on both cheeks. In Buddhism countries of Southeast Asia like Thailand, people greet with both hands closed in front of chest. In Japan, men greet by bowing, and in the United States, people shake hands. Americans who say “I” by pointing to their chests would not be understood in Japan, where “I” is symbolized by pointing to one’s nose. 3.5Regulating     We often regulate and manage communication by using some form of nonverbal behavior: we nod our head in agreement to indicate to our communication partner that we agree and that he or she should continue talking; or we remain silent for a moment and let the silence send the message that we are ready to begin our speech. Nonverbal behaviors usually represent the most efficient and least offensive means of regulating interaction. To say, “Shut up, Tom” may trigger a hostile and defensive reaction; to present the same message by eye contact or gesture is a more desirable way. Nodding and eye contact are two typical nonverbal hints that mean “I want to talk” and “It’s your turn to talk”. When we want to indicate we have finished speaking and the other person can start in a conversation, we may increase our eye contact with the other person. Conversely, if we want to keep the other from speaking, we may decrease eye contact and perhaps raise the volume. When we do not want to take a speaking turn, we might reinforce our head nods and maintain attentive eye contact. Rapid nods may signal the speaker to hurry up and finish while slow and silent nods usually indicate the speaker’s talking will continue. 3.6Contradicting     The term contradicting includes a variety of ways verbal and nonverbal signals are not in agreement with each other. A young woman told her psychological doctor that she was deeply in love with her boy friend with shaking her head at the same time that unconsciously disapproved what she said. [7](P3) “He that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can keep a secret.”(Sigmund Freud[3](P181)) That is to say, our nonverbal actions would tell the truths that are tried to cover by verbal messages. You tell someone you are relaxed and at ease, yet your voice quavers and your hands shake.     The contradictory message occurs because people do not want to tell the truth and they do not want to lie. In most cases, we don’t like to contradict others, hurt their feeling or let them lose face. When a friend gave a terrible presentation, we may say “You did it quite well.” but our voice, face and body may not support the words. On other occasions, people even use contradictory messages to communicate sarcasm or irony, saying one thing with words but meaning the opposite with vocal tone or facial expressions. Because people rely mostly on nonverbal messages when they receive conflicting data, we need to be aware of the dangers inherent in sending opposing messages. 4.Some nonverbal behaviors in different cultures     Much of our difficulty with people in other countries stems from the fact that so little is known about nonverbal communication. Formal training in the language, history, government, and customs of another nation is only the first step in a comprehensive program. Of equal importance is an introduction to the nonverbal language which exists in every country of the world and among the various groups within each country.     Culture is all-persuasive, multidimensional, and boundless; it is everywhere and in everything. The same is also true of nonverbal behavior. Our clothes and jewelry, the countless expressions we can reflect with our face, the hundreds of movements we can make with our bodies, where and how we touch people, our gaze and eye contact, vocal behaviors such as laughter, and our use of time, space, and silence are just some of the behaviors in which we engage that serve as message. 4.1General appearance and dress       In intercultural communication, appearance and objects are important because the standards we apply and the judgments we make are subject to cultural interpretations. In the United States, people tend to value the appearance of tall, slender women. In Japan, diminutive females are deemed the most attractive.     Clothing---how much, how little, and what kind---is also a reflection of a culture’s value orientation. For example, modesty is highly valued among Arabs. Muslim girls usually wear scarves to cover their heads, and in most instances, girls are not allowed to participate in swimming classes because of the prohibitions against exposing their bodies. 4.2Gestures Gestures refer to specific body movements that carry meaning. Hands can form shapes that convey many meanings that may differ among cultures. What is acceptable in one culture may be completely unacceptable in another. One culture may determine that snapping fingers to call waiter is appropriate; another may consider this gesture rude. For instance, the “OK” gesture in the American culture is a symbol for money in Japan. The same gesture is obscene in some Latin American countries; while for Chinese or people in the South of France is zero or nothing. [6](P13) The same movement with different meaning in cross-cultural communication will lead to misunderstanding in minor degree otherwise to court disaster. The gesture for applauding over the head in America usually means arrogance to defeat the counterpart, while in Russia it is a symbol of friendship. When the Soviet Premier Khrushchev visited America, he performed such gesture to indicate friendship, but this made many Americans feel uncomfortable. [6](P13) 4.3Posture     Posture and sitting habits offer insight into a culture’s deep structure. In many Asian cultures, the bow is much more than a greeting. It signifies the culture’s concern with status and rank. In Japan, for example, low posture is an indicator of respect. Although it appears simple to the outsider, the bowing ritual is actually rather complicated. The person who occupies the lower status begins the bow, and his or her bow must be deeper than the other person’s. The superior, on the other hand, determines when the bowing 转贴于 中国论文下载中心