巴力Baal

Ba'alGodoffertility,weather,rain,wind,lightning,seasons,war,patronofsailorsandsea-goingmerchants,leaderoftheRephaim(ancestralspirits)Laterviews:KingofthegodsThesteleofBaalwithThunderboltfoundintheruinsofUgaritSymbolBull,SheepRegionAtandnearCanaanNear,aroundandatUgaritEgypt(middlekingdomof)PersonalinformationParentsDagan(usuallore)El(someUgaritictexts)SiblingsAnatBaalBaal(/ˈbeɪ.əl/),[1][a]properlyBaʿal,[b]wasatitleandhonorificmeaning"lord"intheNorthwestSemiticlanguagesspokenintheLevantduringantiquity.Fromitsuseamongpeople,itcametobeappliedtogods.[7]Scholarspreviouslyassociatedthetheonymwithsolarcultsandwithavarietyofunrelatedpatrondeities,butinscriptionshaveshownthatthenameBaʿalwasparticularlyassociatedwiththestormandfertilitygodHadadandhislocalmanifestations.[8]TheHebrewBible,compiledandcuratedoveraspanofcenturies,includesearlyuseoftheterminreferencetoGod(knowntothemasYahweh),genericuseinreferencetovariousLevantinedeities,andfinallypointedapplicationtowardsHadad,whowasdecriedasafalsegod.ThatusewastakenoverintoChristianityandIslam,sometimesundertheopprobriousformBeelzebubindemonology.EtymologySemiticreligionGenericHadadElBaʿalBaʿalHammonJudaismYahwehBaʿalBerithBeelzebubClassicalsourcesChristianityIslamSeealsoNotesReferencesSourcesFurtherreadingExternallinksThespelling"Baal"derivesfromtheGreekBáal(Βάαλ),whichappearsintheNewTestament[9]andSeptuagint,[10]andfromitsLatinizedformBaal,whichappearsintheVulgate.[10]Theseformsinturnderivefromthevowel-lessNorthwestSemiticformBʿL.Theword'sBiblicalsensesasaPhoeniciandeityandfalsegodsgenerallyContentsEtymologywereextendedduringtheProtestantReformationtodenoteanyidols,iconsofthesaints,ortheCatholicChurchgenerally.[11]Insuchcontexts,itfollowstheanglicizedpronunciationandusuallyomitsanymarkbetweenitstwoAs.[1]InclosetransliterationoftheSemiticname,theayinisrepresented,asBaʿal.IntheNorthwestSemiticlanguages—Ugaritic,Phoenician,Hebrew,Amorite,andAramaic—thewordbaʿalsignified"owner"and,byextension,"lord",[10]a"master",or"husband".[12][13]CognatesincludetheAkkadianBēlu(),[c]Amharicbal(ባል),[14]andArabicbaʿl(بعل).Báʿal(בַַּעל)andbaʿlstillserveasthewordsfor"husband"inmodernHebrewandArabicrespectively.Theyalsoappearinsomecontextsconcerningtheownershipofthingsorpossessionoftraits.InLevantineArabic,baʿlalsoservesasanadjectivedescribingfarmingthatreliesonrainwateralone.[15]Thefeminineformisbaʿalah(Hebrew:16];בֲַּעלָה]Arabic:بعلـة),meaning"mistress"inthesenseofafemaleownerorladyofthehouse[16]andstillservingasararewordfor"wife".[17]Thepluralformisbaʿalim.SuggestionsinearlymodernscholarshipalsoincludedcomparisonwiththeCelticgodBelenus.[18]LikeENinSumerian,theAkkadianbēluandNorthwestSemiticbaʿal(aswellasitsfeminineformbaʿalah)wasusedasatitleofvariousdeitiesintheMesopotamianandSemiticpantheons.Onlyadefinitivearticle,genitiveorepithet,orcontextcouldestablishwhichparticulargodwasmeant.[19]BaʿalwasalsousedasapropernamebythethirdmillenniumBCE,whenheappearsinalistofdeitiesatAbuSalabikh.[10]MostmodernscholarshipassertsthatthisBaʿal—usuallydistinguishedas"TheLord"(הבעל,HaBaʿal)—wasidenticalwiththestormandfertilitygodHadad;[10][20][12]italsoappearsintheformBaʿalHaddu.[13][21]Scholarsproposethat,asthecultofHadadincreasedinimportance,histruenamecametobeseenastooholyforanybutthehighpriesttospeakaloudandthealias"Lord"("Baʿal")wasusedinstead,as"Bel"wasusedforMardukand"Adonai"forYahweh.AminorityproposethatBaʿalwasanativeCanaanitedeitywhosecultwasidentifiedwithorabsorbedaspectsofAdad's.[10]Regardlessoftheiroriginalrelationship,bythe1stmillenniumBCE,thetwoweredistinct:HadadwasworshippedbytheAramaeansandBaʿalbythePhoeniciansandotherCanaanites.[10]ThePhoenicianBaʿalisgenerallyidentifiedwitheitherElorDagan.[22]Baʿaliswell-attestedinsurvivinginscriptionsandwaspopularintheophoricnamesthroughouttheLevant[23]butheisusuallymentionedalongwithothergods,"hisownfieldofactionbeingseldomdefined".[24]Nonetheless,Ugariticrecordsshowhimasaweathergod,withparticularpoweroverlightning,wind,rain,andfertility.[24][d]ThedrysummersoftheareawereexplainedasBaʿal'stimeintheunderworldandhisreturninautumnwassaidtocausethestormswhichrevivedtheland.[24]Thus,theworshipofBaʿalinCanaan—whereheeventuallysupplantedElastheleaderofthegodsandpatronofkingship—wasconnectedtotheregions'SemiticreligionBronzefigurineofaBaal,14thx12thcenturyBCE,foundatRasShamra(ancientUgarit)nearthePhoeniciancoast.MuséeduLouvre.GenericHadadElBaʿaldependenceonrainfallforitsagriculture,unlikeEgyptandMesopotamia,whichfocusedonirrigationfromtheirmajorrivers.Anxietyabouttheavailabilityofwaterforcropsandtreesincreasedtheimportanceofhiscult,whichfocusedattentiononhisroleasaraingod.[12]Hewasalsocalleduponduringbattle,showingthathewasthoughttointerveneactivelyintheworldofman,[24]unlikethemorealoofEl.TheLebanesecityofBaalbeckwasnamedafterBaal.[27]TheBaʿalofUgaritwastheepithetofHadadbutasthetimepassed,theepithetbecamethegod'snamewhileHadadbecametheepithet.[28]BaʿalwasusuallysaidtobethesonofDagan,butappearsasoneofthesonsofElinUgariticsources.[23][13][e]BothBaʿalandElwereassociatedwiththebullinUgaritictexts,asitsymbolizedbothstrengthandfertility.[29]ThevirgingoddessʿAnatwashissisterandsometimescreditedwithachildthroughhim.Heheldspecialenmityagainstsnakes,bothontheirownandasrepresentativesofYammu(lit."Sea"),theCanaaniteseagodandrivergod.[30]HefoughttheTannin(Tunnanu),the"TwistedSerpent"(Bṭnʿqltn),"LitantheFugitiveSerpent"(LtnBṭnBrḥ,theBiblicalLeviathan),[30]andthe"MightyOnewithSevenHeads"(ŠlyṭD.šbʿtRašm).[31][f]Baʿal'sconflictwithYammuisnowgenerallyregardedastheprototypeofthevisionrecordedinthe7thchapteroftheBiblicalBookofDaniel.[33]Asvanquisherofthesea,BaʿalwasregardedbytheCanaanitesandPhoeniciansasthepatronofsailorsandsea-goingmerchants.[30]AsvanquisherofMot,theCanaanitedeathgod,hewasknownasBaʿalRāpiʾuma(BʿlRpu)andregardedastheleaderoftheRephaim(Rpum),theancestralspirits,particularlythoseofrulingdynasties.[30]FromCanaan,worshipofBaʿalspreadtoEgyptbytheMiddleKingdomandthroughouttheMediterraneanfollowingthewavesofPhoeniciancolonizationintheearly1stmillenniumBCE.[23]Hewasdescribedwithdiverseepithetsand,priortotherediscoveryofUgarit,itwassupposedthatthesereferredtodistinctlocalgods.However,asexplainedbyDay,thetextsatUgaritrevealedthattheywereconsidered"localmanifestationsofthisparticulardeity,analogoustothelocalmanifestationsoftheVirginMaryintheRomanCatholicChurch."[20]Inthoseinscriptions,heisfrequentlydescribedas"VictoriousBaʿal"(AliynorẢlỈynBaʿal),[13][10]"Mightiestone"(AliyorʿAly)[13][g]or"MightiestoftheHeroes"(AliyQrdm),"ThePowerfulOne"(Dmrn),andinhisroleaspatronofthecity"BaʿalofUgarit"(BaʿalUgarit).[39]AsBaʿalZaphon(BaʿalṢapunu),hewasparticularlyassociatedwithhispalaceatopJebelAqra(theancientMountṢapānuandclassicalMonsCasius).[39]Heisalsomentionedas"WingedBaʿal"(BʿlKnp)and"BaʿaloftheArrows"(BʿlḤẓ).[13]PhoenicianandAramaicinscriptionsdescribeBʿlKrntryš,"BaʿaloftheLebanon"(BʿlLbnn),"BaʿalofSidon"(BʿlṢdn),BʿlṢmd,"BaʿaloftheHeavens"(BaʿalShamemorShamayin),[40]BaʿalʾAddir(Bʿlʾdr),BaʿalHammon(BaʿalḤamon),BʿlMgnm.[23]BaʿalHammonwasworshippedintheTyriancolonyofCarthageastheirsupremegod.Itisbelievedthatthispositiondevelopedinthe5thcenturyBCEfollowingtheseveringofitstiestoTyrefollowingthe480BCEBattleofHimera.[41]LikeHadad,BaʿalHammonwasafertilitygod.[42]InscriptionsaboutPunicdeitiestendtoberatheruninformative,though,andhehasbeenvariouslyidentifiedasamoongod[43]andasDagan,thegraingod.[44]Ratherthanthebull,BaʿalHammonwasassociatedwiththeramanddepictedwithhishorns.ThearchaeologicalrecordseemstobearoutaccusationsinRomansourcesthattheCarthaginiansburnedtheirchildrenashumansacrificestohim.HewasworshippedasBaʿalKarnaim("LordoftheTwoHorns"),particularlyatanopen-airsanctuaryatJebelBuKornein("Two-HornHill")acrossthebayfromCarthage.HisconsortwasthegoddessTanit.[45]TheepithetHammonisobscure.Mostoften,itisconnectedwiththeNWSemiticḥammān("brazier")andassociatedwitharoleasasungod.[46]RenanandGibsonlinkedittoHammon(modernUmmel-‘AmedbetweenTyreinLebanonandAcreinIsrael)[47]andCrossandLipińskitoHamanorKhamōn,theclassicalMountAmanusandmodernNurMountains,whichseparatenorthernSyriafromsoutheasternCilicia.[48][49]Baʿalappearsabout90timesintheHebrewScripturesinreferencetovariousgods.[10]ThepriestsoftheCanaaniteBaʿalarementionednumeroustimes,mostprominentlyintheFirstBookofKings.ManyscholarsbelievethatthisdescribesJezebel'sattempttointroducetheworshipoftheBaʿalofTyre,Melqart,[50]totheIsraelicapitalSamariainthe9thcenturyBCE.[51]Againstthis,DayarguesthatJezebel'sBaʿalwasmoreprobablyBaʿalShamem,theLordoftheHeavens,atitlemostoftenappliedtoHadad,whoisalsooftentitledjustBa‘al.[52]BaʿalHammonJudaism1Kings18recordsanaccountofacontestbetweentheprophetElijahandJezebel'spriests.Bothsidesofferedasacrificetotheirrespectivegods:Ba'alfailedtolighthisfollowers'sacrificewhileYahweh'sheavenlyfireburntElijah'saltartoashes,evenafterithadbeensoakedwithwater.TheobserversthenfollowedElijah'sinstructionstoslaythepriestsofBaʿl,[53]afterwhichitbegantorain,showingYahweh'smasteryovertheweather.OtherreferencestothepriestsofBaʿaldescribetheirburningofincenseinprayer[54]andtheirofferingofsacrificewhileadornedinspecialvestments.[55]ThetitlebaʿalwasasynonyminsomecontextsoftheHebrewadon("Lord")andadonai("MyLord")stillusedasaliasesoftheLordofIsraelYahweh.Accordingtosomescholars,theearlyHebrewsdidusethenamesBaʿal("Lord")andBaʿali("MyLord")inreferencetotheLordofIsrael,justasBaʿalfarthernorthdesignatedtheLordofUgaritorLebanon.[51][7]ThisoccurredbothdirectlyandasthedivineelementofsomeHebrewtheophoricnames.However,accordingtoothersitisnotcertainthatthenameBaalwasdefinitelyappliedtoYahwehinearlyIsraelitehistory.ThecomponentBaalinpropernamesismostlyappliedtoworshippersofBaal,ordescendantsoftheworshippersofBaal.[56]NamesincludingtheelementBaʿalpresumablyinreferencetoYahweh[57][7]includethejudgeGideon(alsoknownasJerubaʿal,lit."TheLordStrives"),Saul'ssonEshbaʿal("TheLordisGreat"),andDavid'ssonBeeliada("TheLordKnows").ThenameBealiah("TheLordisJah";"YahwehisBaʿal")[8]combinedthetwo.[58][59]HoweverJohnDaystatesthatasfarasthenamesEshba’al,Meriba’al,andBeeliada(thatisBaaliada),areconcerneditisnotcertainwhethertheysimplyalludetotheCannanitegodBa’al,orareintendedtoequateYahwehwithBa’al,orhavenoconnectiontoBa’al.[60]ItwastheprogramofJezebel,inthe9thcenturyBCE,tointroduceintoIsrael'scapitalcityofSamariaherPhoenicianworshipofBaalasopposedtotheworshipofYahwehthatmadethenameanathematotheIsraelites.[51]AtfirstthenameBaalwasusedbytheJewsfortheirGodwithoutdiscrimination,butasthestrugglebetweenthetworeligionsdeveloped,thenameBaalwasgivenupbytheIsraelitesasathingofshame,andevennameslikeJerubbaalwerechangedtoJerubbosheth:Hebrewboshethmeans"shame".[61]EshbaʿalbecameIsh-boshethandMeribaʿalbecameMephibosheth,[62]butotherpossibilitiesalsooccurred.BeeliadaismentionedrenamedasEliadaandGideon'snameJerubaʿalwasmentionedintactbutglossedasamockeryoftheCanaanitegod,implyingthathestroveinvain.[63]DirectuseofBaʿalicontinuedatleastaslateasthetimeoftheprophetHosea,whoreproachedtheIsraelitesfordoingso.[64]BradE.KellehassuggestedthatreferencestoculticsexualpracticesintheworshipofBaal,inHosea2,areevidenceofanhistoricalsituationinwhichIsraeliteswereeithergivingupYahwehworshipforBaal,orblendingthetwo.Hosea'sreferencestosexualactsbeingmetaphorsforIsraelite"apostasy".[65]BaʿalBerith("LordoftheCovenant")wasagodworshippedbytheIsraeliteswhenthey"wentastray"afterthedeathofGideonaccordingtotheHebrewScriptures.[66]ThesamesourcerelatesthatGideon'ssonAbimelechwenttohismother'skinatShechemandreceived70shekelsofsilver"fromtheHouseofBaʿalBerith"toassistinkillinghis70brothersfromGideon'sotherwives.[67]AnearlierpassagehadmadeShechemthesceneofJoshua'scovenantbetweenallthetribesofIsraeland"ElYahweh,ourgodofIsrael"[68]andalateronedescribesitasthelocationofthe"HouseofElBerith".[69]Itisthusunclearwhetherthefalseworshipofthe"Baʿalim"beingdecried[66]istheworshipofanewidolorthecontinuedworshipofYahweh,butbymeansofritesandteachingstakinghimtobeamerelocalgodwithinalargerpantheon.TheHebrewScripturesrecordtheworshipofBaʿalthreateningIsraelfromthetimeoftheJudgesuntilthemonarchy.[70]TheDeuteronomist[71]andthepresentformofJeremiah[72]seemtophrasetheElijahslayingtheprophetsofBaalYahwehBaʿalBerithstruggleasmonolatryormonotheismagainstpolytheism.However,YahwehisfirmlyidentifiedintheHebrewScriptureswithElElyon,whoseCanaanitefigureappearshostiletothecultofBaʿaleveninthepolytheisticaccountsofUgaritandthePhoeniciancities.[73]BaʿalZebub(Hebrew:בעלזבוב,lit."FlyLord")[74][75][h]occursinthefirstchapteroftheSecondBookofKingsasthesupposednameofthePhilistinegodofEkron.Init,Ahaziah,kingofIsrael,issaidtohaveconsultedthepriestsofBaʿalZebubastowhetherhewouldsurvivetheinjuriesfromhisrecentfall.TheprophetElijah,incensedatthisimpiety,thenforetoldthathewoulddiequickly,rainingheavenlyfireonthesoldierssenttopunishhimfordoingso.[77]Jewishscholarshaveinterpretedthetitleof"LordoftheFlies"astheHebrewwayofcallingBaʿalapileofdungandhisfollowersvermin,[78][79][80]althoughothersargueforalinktopowerovercausingandcuringpestilenceandthussuitableforAhaziah'squestion.[81]TheSeptuagintrendersthenameasBaälzeboúb(βααλζεβούβ)andas"BaʿalofFlies"(βααλμυιαν,Baälmuian).SymmachustheEbioniterendereditasBeëlzeboúl(Βεελζεβούλ),possiblyreflectingitsoriginalsense.[82][i]ThishasbeenproposedtohavebeenB‘lZbl,Ugariticfor"LordoftheHome"or"LordoftheHeavens".[83][j][k][l]OutsideofJewishandChristiancontexts,thevariousformsofBaʿalwereindifferentlyrenderedinclassicalsourcesasBelus(Greek:Βῆλος,Bēl̂os).AnexampleisJosephus,whostatesthatJezebel"builtatempletothegodoftheTyrians,whichtheycallBelus";[50]thisdescribestheBaʿalofTyre,Melqart.Intheinterpretatiograeca,BaʿalwasusuallyassociatedwithJupiterBelusbutsometimesconnectedwithHercules.HerrmannidentifiestheDemarusorDemarousmentionedbyPhiloBybliusasBaʿal.[30]BaʿalHammon,however,wasidentifiedwiththeGreekCronosandtheRomanSaturn(asthe"AfricanSaturn").HewasprobablyneverequatedwithMelqart,althoughthisassertionappearsinolderscholarship.BeelzebuborBeelzebulwasidentifiedbythewritersoftheNewTestamentasSatan,"prince"(i.e.,king)ofthedemons.[m][n]JohnMilton's1667epicParadiseLostdescribesthefallenangelscollectingaroundSatan,statingthat,thoughtheirheavenlynameshadbeen"blottedoutandras'd",theywouldacquirenewones"wandringoretheEarth"asfalsegods.The"Baalim"and"Ashtaroth"aregivenasthecollectivenamesofthemaleandfemaledemons(respectively)whocamefrombetweenthe"bordringfloodofoldEuphrates"and"theBrookthatpartsEgyptfromSyrianground".[86]Similarly,"Baal"andderivedepithetslike"Baalist"wereusedasslursduringtheEnglishReformationfortheCatholicsaintsandtheirdevotees.TheQuranmentionsthecontestbetweenJezebel'spriestsofBaʿalandtheprophetElijah[53](renamedElias):AndEliaswasmostsurelyofthemessengers.Heaskedhispeople:'Doyounotfear[God]?WillyecalluponBaalandforsakethebestofcreators?GodisyourLordandtheLordofyourfathers,theancients'Buttheyrejectedhim,andtheywillcertainlybecalledup[forpunishment],exceptthesincereanddevotedservantsofGod[amongthem],andweleft[thisblessing]forhimamonggenerations[tocome]inlatertimes,peacebeuponElias.[87]"Beelzebub"inthe1863editionofJacquesCollindePlancy'sDictionnaireInfernal.BeelzebubClassicalsourcesChristianityIslamAdonisOtherBaalsBaalinpopularcultureBaalthedemonBaalahsBaʿalShamem(LordoftheHeavens)BaʿalPeʿor(LordofMtPeʿor)BaʿalZaphon(LordofMtZaphon)BaaltarsBelandTempleofBelBelusesBelialCanaanitereligionElagabalusSetTeshubandTheispasAdadandHadada.TheAmericanpronunciationisusuallythesame[2][3]butsomespeakersprefervariantsclosertotheoriginalsound,suchas/bɑːˈɑːl/or/bɑːl/.[3][4]b.Ugaritic:;[5]Phoenician:;BiblicalHebrew:בעל,pronounced[ˈbaʕal]),[6]c.Thiscuneiformisidenticaltothe⟨⟩whichistakenasENinSumeriantexts.There,ithasthemeaning"highpriest"or"lord"andappearsinthenamesofthegodsEnkiandEnlil.d.Insurvivingaccounts,Baʿal'spoweroverfertilityextendsonlyovervegetation.OlderscholarshipclaimedBaʿlcontrolledhumanfertilityaswell,butdidsoonthebasisofmisinterpretationorofinscriptionsnowregardedasdubious.[25]Similarly,19th-centuryscholarshiptreatingBaalasapersonificationofthesunseemstohavebeenbadlytaken.TheastrotheologyofNearEasterndeitieswasanIronAgedevelopmentlongpostdatingtheoriginofreligionand,followingitsdevelopment,BelandBaʿalwereassociatedwiththeplanetJupiter.[26]ThesunwasworshippedinCanaanaseitherthegoddessShapashorthegodShamash.e.Herrmannarguesagainstseeingtheseseparatelineagesliterally,insteadproposingthattheydescribeBaʿal'sroles.Asagod,heisunderstoodasachildofEl,"fatherofgods",whilehisfertilityaspectsconnecthimtothegraingodDagan.[23]f.Theaccountispatchyandobscurehere.SomescholarstakesomeorallofthetermstorefertoLitanandinotherpassagesʿAnattakescreditfordestroyingthemonstersonBaʿal'sbehalf.Herrmanntakes"Šalyaṭu"asapropername[30]ratherthantranslatingitasthe"powerfulone"or"tyrant".[32]g.ThisnameappearstwiceintheLegendofKeretdiscoveredatUgarit.Priortothisdiscovery,NyberghadrestoredittotheHebrewtextsofDeuteronomy,[34]1&2Samuel,[35][36]Isaiah,[37]andHosea.[38]Followingitsverification,additionalinstanceshavebeenclaimedinthePsalmsandinJob.[12]h."TheetymologyofBeelzebulhasproceededinseveraldirections.ThevariantreadingBeelzebub(SyriactranslatorsandJerome)reflectsalong-standingtraditionofequatingBeelzebulwiththePhilistinedeityofthecityofEkronmentionedin2Kgs1:2,3,6,16.Baalzebub(Hebba˓alzĕbûb)seemstomean“lordofflies”(HALAT,250,butcf.LXXBbaalmuiantheonakkarōn,“Baal-Fly,godofAkkaron”;Ant9:2,1theonmuian)."[76]i.Arndt&al.reversethis,sayingSymmachustranscribedBaälzeboúbforamorecommonBeëlzeboúl.[74]j."Itismoreprobablethatb‘lzbl,whichcanmean“lordofthe(heavenly)dwelling”inUgaritic,waschangedtob‘lzbbtomakethedivinenameanopprobriusepithet.ThereadingBeelzebulinMt.10:25wouldthenreflecttherightformofthename,awordplayon“masterofthehouse”(Gkoikodespótēs)."[84]k."Analternativesuggestedbymanyistoconnectzĕbûlwithanounmeaning'(exalted)abode.'"[76]SeealsoNotesl."IncontemporarySemiticspeechitmayhavebeenunderstoodas‘themasterofthehouse’;ifso,thisphrasecouldbeusedinadoublesenseinMt.10:25b."[85]m."InNTGk.beelzeboul,beezeboul(BeelzebubinTRandAV)istheprinceofthedemons(Mt.12:24,27;Mk.3:22;Lk.11:15,18f.),identifiedwithSatan(Mt.12:26;Mk.3:23,26;Lk.11:18)."[85]n."Besides,Matt12:24;Mark3:22;Luke11:15usetheappositionἄρχωντῶνδαιμονίων‘headofthe→Demons’."[81]1.OxfordEnglishDictionary(1885),"Baal,n.(http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/14174)"2.OxfordDictionaries(2015),"Baal(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/Baal)"3.Merriam-WebsterOnline(2015),"baal(http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/baal)".4.Webb'sEasyBibleNamesPronunciationGuide(2012),"Baal(https://bo