Chapter4 (Body)

nullChapter Four Syntax 句法学*Chapter Four Syntax 句法学What is syntax?*What is syntax?a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 句法学是研究词如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支。Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between languages rather than their differences. *Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between languages rather than their differences. Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages; null*There are likely to be universal constraints(普遍制约)on the ways linguistic elements are combined Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework (Universal Grammar普遍文法).null*In this chapter we are concerned with the composition of sentences by introducing some of the most common categories of words in English as well as some simple rules that govern the organization of these categories into larger structural units. 在本章中，我们主要涉及的是通过介绍英语中一些最为常见的词的范畴， 以及支配这些范畴组成更大的结构单位的简单规则来讲讲句子的构成。Categories范畴*Categories范畴Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 范畴是指某一特定语言中执行相同或相近功能的一组语言项目, 如句子, 名词短语或者动词。null*A fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic category(句法范畴). null*The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech) 句法学研究最核心的范畴是词层面的范畴. (传统语法中的词性) It is divided into two kinds: Word-level categories 词层面的范畴 *Word-level categories 词层面的范畴 Major lexical categories(主要词汇范畴): Noun, verb, adjective, preposition Minor Lexical categories (次要词汇范畴): Determiner, degree word, auxiliary, conjunction null*Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built. The criteria on which categories are determined 确定词的范畴的 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 *The criteria on which categories are determined 确定词的范畴的标准Meaning (意义) Inflection (屈折变化) Distribution(分布) null*Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. e.g. Nouns typically denote entities. Verbs characteristically designate action, sensations and states. Adjectives can elaborate the properties or attributes of the entities. Adverbs can denote the properties or attributes of action, sensations and states. It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.*It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.Firstly, nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities. Secondly, some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.null*Thirdly, words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories. e.g. be aware of and know about. It is often not reliable to determine a word’s category by its meaning only. Sometimes we have to resort to other criteria, such as inflection. null*‘s; -ed, -ing; -er, -est… Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word’s category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. Moisture, fog, sheep; Frequent, intelligent Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. null*That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. Thus, a word’s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category. 因此, 一个词的分布情况与其意义和屈折变化能力的信息一起对于确定它的句法范畴有帮助.Phrase categories and their structures 短语范畴和它们的结构*Phrase categories and their structures 短语范畴和它们的结构Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). 围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位被称为短语。 It can consist of just one word or more elements.null*NP, the pretty girl VP, often dream AP, very pessimistic PP’ mainly about null*Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels, phrase level and word level as exemplified below. NP, VP, AP, PP Phrase level (N), (V), (A), (P) word levelnull*The structure of phrase: Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: specifier(标志语) + head (中心语) + complement (补语)null*Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则*Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: 这种规定构成一个短语成分的排列的特殊语法机制类型被称为短语结构规则.如:null*NP  (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP  (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP  (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP  (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.The XP rule XP规则* Specifier X Complement HeadXP (X短语)The XP rule XP规则 Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.X- Theory X理论*X- Theory X理论XP  (Specifier) X- X-  X (complement)X(head) complementspecifierXP(Phrase level)X-Coordination rule 并列规则*Coordination rule 并列规则Coordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc. 借助连词, 如或将两个或两个以上相同类型的成分联结起来而构成的短语结构称为并列结构. Coordination has four important properties: null*1.no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; 2.a category at any level can be coordinated; 3.the categories must be of the same type; 4.the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. X X * Con Xnull*Coordination of NPs: [NP the lady] or [NP the tiger] Coordination of VPs: [VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ] Coordination of PPs: [PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]null*Coordination of APs: [AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful] Coordination of Ss: [S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too]. Phrase elements 短语成分*Phrase elements 短语成分Specifier (标志语) Head (中心语) Complement (补语) Modifiers (修饰语)Specifiers 标志语*Specifiers 标志语Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. 标志语有特定的语义和句法功能. 语义上, 它们有助于使中心词的意义更加准确. 句法上, 它们是短语界限的典型标志. null*Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP. 标志语可以是名词短语中的限定语; 动词短语中的修饰语; 形容词短语中的程度词. Complements 补语*Complements 补语Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, 补语本身就是短语, 提供关于实体和处所(中心词的意义暗示了它们存在)的信息.null*The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization. 有关补语的信息是包括在中心语之中的,称为次范畴化. null*e.g. a story about a sentimental girl; As for different verbs, there can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…; The XP Rule (revised)null*XP (Specifier) X (Complement*) This rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English. null*a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in I believed that she was innocent. I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” null*That/if /for are complementizers (Cs补语化成分), the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause (补语从句),the whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP补语短语)the construction in which the complement phrase in embedded is called matrix clause(主句). null*Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner]. (adverbial clause) The woman [that I love] is moving to the south. (relative clause) null*Of course, not all verbs can take a CP complement. Words that can take CP are not verbs alone; As, Ns and Ps can all take CP. They are exemplified in the following table.null*Modifiers 修饰语*Modifiers 修饰语Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads. 修饰语特指中心词可表达的特征. Modifier Position in English null*null*two  dogs           Head (My brother) can drink (wine). Head Swimming in the lake (is fun). Head (The pepper was) hot beyond endurance. Headnull*The Expanded XP rules XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod) XP (标志语)(修饰语)X(补语*)(修饰语) This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Sentences (the S rule) 句子（S规则） *Sentences (the S rule) 句子（S规则） S  NP VP SNPVPNPDet N V Det N A boy found the evidenceThe sentence does not have an internal structure. * S  NP infl VP Many linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl’) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement. InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences (the S rule)Infl realized by a tense label*Infl realized by a tense labelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDet N Infl V Det N A boy Pst found the evidenceInfl realized by an auxiliary*Infl realized by an auxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDet N Infl V Det N A boy will find the evidenceTransformations 转换 *Transformations 转换 Auxiliary movement (inversion) 助动词移位 Do insertion (Do插入) Deep structure & surface structure (深层结构与表层结构) Wh-movement (Wh移位) Move α and constraints on transformations (α移位和转换的限制) Auxiliary movement (inversion) 助动词移位 *Auxiliary movement (inversion) 助动词移位 Inversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. Inversion (revised) Move Infl to C.CCPSDet N Infl V the train will arriveNPAuxiliary movement (inversion)*Auxiliary movement (inversion)CPSCNPInfl Det N Infl V Will the train e arriveInversion (revised): Move Infl to Cnull*If CP is embedded in a larger sentence or matrix clause, complementizers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusiveThe teacher wonder CP if-should his student ______ stay.This shows why the above sentence is ungrammatical.null*From the above tree diagram, we can see that the auxiliary moves from the head Infl position in Infl P into the head C position in CP. Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is also known as head movement(中心词移位).Do insertion(Do插入)*Do insertion(Do插入)Do insertion---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CPCSNP Infl VPBirds flyCPCPCCSSInfl NP Infl VPNP Infl VPBirds do flyDo birds e flyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-3Deep structure & surface structure (深层结构与表层结构) *Deep structure & surface structure (深层结构与表层结构) Consider the following pair of sentences: John is easy to please. John is eager to please. Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. null*1.It is easy to please John. 2.*It is eager to please John． “ 1.约翰很容易被讨好 ” （直译是 “ 人们容易使约翰高兴 ” ）， “2. 约翰急于讨好别人 ” （直译是 “ 约翰急于使别人高兴”）。 这是因为第一个句子可以转换为： It is easy to please John. 第二个句子不能，如果转换为 “It is eager to please John” ，意思就完全错了。 null*a ）和 b ）有不同的外部结构，但以英语为本族语的人会觉得它们具有相同的逻辑主语： 1 a ） To find the fossils of a dinosaur is exciting. b ） It is exciting to find the fossils of a dinosaur. 2 a ） There's a hole in my bucket. b ） My bucket has a hole in it.null*4 a ） For Mary to sing the song was hard. b ） The song was hard for Mary to sing. c ） Mary was hard to sing the song. d ） It was hard for Mary to sing the song. 4a ）可被看作是四个句子的核心句，其结构是其他三个句子的基础。 采用宾语提前的转换规则，可以派生4b ）； 采用主语提前的转换规则，可以派生4c ）； 采用外位转换规则，可以派生出 4d). 这四个句子相互关联，意思相同，因为它们拥有共同的深层结构。null*A big-game hunter was showing a charming young lady the skin of a lion that he had shot. "One night," he explained, "I heard the roar of a lion: I jumped out of bed, raised my gun, took careful aim and shot it in my pajamas." null*"Good heavens," the young lady exclaimed, "How ever did it get into your pajamas?" 猎人想表达的深层结构（“ I, who was in pajamas, shot the lion. ” [ 穿着睡衣的我打死了狮子 ] ）恰好与另一个深层结构（“ I shot the lion, which was in my pajamas ” [ 我打死了穿着睡衣的狮子 ] ）具有同样的外部形式。这就是幽默产生的原因 Deep structure & surface structure (深层结构与表层结构) *Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. 深层结构是由XP规则按照中心语的次范畴化特征而构成的;它包含所有诠释句子意思的必要成分和关系. Deep structure & surface structure (深层结构与表层结构) null*Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written. 表层结构是通过恰当转换而形成的句子的最终句法形式;它是句子的朗读和书面形式.null*Deep structure & surface structure*Deep structure & surface structureConsider one more sentence: Flying planes can be dangerous. It can mean either that if you fly planes, you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous. （开飞机可能是危险的。）／（飞行中的飞机可能是危险的。） The organization of the syntactic component 句法成分结构*The organization of the syntactic component 句法成分结构The XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structureSubcategorization restricts choice of complements 次范畴限制了补语的选择Wh-movement (Wh移位) *Wh-movement (Wh移位) Consider the derivation of the following sentences: What languages can you speak? What can you talk about? These sentences may originate as (deep structure): You can speak what languages. You can talk about what.null*To convert these deep structures into the corresponding surface structures, we need a transformation that will move the wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called Wh Movement. 为了将这些深层结构转换为相应的表层结构, 我们需要一种转换, 这种转换会把Wh 短语从其深层结构的位置移动到句首. 这种转换被称为Wh移位.Wh-movement*Wh-movementWh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence. What language can you speak ? What can you talk about ?Wh-movement*Wh-movementWh-movement---- Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised) CPVP V NP won the gameSNP Infl e PstNP C Whonull*null*null*null*Move α and constraints on transformations (α移位和转换的限制) *Move α and constraints on transformations (α移位和转换的限制) α is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another. 是一个包含性术语， 可以指能够从一个位置移到另一个位置的任何成分。null*1.Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position. 1.倒置可以将助词从的位置移到最近的C位置, 而不能移到较远的C位置. null*[CP [ InflP Geoffrey should know [ CP whether the train might be late ] ] ]. [深层结构] [CP should[ InflP Geoffrey know [ CP whether the train might be late ] ] ]. [表层结构] [CP might[ InflP Geoffrey should know [ CPwhether the train be late ] ] ]. [表层结构]* null*2No element may be removed from a coordinate structure. 2.并列结构的成分不能移出. The little girl will tell us [ a story or a joke ]. What will the little girl tell us [ a story or ].课后练习解答*课后练习解答null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*null*Thank you!*Thank you!