《新编简明英语语言学教程》（戴伟栋 何兆熊编）

Chapter 1 1. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat. Language is arbitrary. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with. Language is symbolic in nature. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare 2. The design/defining features of human language (Charles Hockett) ⑴Arbitrariness No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings ①Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) ②Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy… ⑵Productivity/Creativity Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world. ①A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. ②The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires ⑶Duality ①Lower level----sounds (meaningless) ②Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) ③A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (We make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. ①A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year ②There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries. ⑸Cultural transmission Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). ①Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. ②A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. ③The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. 3. Some important distinctions in linguistics ⑴Prescriptive vs. Descriptive ①Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic) ②Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar) ⑵Synchronic vs. diachronic ①Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) ②Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time) ⑶Speech vs. writing ①Speech ---- primary medium of language ②Writing ---- later developed ⑷Langue vs. parole (F. de Saussure) ①Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. ②Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions. ⑸Competence and performance (Chomsky) ①Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language ②Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. Chapter 2 1. Speech organs: three important areas Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose. 2. The diagram of speech organs Lips Tip of tongue Teeth Blade of tongue Teeth ridge (alveolar) Back of tongue Hard palate Vocal cords Soft palate (velum) Pharyngeal cavity Uvula Nasal cavity 3.Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat. 4. Phone, phoneme, allophone A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt]. A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt]. Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments 5. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 6. Suprasegmental features ⑴Stress 1 Word stress The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word: Verb: im’port; in’crease; re’bel; re’cord … Noun: ’import; ’increase; ’rebel; ’record … Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements: Compound: ’blackbird; ’greenhouse; ’hotdog… Noun phrase: black ‘bird; green ’house; hot ’dog… The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns: Modifier: ’dining-room; ’readingroom; ’sleepingbag… Doer: sleeping ’baby; swimming ’fish; flying ’plane… ②Sentence stress Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences. He is driving my car. My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday. ⑵Tone Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. mā 妈 (level) má 麻 (the second rise) mǎ 马 (the third rise) mà 骂 (the fourth fall) ⑶Intonation When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact statement) rising tone (doubts or question) the fall-rise tone (implied message) For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.” 7. The manner of articulation Stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g]; Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h]; Affricates: [tF], [dV]; Liquids: [l](lateral), [r]; Nasals: [m], [n], [N]; Glides/semivowels: [w], [j]. Chapter 3 1. Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. 1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism ⑴Affix ①Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g. un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc. 2 Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc. ⑵Free morpheme & bound morpheme ①Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc. ②Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc. 2. Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme ①Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc. ②Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g. a) number: tables apples cars b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked c) case: John/John’s 3. Some points about compounds ⑴Noun compounds daybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N) ⑵Verb compounds brainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V) ⑶Adjective compounds maneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) dutyfree (N+adj.) ⑷Preposition compounds into (P+P) throughout (P+P) ⑸①When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black… ②When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket… ③Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house… ④The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. Chapter 4 1. Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech) ⑴Word-level categories ①Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep. ②Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj. ⑵Phrase categories and their structures ①Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called ⑵phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). ②The structure: specifier + head + complement ③Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed ④Specifier---- the words on the left side of the heads ⑤Complement---- the words on the right side of the heads Chapter 5 1. The conceptualist view The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 2. The contextualism ①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized: ②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation ③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation. ④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation. 3. Behaviorism ①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. ②The story of Jack and Jill: Jill Jack S_________r--------s_________R 4. Sense and reference Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. ①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. ②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 5. Major sense relations Synonymy Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline… 2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence… 3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g. collaborator- accomplice… 4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; … 5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound… Antonymy 1) Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short … 2) Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female … 3) Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below … 6. Sense relations between sentences (1) X is synonymous with Y ①X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life. ②X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy. If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false. (2) X is inconsistent with Y ①X: He is single. Y: He has a wife. ②X: This is my first visit to Beijing .Y: I have been to Beijing twice. If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true. (3) X entails Y ①X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond. ②X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China. Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y. If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false. (4) X presupposes Y ①X: His bike needs repairing. Y: He has a bike. ②Paul has given up smoking. Paul once smoked. If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true. (5) X is a contradiction *My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off. (6) X is semantically anomalous *The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple. 7. Analysis of meaning ⑴Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example, Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE] Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE] ⑵Predication analysis 1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g. “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same. 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g. *Green clouds are sleeping furiously. *Sincerity shook hands with the black apple. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions. 3) Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech). 4) Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. ①An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence. ②A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 5) According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types: ①One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run … ②Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat… ③Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call … ④No-place predication: It is hot. Tom smokes. ( TOM (SMOKE) The tree grows well. ( TREE (GROW) The kids like apples. (KIDS (LIKE) APPLE I sent him a letter. (I (SEND) HIM LETTER Chapter 6 1. Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.…. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. 2. Speech act theory Speech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?” ⑴Austin’s new model of speech acts According to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. ①The locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); ②The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking). ③The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z. Ⅰ.For example, “It is cold in here.” ①Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here; ②Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window; ③Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request. Ⅱ.Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.” Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say. Ⅲ.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple: ----(the telephone rings) ----H: That’ the phone. (1) ----W: I’m in the bathroom. (2) ----H: Okay. (3) Ⅳ.This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts: ①  Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone. ②  A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead. ③ Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I’ll answer it.” ⑵Searle’s classif