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管理学英文版1. Communication · The transfer and understanding of meaning. · Transfer means the message was received in a form that can be interpreted by the receiver. · Understanding the message is not the same as the receiver agreeing with the message. · Interpersona...

管理学英文版
1. Communication · The transfer and understanding of meaning. · Transfer means the message was received in a form that can be interpreted by the receiver. · Understanding the message is not the same as the receiver agreeing with the message. · Interpersonal Communication · Communication between two or more people · Organizational Communication · All the patterns, network, and systems of communications within an organization 2. Functions of Communication · Control · Formal and informal communications act to control individuals’ behaviors in organizations. · Motivation · Communications clarify for employees what is to done, how well they have done it, and what can be done to improve performance · Emotional Expression · Social interaction in the form of work group communications provides a way for employees to express themselves. · Information · Individuals and work groups need information to make decisions or to do their work. 3. Interpersonal Communication · Message · Source: sender’s intended meaning · Encoding · The message converted to symbolic form · Channel · The medium through which the message travels · Decoding · The receiver’s retranslation of the message · Noise · Disturbances that interfere with communications 4. Distortions in Communications · Message Encoding · The effect of the skills, attitudes, and knowledge of the sender on the process of encoding the message · The social-cultural system of the sender · The Message · Symbols used to convey the message’s meaning · The content of the message itself · The choice of message format · Noise interfering with the message · The Channel · The sender’s choice of the appropriate channel or multiple channels for conveying the message · Receiver · The effect of skills, attitudes, and knowledge of the receiver on the process of decoding the message · The social-cultural system of the receiver · Feedback Loop · Communication channel distortions affecting the return message from receiver to sender 5. Nonverbal Communication · Communication that is transmitted without words. · Sounds with specific meanings or warnings · Images that control or encourage behaviors · Situational behaviors that convey meanings · Clothing and physical surroundings that imply status · Body language: gestures, facial expressions, and other body movements that convey meaning. · Verbal intonation: emphasis that a speaker gives to certain words or phrases that conveys meaning. 6. Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication · Filtering · The deliberate manipulation of information to make it appear more favorable to the receiver. · upward communication is condensed by senders to avoid information overload by top-level receivers · extent of filtering affected by: · the number of vertical levels in the organization · culture of the organization · Selective Perception · what people see and hear influenced by their attitudes, background, and experience · Emotions · Disregarding rational and objective thinking processes and substituting emotional judgments when interpreting messages. · extreme emotions likely to hinder effective communication · Information Overload · Being confronted with a quantity of information that exceeds an individual’s capacity to process it. · Defensiveness · When threatened, reacting in a way that reduces the ability to achieve mutual understanding. · Language · The different meanings of and specialized ways (jargon) in which senders use words can cause receivers to misinterpret their messages. · National Culture · Culture influences the form, formality, openness, patterns and use of information in communications 7. Overcoming the Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communications · Use Feedback - ask a set of questions about a message to determine whether it was understood as intended · ask receivers to restate the message in their own words · Simplify Language - tailor the language to the audience for whom the message is intended · jargon can facilitate understanding when used in appropriate groups · Listen Actively - listen for full meaning · restrain premature judgments or interpretations · enhanced by developing empathy with sender · Constrain Emotions - emotions severely cloud and distort the transference of meaning · refrain from communicating until one regains her/his composure · Watch Nonverbal Cues - actions should be aligned with words · nonverbal message should reinforce verbal message 8. Types of Organizational Communication · Formal Communication · Communication that follows the official chain of command or is part of the communication required to do one’s job. · Takes place within prescribed organizational work arrangements · Informal Communication · Communication that is not defined by the organization’s hierarchy. · Permits employees to satisfy their need for social interaction. · Can improve an organization’s performance by creating faster and more effective channels of communication 9. Direction of Communication Flow · Downward · Communications that flow from managers to employees to inform, direct, coordinate, and evaluate employees. · Used to inform, direct, coordinate, and evaluate employees · Upward · Communications that flow from employees up to managers to keep them aware of employee needs and how things can be improved to create a climate of trust and respect. · keeps managers aware of employees’ feelings · source for ideas on improving operations · amount of upward communication affected by the culture of the organization · trust and empowerment increase upward flow · mechanistic and authoritarian environment decrease upward flow · Lateral (Horizontal) Communication · Communication that takes place among employees on the same level in the organization to save time and facilitate coordination. · Diagonal Communication · Communication that cuts across both work areas and organizational levels in the interest of efficiency and speed. · benefits efficiency and speed · e-mail facilitates diagonal communication 10. Types of Communication Networks · Chain Network · Communication flows according to the formal chain of command, both upward and downward. · Wheel Network · All communication flows in and out through the group leader (hub) to others in the group. · All-Channel Network · Communications flow freely among all members of the work team. 11. The Grapevine · An informal organizational communication network that is active in almost every organization. · Provides a channel for issues not suitable for formal communication channels. · The impact of information passed along the grapevine can be countered by open and honest communication with employees. · important source of information · identifies issues that employees consider important and anxiety producing · can use the grapevine to disseminate important information · grapevine cannot be abolished · rumors can never be eliminated entirely 12. How Technology Affects Managerial Communication · information technology has changed organizational communication · disseminates more complete information · provides more opportunities for collaboration · employees are fully accessible · Networked Computer Systems - linking computers through compatible hardware and software · e-mail - instantaneous transmission of written messages · instant messaging (IM) - interactive real-time communication · requires groups to be logged on the computer network at the same time · leaves network open to security breaches · IM software is currently incompatible with important business applications software · voice-mail - digitizes a spoken message · transmits message over the network · stores the message for later retrieval · Fax - allows transmission of documents containing both text and graphics over ordinary telephone lines · Electronic data interchange (EDI) - permits the exchange of standard business transaction documents · Teleconferencing - permits simultaneous conferral using telephone or e-mail group communications software · videoconferencing - participants can see each other · Intranet - Internet technology that links organizational employees · Extranet - Internet technology that links an organization with customers and suppliers · Internet-based voice communication - allows users to talk with each other · Wireless Capabilities - depends on signals sent through space without any physical connection · based on microwave signals, satellites, radio waves, or infrared light rays · communications among organizational members are no longer constrained by geography or time · psychological drawback - personal costs associated with being constantly accessible 13. Motivation · The processes that account for an individual’s willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need. · Effort: a measure of intensity or drive. · Direction: toward organizational goals · Need: personalized reason to exert effort · Motivation works best when individual needs are compatible with organizational goals. · Need · An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive. · An unsatisfied need creates tension which is reduced by an individual’s efforts to satisfy the need. · Early Theories of Motivation · Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs · Macgregor’s Theories X and Y · Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory 14. Early Theories of Motivation · Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory · Needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to higher-order needs. · Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they can satisfy higher order needs. · Satisfied needs will no longer motivate. · Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level that person is on the hierarchy. · Hierarchy of needs · Lower-order (external): physiological, safety · Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-actualization · McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y · Theory X · Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision. · Theory Y · Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire responsibility, and like to work. · Motivation is maximized by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations. · Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory · Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors. · Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that create job dissatisfaction. · Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction. · Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance. · The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction. 15. Motivation and Needs · Three-Needs Theory · There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work. · Need for achievement (nAch) · The drive to excel and succeed · Need for power (nPow) · The need to influence the behavior of others · Need of affiliation (nAff) · The desire for interpersonal relationships · Goal-Setting Theory · Proposes that setting goals that are accepted, specific, and challenging yet achievable will result in higher performance than having no or easy goals. · Benefits of Participation in Goal-Setting · Increases the acceptance of goals. · Fosters commitment to difficult, public goals. · Provides for self-feedback (internal locus of control) that guides behavior and motivates performance (self-efficacy). · Reinforcement Theory · Assumes that a desired behavior is a function of its consequences, is externally caused, and if reinforced, is likely to be repeated. · Positive reinforcement is preferred for its long-term effects on performance · Ignoring undesired behavior is better than punishment which may create additional dysfunctional behaviors. 16. Designing Motivating Jobs · Job Design · The way into which tasks can be combined to form complete jobs. · Factors influencing job design: · Changing organizational environment/structure · The organization’s technology · Employees’ skill, abilities, and preferences · Job enlargement · Increasing the scope (number of tasks) in a job. · Job enrichment · Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a job. · Job Characteristics Model (JCM) · A conceptual framework for designing motivating jobs that create meaningful work experiences that satisfy employees’ growth needs. · Five primary job characteristics: · Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed? · Task identity: does the job produce a complete work? · Task significance: how important is the job? · Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder have? · Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing? · Suggestions for Using the JCM · Combine tasks (job enlargement) to create more meaningful work. · Create natural work units to make employees’ work important and whole. · Establish external and internal client relationships to provide feedback. · Expand jobs vertically (job enrichment) by giving employees more autonomy. · Open feedback channels to let employees know how well they are doing. 17. Motivation and Perception · Equity Theory · Proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put in (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others. · If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity (fairness) exists. · If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists and the person feels under- or over-rewarded. · When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do something to rebalance the ratios (seek justice). · Employee responses to perceived inequities: · Distort own or others’ ratios. · Induce others to change their own inputs or outcomes. · Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or outcomes (seek greater rewards). · Choose a different comparison (referent) other (person, systems, or self). · Quit their job. · Employees are concerned with both the absolute and relative nature of organizational rewards. · Distributive justice · The perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals (i.e., who received what). · Influences an employee’s satisfaction. · The perceived fairness of the process use to determine the distribution of rewards (i.e., how who received what). · Affects an employee’s organizational commitment. 18. Motivation, Perception, and Behavior · Expectancy Theory · States that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. · Key to the theory is understanding and managing employee goals and the linkages among and between effort, performance and rewards. · Effort: employee abilities and training/development · Performance: valid appraisal systems · Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs · Expectancy Relationships · Expectancy (effort-performance linkage) · The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will result in a certain level of performance. · Instrumentality · The perception that a particular level of performance will result in the attaining a desired outcome (reward). · Valence · The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward (outcome) to the individual. &.From Theory to Practice: Guidelines for Motivating Employees · Recognize individual differences · Match people to jobs · Use goals · Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable · Individualize rewards · Link rewards to performance · Check the system for equity · Use recognition · Don’t ignore money 19. Managers versus Leaders · Managers · Are appointed to their position. · Can influence people only to the extent of the formal authority of their position. · Do not necessarily have the skills and capabilities to be leaders. · Leaders · Are appointed or emerge from within a work group. · Can influence other people and have managerial authority. · Do not necessarily have the skills and capabilities to be managers. · Leadership is the process of influencing a group toward the achievement of goals. 20. Early Leadership Theories · Trait Theories (1920s-30s) · Research focused on identifying personal characteristics that differentiated leaders from nonleaders was unsuccessful. · Later research on the leadership process identified seven traits associated with successful leadership: · Drive, the desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, job-relevant knowledge, and extraversion. · Behavioral Theories · University of Iowa Studies (Kurt Lewin) · Identified three leadership styles: · Autocratic style: centralized authority, low participation · Democratic style: involvement, high participation, feedback · Laissez faire style: hands-off management · Research findings: mixed results · No specific style was consistently better for producing better performance · Employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader than an autocratic leader. · Ohio State University Studies · Identified two dimensions of leader behavior · Initiating structure: the role of the leader in defining his or her role and the roles of group members · Consideration: the leader’s mutual trust and respect for group members’ ideas and feelings. · Research findings: mixed results · High-high leaders generally, but not always, achieved high group task performance and satisfaction. · Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly influence leadership effectiveness. · University of Michigan Studies · Identified two dimensions of leader behavior · Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships · Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment · Research findings: · Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly associated with high group productivity and high job satisfaction. & The Managerial Grid · Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions: · Concern for people · Concern for production · Places managerial styles in five categories: · Impoverished management · Task management · Middle-of-the-road management · Country club management · Team management · The Fiedler Model · Proposes that effective group performance depends upon the proper match between the leader’s style of interacting with followers and the degree to which the situation allows the leader to control and influence. · Assumptions: · A certain leadership style should be most effective in different types of situations. · Leaders do not readily change leadership styles. · Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation to make it favorable to the leader is required. · Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire · Determines leadership style by measuring responses to 18 pairs of contrasting adjectives. · High score: a relationship-oriented leadership style · Low score: a task-oriented leadership style · Situational factors in matching leader to the situation: · Leader-member relations · Task structure · Position power · Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) · Argues that successful leadership is achieved by selecting the right leadership style which is contingent on the level of the followers’ readiness. · Acceptance: leadership effectiveness depends on whether followers accept or reject a leader. · Readiness: the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task. · Leaders must relinquish control over and contact with followers as they become more competent. · Creates four specific leadership styles incorporating Fiedler’s two leadership dimensions: · Telling: high task-low relationship leadership · Selling: high task-high relationship leadership · Participating: low task-high relationship leaders
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