首页 Osprey [Men at Arms 093] The.Roman.Army.from.Hadrain.to.Constantine

Osprey [Men at Arms 093] The.Roman.Army.from.Hadrain.to.Constantine

Osprey [Men at Arms 093] The.Roman.Army.from.Hadrain.to.Constantine The Roman Army from Hadrian to Consta ine first published in Gre.1t Britain in 1979 b) Osprcy I'ubli~hing. [llIls Coun. Chapel Way, Bode)'. Olo;ford OX2 9U'. lniled Kingdom. bnail: 1I1fo(a osprc) publishing.com o Ig79 tem, or tTansminoo in any fonn or by ...

The Roman Army from Hadrian to Consta ine first published in Gre.1t Britain in 1979 b) Osprcy I'ubli~hing. [llIls Coun. Chapel Way, Bode)'. Olo;ford OX2 9U'. lniled Kingdom. bnail: 1I1fo(a osprc) publishing.com o Ig79 tem, or tTansminoo in any fonn or by an) m~ans, dooTOnic, electrical. chemical. mechanical, oplicaL phOlocop)'in~, m:ordin"l: or othcm ise. without the prior pcnniss.ion of the copyright owner. Enquiries ~hould be addrf''>M''d to the Publishers. ISBN 0 85045 333 lo; fo-tlmst'l in Great Britain Printed III China through World Prim Ltd. FOR A CATALOGLf. o~ ALl. BOOKS I'L'BUSIU:D 8\ 0st"1U.\ MILlTAR\ AND AnATIO, PU:ASf.: CO:-'TACT: The Marketing Manager, Ospre) DiTl"Ct L K. PO BOlo; 140, Wellingborough, Northants, NN8 "ZA. United Kingdom. Email: inlo@'osprc)dirccl.co.uk ') he \I,trkcting \IdlMger. Osprc) Direct LSA. cJo \lolOrbooks International, 1'0 Box I. Osceola. WI 51020-0001. l:SA. Email: info@.osprc~dire<:tusa.com w\', \', .osprerpubl ish ing.com SOURCES II. R Robinson: Thl .lrmour of lmpmal Roml 1975 G Webster; TIlt Roman lmJNrwl.l~, 1969 P Connolly: Tht Roman Army 1975 B, Dobson and D.J Brttze: Tht Building ojHadnan'sll'all '972 H R Robinson: Whol lht SolditTJ wart on Hadrion's Wall 1976, J. f\ugusta: P"hiJlori( .1Ian 1960) H. Klurnbach; /{i)mischl Htlmt aus Xitdtrgtrmanltn ('974) H. Bullinger: SpO/antllt Giirltlhmhliigt- Dissertalionel Archaeologicae Gandcnses Brugge 1969 P Dixon: Barbanan EnoJw 1976 R P Wright and E.J Phillips: Roman lnunbtd and SculPluud Slants In Carlislt .\lusrum 1975 B. Dobson and D.J. Breeze: TIll Army of Jladrian's Wall (1972) Cllitrlcs Daniels: MI/hras and His Ttmplts on Ihl IVaI! (1967) Robin Birley: Hadrian's Wall-Ctn/ral Stelar (1972) A. R Birle)·: Hadrian's Wall 1966' D-J Smilh: Had,ia,,'s Wall in .\frHitls IgGg E. ~lartin Burgess: Tht Jfail·maXtr·s Ttehmqut the AnliquaricsJournal \'olume XXXIII nleRomaJ1Armyfrom Hadrian to Constalltine Chronology A.D. [lr Marcus Ulpius Trajanus dies at the age ofsixly-fivc and is succeeded by his nephew, Publius Adius Hadrianus. Hadrianus's reign saw extensive build- ing works, both civil and military, including the construction of the great defence work in northern Britain known as Hadrian's Wall. A.D. 138: Hadrianus dies after a stable reign aged sixty-two. Succession passes to Titus Adius AUloninus, who was adopted by Hadrianus as his heir after the death in 138 of Lucius Adius Verus Caesar, his primary adopLion. Antoninus, known as Antomnus Pius, pursues a policy of consolidation, with the notable excep- tion of the Lowlands of Scotland, where the fromier is advanced to a line between the River Clyde and the Firth of Forth, known as the Antonine Wali. A.D. 161: Marcus Aurelius, nephew and adopted heir ofAntoninus Pius succeeds. His reign heralds the end of a long, happy period in the history of Rome. His armies depleted by an extensive plague, he is obliged to fight against barbarian incursions for most of his years as Emperor. He dies at the age of sixty-nine, having almost reconsolidated the frontiers. A.D. 180: Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus becomes Emperor on the death of his father, Marcus Aurelius. Owing to the profligate nature ofllis mother, Faustina the Younger, it is possible that Commodus was not Aurelius's son; he proves to be a dissolute and evil individual. He is finally assassinated by strangulation in 192. A.D. 193: Publius Hclvius Pertinax is made Emperor against his will and is murdered shortly thereafter by the Praetorian Guard. Marcus Didius Salvius Julianus purchases the throne at an auction, but is killed almost immediately. Lucius Septimius Severus emerges as victor from the ensuing civil war and assumes complete control. North British tribes take advan- tage of the disorder caused by the civil war -and severely damage Hadrian's Wall. Extensive repairs to that defence work are carried out by Severus. A.D. 208: Britain is divided into two Provinces. A.D. 211: Severus dies at the age ofsixly-five and the succession passes to his two sons: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, nick- named Caracalla after his custom of wearing a long Gallic coal, and Lucius Septimius Geta. A.D. 212: Roman citizenship is granted to all freeborn subjects within the Empire. Caracalla becomes dissatisfied with joint rule and arranges his brothcr's murder along with his supporters. Caracalla then becomes sole Emperor; cruel and treacherous, he is killed five years tatcr at the age of twenty·nine by Marcus Opelius Severus Macrmus. A.D. 217: Macrinus succeeds to the throne and undertakes an unsuccessful campaign against the Parthians. He becomes unpopular with his soldiers and is murdered al the age of fifty-four in 218, after defeat In battle against his successor, Elagabalus. A.D. 218: Yl'arcus Aurelius Antoninus, known as Elagabalus or Hellogabalus, origin- ally named Varius Avitus Bassianus, served as a priest at Emesa in Syria at Ihe age offOUrleen. Upon succession he proves to be a degenerate and is eventually assassinated by Ihe Prae- torian Guard at the age of eighteen. A.D. 222: Elagabalus is succeeded by his cousin Severus Alexander, who rules juslly. Unfortunalely, he is later murdered by soldiers during a revolt in Germany. A..D. 235: Caius Julius Verus Maximinus, Maxirninus I, is made Emperor by the Rhine legions on the murder of Severus Alexander, but is declared a public enemy by the Senate in 238 and is eventually pUI 10 death. A.D. 238: Marcus Antoninus Gordianus IS pro- claimed Emperor in Africa and becomes Gordianus Africanus 1 by the authority of the Senate, bUI commits suicide a \jule over a month laler, having learned of the death of his son and co-ruler Marcus Anlonianus Gordianus, Gordianus Africanus n, at Carthage. Decimus CacliusBalbinus and Marcus Clodius Pupienus !vtaximus are appointed joint Emperors to destroy Maximinus, who remains a threat. Upon the death of Maximinus, bOlh Balbinus and Pupienus are killed by the Praetorian Guard, who hail Marcus Antonius Cordianus, grandson ofGordian us I, as Emperor Gordianus III Pius. A.D. 244: Marcus Julius Philtipus, an officer of the Praetorian Guard, rlolS against Gordianus Pius and the laller is murdered at the age of twenty-one. Phitlipus succeeds as Phillipus I. A.D. 249: The Danube legions revolt against Phillipus and force their commander, Caius Mcssius QUilllUS Trajanus Decius. lO assume the title of Emperor. Decius engages Pbillipus in battle and the latter is killed. A.D. 25': During a campaign in Thrace to throw back an invasion by the Goths, Deeius is killed in baltic at Abrillus and is succeeded by Caius Vibius Tre- bonianus Gallus. A.D. 253: The legions of Pannonia and Moesia mutiny against Gallus under the Governor Marcus Aemilius Aemi- llanus, who is named Emperor by his Iroops. Aemilianus engages the forces of Gallus and defeats them. Gallus is then killed by his own men, despile support from Publius Licinius Valerianus, who was unable to reach Gallus in time to prevent defeat at the hands of Aemilianus. After the death of Gallus, Valerianus and his son Publius Licinius Valerian us Egnatius Gallienus are proclaimed joint Emperors, ruling together until A.D. 260 when, during a border cam· paign, Valerian us is defeated and captured by the Persian, Shapur I, remaining a prisoner until he dies. The defeat of Valerianus may have been largely due to the actions of Marcus Th" m;l"ea.d" at Cawfi"ldli On Hadrian'. W"ll. Fulvius Macrianus, who is nevertheless hailed Emperor by the troops. However, on his way back to ital), he is con- fronted by one of Valerianus's generals, brought to battle and killed, together with his son and collaborator. A.D. 259: ~brcus Cassianus Latinus Postwnus, the Governor of Gaul, declares himself Emperor and continues to rule in Gaul and Britain until 267 when he is killed in battle. A.D. 265: Postumus names Marcus Piavvonius Victorinus as his co-ruler. Victorinus continues to rule alone after the death of Postumus until 270, when he is assassinated. A.D. 268: The reign of Callienus ends with his murder at the age of fifty and he is succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Claudius n, who stems incursions by the Alamanni, who have penetrated into Italy, and by the Goths in Moesia. A.D. 270: Claudius II succumbs to plague. Lucius Domitius Aurelianus succeeds against opposition from Caius Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus, who commits suicide once his cause is lost. Aurelianus forces the Goths to retire back across the River Danube, then turns his auemion to Palmyra in Syria, defeating and capturing its Queen Zenobia. He is also responsible for the building of great defensive walls at Rome, much of which are visible today. A.D. 275: Aurelianus falls vicum to a conspiracy. Marcus Claudius Tacitus is proclaimed Emperor by the Senate, but is slain by troops a few months later. A.D. 276: Marcus Annius Florianus, half- brother of Tacitus, holds power for some weeks, but is killed in baltic by Marcus Aurelius Probus, a good soldier and administrator, who is later put to death during an army mutiny. A.D. 283: Marcus Aurelius Carus is elected Emperor by the army, but is killed shortly thereafter while caQ1paigning against the Persians. His twO sons, Marcus AureHus Carinus and Marcus Aurelius Numerianus reign joimly after their father's death. A.D. 284: ~umerianus dies and Caius Aurelius Valerius Diodetianus is proclaimed Emperor. He carries out many reforms, including an attempt to revive the old state religions, bringing about a severe persecution of the Christian sect. In 286, Diocletianus associates himself with Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxi- mianus in joint rule and both men finally abdicate in 305. A.D. '287: MarcusAurcliusMausaeusCarausius, commander of the Gallic fleet, rebels against Maximianus, takes his marine force to Britain and there declares himself Emperor. A.D. 293: Carausius is murdered by his chief minister of finance Caius Allectus who usurps his position. AI about the same date, Flavius Valerius Constantius lays siege to and takes Boulogne. A.D. 296: Const3nUus invades Britain and retakes lhe Pro\·ince for Rome. Allectus is killed Tile Great /Mil Readers are advised to consult the author's previous book in this series, The Roman Army from Caesar 10 Trajan, for certain basic background information which for reasons of space is not repeated here. but fails and is killed. Constantinus becomes sole Emperor. A.D. 33': Constantinus moves the seat of! mperial Government to the city of Byzantium and renames it Constantinople. *** With the sun flashing on her oal'blades, a Roman trireme pulled steadily into one of the Channel ports. The waiting soldiers and civilians saw the pennant fluttering from the mast and gave up a great welcoming shout: 'Imperator. Imj)erafor!'- for aboard the vessel was the man who was to beget one of the most impressive and enduring in the fighting. The fortress ofEboracum (York) and Hadrian's Wall are rebuilt. A.D. 305: Dioc1etianus and Maximianus abdicate and are succeeded by Constantius, Constantius I Chlorus. Caius Galerius .Valerius Maximianus, created Caesar by Diocletianus, takes the title Augustus and names Flavius Valerius Severus as Caesar. A.D. 306: On the death of Constantius Chlorus, Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constan- tinus is proclaimed Emperor at Eboracum. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius, son of Max.imianus, opposes Galcrius and Severus with the aid of the Praetorian Guard. He eliminates Severus and causes Galerius to flee from Italy. A.D. 308: Constantin us takes the title of Augustus in opposition to Maxentius. 1\.0. 312: Constantinus inflicts defeat on Maxen- tius at the battle of Pons Milvius, and Maxenlius perishes in the River Tiber during the ensuing rout. Constantinus shares power with Galerius Valerius Maximinus-Maximinus II Daza- and Publius Flavius Galerius Valerius Licianus-Licinus I. Licinius elimi- nates Maximinus. A.D. 313: Constantinus and Licinius ~ue the Edict of Milan, which recognizes Christianity as the official religion. A.D. 324: Licinius moves against Constantinus, 6 ".< Haltwhistle West Section • Brampton • Carlisle Major Roman forts DefenSive wall Modern towns • •• ~~""', ,.,~~,,,\.r~~._~.;.... , ..... ", ...$' , \ 0" " ",~" .j. .." \,;~\,-.. ' '1'-'..} .-,' ~. ".", - ~.; .'.,. ·...·· .. 1'·· 'si"-.. '.'"r. ''i~ " .'" ' )~. ;'. !~\:~',\',~ ~\. ".,,-', ~~:s;"'\~,,';..,!'i}., . • , ...~, "'. r'~ , t: - #""'" ,"~ '~'\" ..;, ' '." ".,": ~.~~.. '!t'". '. .~. .'. '\" ....~, " .•f'. ;if..... ." ',. . ~. \'_~, 't;,' llIl:l' .~, 'II:t",". • " _,\~ 't' ~ ,; ""~~.,'. '( : \'}ffi' .~~~>j" l," '"" 'f:'" ~.'" ." :.. ', ~"Jl.. . ':'i4.... ~ ,4, J\\, ~ "1 ,- ~>, 't.~ ~'.~~' ":''<'- • '."~' ~~~'1't:. ~iI ,1 _ "t~l.,lo ..~:L .,. ~ \. ~t,J·'·'~.~I .~' lI'-:"~ ill r.. r ."., ."1iK'~'''' __' n ~"" "..•......." '. ~. :'V~. .:" '"~..''''''' -C'., .ill \ .,'" . -- " ..r::..~,.. . ' . .l:.'.~"~.: 6"..; ~.., .""JiHjI.Ii . • :.>,'01.," • ,.' .,:.."1." . '-'. , . ~ ....,' ,.~ , .". ~ ,r.,-.~. ~ ..-~-.. , .. ~:" A fnlgmem of the 5truClure of Hadrian'. Wall at Hare Hill; the cOr.. is original, and che facing ato"" ar", re.lorltd. Roman military works to survive into modern times: Publius Aelius Hadrianus, the Emperor Hadrian. This year of 122 was the first time a Roman Emperor had set foot in the Province of Britannia since the invasion in A.D. 43. Hadrian, an intelli- gent and energetic ruler, had come to inspect the Province in person; and apparently its security in particular. No doubt he had read many reports concerning the damage caused by marauding tribesmen crossing from what is now Scotland into thc Province, pillaging, destroying and encourag. ing others within the Roman pale to resist the occupation, And so Hadrian decided-in the words of his biographer-'to build a wall to separate the Romans from the Barbarians', While it has been considered that the Wall was built partly, or even largely, to give legal definition to the extent of Roman rule, its major function was, wilhout any doubt, to secure the northern frontier against the Scottish tribes. Incidentally, it did produce the effect of a powerful chain of military installations which could readily be supplied from the sea in the event oran uprising to the south. There remains some dispute as to the exact year in which the building of the WaN commenced; some believe it to have been begun in A.D. 120, and subsequcntly delayed by disturbances in the Province which necessitated some changes in the original plans. Therefore the following description of lhe building of the Wall is pardy open to question. The Building of the Wall The initial concept was the construction of a stone barrier, ten Roman feet* in thickness, from Newcastle in the cast to the River Irthing. The remaining distance from the I rthing to the ., 'pc~' <:'.h'lIn 3 2 Newcastle upon Tyll{' NOatH ". I Wallsend 5 Chesters 8 Birdoswald 2 Benwell 6 Housesteads 9 Stanwix 3 Heddon-on- the-Wall 7 ChesterhollTl 10 Bowness 4 Corbridge depot The Boor of a large granary at the I>upply baH of Corslopitum (Corbridge) just soulb of (he wall. Finds at Corbridge have been of great importance (0 oW' IlI>der~ atanding of Roman armour. Solway Firth on the west coast was to be fortified with a turf-and-timber rampart, twenty feet wide at the base. The fortifications were furnished with mile- castles at regular intervals of one Roman mile, with twO lUrrets in between at distances of one- third of a mile. On the north side of the Wall, a ditch approximately twenty~seven fcet wide and ten feet deep gave greater strength to the barrier, except where the Wall ran along the top of precipitous natural features which made such excavat.ion superfluous. The sequence of construction appears to have been first to site and build the milecastles and tutrets, and then to link thcm together witll a curtain wall. The fact that some ofthcse structures were clearly intended to receive a curtain wall ten feet in thickness (and indeed foundations for walling of that dimension were laid) but in the event were completed with a narrowcr super- Structure, shows that an increase in speed of construction became necessary. One explanation may be found in that tlte original plan of the defence works was altered to include a number of forts along the line of the Wall, requiring tlte demolition of already complcted fortifications. The belated inclusion of forts 011 thc Wall itself may indicate thai thc Romans had encountered opposition from the Scottish tribes during the initial stages of construction, and therefore an immediate and permanent milital)' presence was found to be expedient, instead of summoning at need troops stationed in the forts along the Stanegate road as much as a mile to the south. Conceivably both these factors could have in~ f1ucnced the decision to lighten the 'o\'all structure, for the building of unforeseen forts of quitc large dimensions would havc badly disrupted the programme at first laid down. The building of a turf-and-timber rampart along the western sector of the frontier, supports the theory that the rapid establishment of an impenelrable line was of importance. It is probable that the use of lurf and limber- semi-permanent materials al best was also caused by lhe absence of suitable building materials in the immediate area, there being no limestone source west of the Red Rock Fault running north to south near present-day Bramp- ton. The turf rampart was, however, later replaced with stone when time permitlcd- certainly before the end of the 2nd century. The forts were placed. where practicable, astride the Wall, wilh three double gatL'S to the north of the Wall line. Although there is dis- agreement aboutthc precise purpose oftbe gates, they very clearly presented a considerable de~ tcrrent to any would-be atlacker, who could easily find his means of retreat cut off by cavalry making rapid sorties from the fOrls. Behind the Wall and close to it ran the 'Mililary Way', a road some twenty feet wide, and to the south of that, at varying distances, lay the Valium, a Oat-bottomed ditch averaging twenty feet wide at the tOp, ten feet in depth and eight feet wide at the bottom. The spoil from the excavation was deposited on either side of the ditch, about lhirlY feel back from the edges, providing cominuous ridges about six feet in height; acces.~ to the \Vall was by gated causeways. The purpose of the Valium appears to have been to mark the limil of a strict military zone behind the Wall, presumably so that there should be no impediment to rapid troop movement on the Milital)' Way. Though this was the primary funclion of the Valium, it would have presenled a considerable obSlacle to any hostile force approaching from the soutb, and could have been made even more defensible relatively easily ill case of need. Skilled construclion work was carri(.'d out by surveyors, engineers and masons drawn from three legions: Legio II Augusla, the newly- arrived Legio VI \'ictrix Pia Fidclis and Leg-io XX Valeria Victrix (XXth Valeria bad been awarded the title 'ViClrix' for the legion's pan in putting down the disastrous Boudiccan revolt in A.D. 61). As each century completed ils allOlted section of lhe work, an inscribed stone was set into the \Vall orotherstructure to record lhe fact. A considerable number of these building stOnes have survived and Illay be seen preserv

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