English literature V-18世纪英国文学

nullEnglish Literature in 18th centuryEnglish Literature in 18th centuryBritish EmpireBritish Empire During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands, began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England the dominant colonial power in North America and India.nullBritish EmpireBritish Empire At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world‘s population at the time. The empire covered more than 33,700,000 km2, almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. At the peak of its power, the phrase "the empire on which the sun never sets" was often used to describe the British Empire.British EmpireBritish EmpirenullMongol EmpireMongol EmpirenullnullnullnullnullEurasia on the eve of the Mongol invasions, c. 1200.Eurasia on the eve of the Mongol invasions, c. 1200.Historical Background Historical Background With the Glorious Revolution, England became a constitutional monarchy and, the state power passed from the king gradually to the Parliament and the cabinet ministers. With it, the capitalist system was once sand for all established in England. Abroad, a vast expansion of British colonies in Asia, Africa and North America, and a continuous increase of colonial wealth and trade provided England with a market for which the small-scale, manual production methods of the home industry were hardly adequate. Historical Background Historical Background Besides, there were large-scale, and long-drawn-out wars by professional armies and the station of large regiments in the colonies. All these created not only a great demand for large quantities of manufactured goods but also standardized goods made in Britain. This was the basic cause of the Industrial Revolution, of the invention of textile machines and other kinds of machinery.Historical Background Historical Background At home in the country, Acts of Enclosure were putting more lands into the hands of fewer privileged rich landowners and forcing thousands of small farmers and tenants off their land to become wage earners in industrial towns. As a result, there appeared a market of free labor anal free capital, thus providing the essential conditions for the rising of Industrial Revolution. So, towards the middle of the 19th century, England had become the first powerful capitalist country, the work-shop of the world, flooding the markets both at home and abroad with its manufactured goods.Historical Background Historical Background These changes, both political and social, enriched the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy who ruled the country, but brought great miseries to the majority of the people in England, Scotland, and Ireland; and in the colonies. Popular uprisings again and again hit Ireland; in Scotland people were threatening of independence from the British government; and the American people started their War of Independence in 1776 and finally broke away from the British government.Historical Background Historical Background As England was growing into a powerful industrial country, it also witnessed the rapid growth of the bourgeois middle class at home. These- were mainly city people: traders, merchants, manufacturers, and other adventurers such as slave-traders and colonists. They became the backbone of the fast developing England. As the Industrial Revolution went on in its full swing, more and more people joined the rank of the middle class or the propertied class. It was a revolutionary class then and quite different from the feudal-aristocratic class. Historical Background Historical Background They were the people who had known poverty and hardship, and most of them had obtained their present social status through much hard work. Morally, they stressed the virtues of self-discipline, thrift and hard work. For them, to work, to economize and to accumulate wealth constituted the whole meaning of their life. Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 1. Enlightenment The Enlightenment was a progressive intellectual movement throughout Western Europe in the 18th century. It was an expression of struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism. The enlighteners fought against class inequality, stagnation, prejudices and other survivals of feudalism. They thought the chief means for bettering the society was "enlightenment" or "education" for the people. The English enlighteners were bourgeois democratic thinkers. Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 1. Enlightenment They were different from those of France, for they appeared not before but after the bourgeois revolution. They set no revolutionary aim before them and what they strove for was to carry the revolution through to an end. Most of the English writers were enlighteners. They fell into two groups-the moderate group and the radical group. The more moderate enlighteners supported the principles of the existing social order and considered that partial reforms would be sufficient. Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 1. Enlightenment In this group may be included chiefly Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, Daniel Defoe and Samuel Richardson. The more radical enlighteners struggled for more resolute democratization in the management of the government, and defended the interests of the exploited masses, the peasants and the working people in the cities. The representative writers of this group are Jonathan Swift, Henry Fielding, Tobias George Smollett, Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan.Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 1. Enlightenment Most of the writers of the moderate group acknowledged that the existing social system of the day was essentially fair and just. On this basis they tried to work out a standard of moral conduct, which could be more suitable to the existing social conditions while the writers of the radical group stressed the discrepancy between what they called "the proper, moral standards" and the bourgeois-aristocratic society of their age.Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 2. Cultural Progress Inspired by the spirit of the Enlightenment, people were encouraged to cultivate a sound sense of rationality and a witty intellectuality. More schools were set up throughout the country so as to provide a better education for the masses. As more people had now more money and more leisure time, and became better educated, a widely distributed reading public grew, especially among the well-to-do middle class women. Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 2. Cultural Progress This demanded more reading materials which would be of interest and satisfy their need for a rational and moral life. Outside regular schools, literary works of all kinds played a decisive role in popularization of general education. The Copyright Act of 1709 made, for the first time in English history, literary creation an honorable and independent profession. Writers like Alexander Pope were able to live a life independent of those rich aristocratic patrons. Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 2. Cultural Progress Along with the economic independence, the eighteenth-century writers enjoyed greater freedom in their creative activities and were now able to devote themselves to whatever interested them and to give utterance to whatever they thought right or proper. For the first time too, the literary tendency of the age was moving-away from the conventional romance stories about the life of the rich and noble people of the aristocratic class and turning to works that would give accounts of the common life of the ordinary folk. Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 2. Cultural Progress The desire to retain the perfection of the Greek and Roman classicists and the freedom now granted them cultivated in the writers a sense of duty for a better and healthier life of the nation. Besides the popular forms of poetry, novel and drama, the period also saw the appearance of such popular press as pamphlets and newspapers and periodicals which served as the party mouth-organs as well as an ideal medium for public education. Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 2. Cultural Progress Editing and pamphleteering were a common practice with literary men of the time. And there was also the flourish of coffee houses and all kinds of social clubs, (about 2000 in London.) which greatly helped the cultivation and promotion of the new English culture. However, in the later part of the century, people began to feel discontented with the rigidity of rationality.Historical Background Historical Background Ⅱ. Cultural Background 2. Cultural Progress A demand for a release of one's spontaneous feeling, a relaxation from the cold and rigid logic of rationality and an escape from, the inhuman Industrial Revolution gradually took shape in the form of sentimental and pre-romantic novel and poetry.Whigs and ToriesWhigs and Tories The Glorious Revolution and the Bill of Rights were a good start. As the Bill mainly said: no royal interference with the law. no taxation by Royal Prerogative. no standing army may be maintained during a time of peace without the consent of parliament. no royal interference in the freedom of the people to have arms for their own defense. the Bill of Rights （1689年权利法令）the Bill of Rights （1689年权利法令）no royal interference of parliament. Roman Catholics shall not inherit the throne of England. This led, ultimately, to the establishment of constitutional monarchy. The King George I wasn’t all that interested in English politics and he went to hometown for as long as he could, then Parliament could govern the country without him. So they did. Whigs and ToriesWhigs and Tories No sooner were the people in control of the government than they divided into hostile parties: the liberal Whigs and the conservative Tories. Whigs（辉格党， 19世纪中叶演变为英国自由党）：determined to safeguard popular liberty. Tories（托利党，1833年改称保守党）：would leave as much authority as possible in the royal hands. many Tories secretly wanted to bring the Stuarts back.Whigs and ToriesWhigs and Tories The two main parties were so well balanced that a few votes could overturn a cabinet. So the press became a mighty power in England, and any writer with a talent for argument or satire was almost certain to be hired by party leaders. Most of the great writers of the age such as Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift served either party. Another feature was the rapid development of social life. A large number of public coffee houses and private clubs appeared in London. Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution It occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. It marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation. The advent of the Age of Enlightenment provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge. During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialization developed. This was known as the Romantic movement. Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to "monstrous" machines and factories.Social Situation With the expansion of the empire and the development of industrial revolution, the country became increasingly affluent. A mercantile system（重商主义） came into being to meet the needs of trade and production. People’s life standard were greatly improved. The cultural life had undergone remarkable changes. Newton’s theory. The philosophy of John Locke and the economics by Adam Smith affected people’s thinking of the world. Social SituationJohn Locke John Locke (empiricism) and Adam Smith’ theory caused great impact on the society. Empiricism is a theory of knowledge which states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. Philosophers associated with empiricism include Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke, David Hume, and Leonardo da Vinci.John LockenullAdam Smith is best known for two classic works: The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is cited as the "father of modern economics". Adam Smith EnlightenmentDeism（自然神论）Deism（自然神论） Deism is derived from deus, the Latin word for god. Deism emerged during the scientific revolution of 17th-century Europe and came to exert a powerful influence during the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century —especially in Britain, France, Germany, and in the United States. Deism is a theological position concerning the relationship between "the Creator" and the natural world, is the belief that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a God Deism （自然神论）Deism （自然神论） Deism holds that God does not intervene with the functioning of the natural world in any way, allowing it to run according to the laws of nature. For Deists, human beings can only know God via reason and the observation of nature. Deism is related to naturalism because it credits the formation of life and the universe to a higher power, using only natural processes.nullnullEnglish Enlighteners English Enlighteners Most of the English writers were enlighteners. The more moderate enlighteners includes Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, Daniel Defoe and Samuel Richardson. The more radical enlighteners includes Jonathan Swift, Henry Fielding, Tobias George Smollett, Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan.Three Stages of 18th C. LiteratureThree Stages of 18th C. Literaturenullnullnull1. Neoclassicism1. NeoclassicismnullNeo-classicismNeo-classicism This term mainly applies to the classical tendency which dominated the literature of the early period. It found its artistic models in the classical literature of the ancient Greek and Roman writers, and tried to control literary creation by some fixed laws and rules drawn from their works, for example, rimed couplet instead of blank verse and the three unities of time, place and action，etc. It put the stress on the classical ideals of order, logic, restrained emotion, accuracy, good taste and decorum.Neo-classicismNeo-classicism The English classicists followed these standards in their writings. They tried to make English literature conform to rules and principles established by the great Roman and Greek classical writers. In writing plays they used rimed couplet instead of blank verse. They observed the three unities-the unities of time, place and action. They thought poetry should follow the ancient divisions, falling into lyric, epic, didactic, satiric or dramatic and each group should be guided by some peculiar principles. Prose should be precise, direct and flexible. All the neo-classicists followed these standards in writing. Neo-classicismNeo-classicism These writers wrote to tidy up the capitalist social order for the rising bourgeoisie, while Dryden wrote to please the declining aristocracy during the Restoration period. Their approach was thoroughly professional. Their works, mostly refined and perfect, are conscientious craftsmanship and often highly didactic. Neoclassical poetry reached its stylistic perfection during the period. In the middle decades of the century, Samuel Johnson became the leader of the classical school in English poetry and prose. Neo-classicismNeo-classicismWhat we now call the neoclassical period is the one in English literature between the return of the Stuarts to the English throne in 1660 and the full assertion of Romanticism which came with the publication of Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge in 1798. Classicism Classicism Neo-Classicism made a rapid growth and prevailed for the better part of the 18th century. In early 18th century, writers of the neo-classical school were Addison, Steele and Pope. An attitude to literature or a movement that is guided by admiration of the qualities of formal balance, proportion, decorum（端庄得体）, and restraint（适度） attributed to the major works of ancient Greek and Roman literature (‘the classics’) Difference between 17th and 18th ClassicismDifference between 17th and 18th ClassicismThe basic difference between Dryden and the 18th century enlighteners lies in the fact that the former wrote to please the declining aristocracy during the Restoration period while the latter wrote for the rising bourgeoisie to tidy up the capitalist social order. Chapter 2 Alexander Pope（蒲伯）Chapter 2 Alexander Pope（蒲伯） Alexander Pope (1688-1744) was the most important English poet in the first half of the 18th century. Life Life The boy was precluded from formal education by his Roman Catholicism, Pope was mainly self-educated. A deformity of the spine and other health problems limited his growth and physical activities, leading him to devote himself to reading and writing. At 12, he was able to compose dramatic poems; at 16, he wrote his “Pastorals“(田园诗）; and when he was only 22, his poem ”Essay on Criticism”（批评论） was published, and from then on he was looked up to as a great master of verse in England and in Europe.Alexander Pope (1688-1744)Alexander Pope (1688-1744)Critical Works Essay on Man《人论》 Probably the most important of all Pope’s works, and certainly the best known and most often quoted. Essay on Criticism《论批评》 The Dunciad 《群愚记》Alexander Pope (1688-1744)Alexander Pope (1688-1744)Poetical Works An Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot The Rape of the Lock《劫发记》Works Works In the field of satiric and didactic verse, he was the undisputed master. His influence completely dominated the poetry of his age. An Essay on Criticism（批评论）, written in heroic couplet, consisting of 744 lines and divided into three parts. Pope put forward his aesthetic theories in it. Pope’s Essay on Criticism was a comprehensive study of theories of literary criticism. null双行押韵 格式 pdf格式笔记格式下载页码格式下载公文格式下载简报格式下载 （aa）双行押韵格式（aa） 它是英语 诗歌 诗歌26首倪柝声诗歌智慧书红色经典诗歌朗诵稿诗歌鉴赏术语怎样读懂古代诗歌 最基本押韵格式，主要用于双行诗节（couplet）。双行诗节指两行押韵或不押韵的诗行。双行诗节可以单独成为诗节，也可以存在于其他诗节中。七行体（又称皇韵体，rhyme royal）诗和八行体（octa rima）诗用双行诗节结束，莎士比亚的十四行诗也是用双行诗节结束全诗。 双行押韵格式（aa）双行押韵格式（aa） 双行诗节分开放双行诗节（open couplet）和完整双行诗节(closed couplet)两种。完整双行诗节如果是用抑扬格五韵步写成，就被称为英雄双行诗节(heroic couplet)。即英雄双韵体。 开放双行诗节指的是跨行的双行诗体，即两行诗有共同的语法和逻辑结构，但第二行的意思需要继续下去，直到在后面的诗行中结束。如济慈叙述希腊神话中的美少年长诗《恩弟米安》开始几行： 双行押韵格式（aa）双行押韵格式（aa）A thing of beauty is a joy for ever: Its love