玫瑰战争对英国社会发展的意义

玫瑰战争对英国社会发展的意义 The Impact of the Wars of the Roses on English Social Development Abstract: The Wars of the Roses were a series of civil wars fought in medieval England from 1455 to 1485 between House of Lancaster and House of York. There were three periods of sustained conflict: 1455-1461, 1469-1471, and 1483-1487. The name of the Wars of the Roses was based on the badges used by the two sides, the red rose for the Lancastrians and the white rose for the Yorkists. After the war the aristocracy suffered dreadfully, and Tudor dynasty was founded. Based on the historical facts, this paper is to discuss the causes of the Wars of the Roses, the impact of this war on the social development of England and also on the postwar England as a whole. Key Words: The Wars of the Roses; aristocracy; social development 玫瑰战争对英国社会发展的意义 摘 要:玫瑰战争是中世纪英格兰的一系列围绕约克和兰开斯特两大王族的内战。这场战 争分为1455-1461, 1464-1471和1485-1487三个阶段。这场战争得名于两大家族的族徽， 既红色玫瑰的兰开斯特王族和白色玫瑰的约克家族。这场战争结束后，英格兰的贵族受到了 极为严重的削弱，都铎王朝亦从此建立。本文旨在通过对相关历史史实的讨论,试图进一步 探讨玫瑰战争爆发的缘由和这场战争对当时英格兰社会发展的意义以及日后对英格兰造成 的影响。 关键词: 玫瑰战争;贵族统治;社会发展 中国最大的 论文 政研论文下载论文大学下载论文大学下载关于长拳的论文浙大论文封面下载 知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com CONTENTS Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 1. Background and Origins of the Wars of the Roses………………….2 1.1 Background of the Wars of the Roses................................................................. 2 1.1.1 The Antebellum Condition of the England……………………………………….2 1.1.2 House of Lancaster ................................................................................... 2 1.1.3 House of York ............................................................................................. 2 1.2 Origins of the Wars of the Roses ........................................................................ 2 1.2.1 The Historical Aspects .............................................................................. 2 1.2.2 The Political Aspects................................................................................... 3 2. The Course of the Wars of the Roses ................................................. 4 2.1 The Initial Phase of the Wars: 1455-1461………………………………………..4 2.2 The Second Phase of the Wars: 1464-1471………………………………………6 2.3 The Third Phase of the Wars: 1485-1487…………………………………………......12 3. The Impact of the Wars on English Social Development………….13 3.1 The Impact of the Wars on political system…………………………………………………………...13 3.1.1 The Collapse of Aristocracy……………………………………………………………………………..13 3.1.2 The Rise of Class of Squire and Bourgeois…………………………………………………….14 3.1.3 The Kingship of the Tudor Dynasty…………………………………………...............................14 3.2 The Impact of the Wars on Economic System……………………………………………………………..14 3.2.1 The Commercialism…………………………………………………………………………………………...14 3.2.2 The Bud of the Capitalism………………………………………………………………………………...14 3.3 The Impact of the Wars on the Social Ideas…………………………………………….......................15 4. Conclusion……………………………………………………………15 Bibliography………………...…………………………………………..17 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com Introduction In recent years, many researches have been done and published on the Middle Ages of Western Europe, which covered almost every aspect that people could conceive of. There also have been some works on the Wars of the Roses in medieval England, together with its further impact on English society in the past studies. The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) were a series of civil wars fought over the throne of England between adherents of House of Lancaster and House of York. Both houses were branches of the Plantagenet royal house, tracing their descent from King Edward III. The name "Wars of the Roses" was not used during the time of the wars, but had its origins in the badges associated with the two royal houses, the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York. The term itself came into common use only in the nineteenth century, after the publication of Anne of Geierstein by Sir Walter Scott. Scott based the name on a fictional scene in Shakespeare's play Henry VI Part 1, where the opposing sides pick different-colored roses at the Temple Church. The Wars of the Roses consisted of three periods of sustained conflict: 1459-61, 1469-71, and 1483-87. The Wars were fought largely by the landed aristocracy and armies of feudal retainers. Support for each house largely depended upon dynastic marriages with the nobility, feudal titles, and tenures. It is sometimes difficult to follow the shifts of power and allegiance as nobles acquired or lost titles through marriage, confiscation or attainder. The wars caused the collapse of the Plantagenet dynasty and its replacement with the new Tudor. And with the heavy casualties among the nobility coupled with the effects of the Black Death, the wars are thought to have ushered in a period of great social upheaval in feudal England, including a weakening of the feudal power of the nobles and a corresponding strengthening of the merchant classes, and the growth of a strong, centralized monarchy under the Tudors. Nevertheless, it is believed that there are still many issues that may be worth 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com studying because the wars happened during a very colorful period which saw the aristocracy‘s collapse and kingship‘s rising,. Someone also seemed it as the symbol of the end of the medieval period in England and the movement towards the Renaissance. Background and Origin of the Wars of the Roses 1.1 The Antebellum Condition of the England Before the Wars of the Roses broke out, the armistice of the other war had not been carried out long ago. The Hundred Years' War between England and France which lasted 116 years from 1337 to 1453, and the English, after the war, had seized nothing but withdrawing back to the islands. As a result, Henry VI‘s kingship suffered from the failure of the Hundred Years‘ War, and pushed himself towards people‘s suspicion, and aristocrat‘s intimidation who had expanded their private army during the war. 1.1.2 House of Lancaster House of Lancaster was a branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet, English kings. It was one of the opposing factions involved in the Wars of the Roses, an intermittent civil war which affected England and Wales during the 15th century. The House is named Lancaster, because its members were all descended from Edward III's son John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster; their symbol was a Red Rose. 1.1.3 House of York House of York was also a branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet, three of whom became English kings in the late 15th century. The House of York was descended from Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York-the fourth son of Edward III. Their symbol was a White Rose. 1.2 Origins of the Wars of the Roses On the origins of the wars, historians tend to do their studies from historical and political aspects. 1.2.1 The Historical Aspects Some historians tend to define it as a civil war. For example, Terence Wise said in her work The Wars of the Roses: In my opinion, a civil war is one in which men fight 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com and kill their countrymen, and in this respect the Wars of the Roses might properly be called a civil war. Furthermore, some of the researchers believe that it was not a simple civil war. On The Wars of the Roses 1455-1485, Michael Hicks said: the Wars of the Roses were a period of major crisis in English politics and in the lives of the English landowning classes. The antagonism between the two houses started with the overthrow of King Richard II by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancaster, in 1399. As an issue of Edward III's third son John of Gaunt, Bolingbroke had a very poor claim to the throne. According to precedent, the crown should have passed to the male descendants of Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence (1338-1368). However, Bolingbroke was crowned as Henry IV. So he was seemed as a usurper. However his son, Henry V, was a great soldier and his military success against France in the Hundred Years' War bolstered his enormous popularity, enabling him to strengthen the Lancastrian hold on the throne. In the reign of the Henry VI, England was defeated by France, and then the king could not control the kingdom ever because of the depression of people and nobles. Richard, Earl of Cambridge, a son of Edmund of Langley, the fifth son of Edward III. He grew up to put forward his parents' claims to the throne as head of the House of York, which believed that it had a stronger claim to the throne than the Lancastrian Henry VI. Finally the fermented complot involved the most of the aristocrats. So, the historical aspect was presented as matter of reality that displayed a dynastic struggle between the houses of York and Lancaster. 1.2.2 The Political Aspects In 1453 AD, England suffered from the failure of the Hundred Years‘ War. However, two years later, another war—the Wars of the Roses broke out. Michael Hicks said: They followed immediately after the final English defeat in the Hundred Years‘ War. Historical records had shown that after the withdraw, the conflicts in the Channel 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com and raids on the south coast impeded trade and threatened foreign invasion, coinciding with ?Great Slump‘ roughly around 1440-1480. People in all walks of life were feeling the pinch, looked back nostalgically to better times and blamed the government. On the other hand, the failure meant English lost their land on mainland and the control of Netherlands which was one of the largest bases of weaving. Furthermore, more and more private armies which were under the control of the nobles had been built, and the nobles didn‘t restrain themselves from bidding their defiance to the kingship. So the political aspect of the Wars of the Roses was derived from a fuse-- the Hundred Years War. From then on, kingship had to face domestic depression from the working people as well as the ambitious nobles. 2. The Course of the Wars of the Roses 2.1 The Initial Phase of the Wars: 1455-1461 During this phase, there were nine battles: First Battle of St Albans: May 22, 1455 (Yorkist victory); Battle of Blore Heath: September 23, 1459 (Yorkist victory); Battle of Ludford Bridge: October 12, 1459 (Lancastrian victory); Battle of Northampton (1460): July 10, 1460 (Yorkist victory); Battle of Wakefield: December 30, 1460 (Lancastrian victory); Battle of Mortimer's Cross: February 2, 1461 (Yorkist victory); Second Battle of St Albans: February 22, 1461 (Lancastrian victory); Battle of Ferrybridge: March 28, 1461 (Indecisive); Battle of Towton: March 29, 1461 (Yorkist victory). In 1455 AD, Richard, Duke of York led a small force toward London and was met by Henry's forces at St Albans, north of London, on May 22 1455. The relatively small First Battle of St Albans was the first open conflict of the civil war. Richard's aim was ostensibly to remove "poor advisors" from King Henry's side. The result was a Lancastrian defeat. Several prominent Lancastrian leaders, including Somerset and 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com Northumberland, were killed. York and his allies regained their position of influence, and for a while both sides seemed shocked that an actual battle had been fought and did their best to reconcile their differences. When Henry suffered another bout of mental illness, York was again appointed Protector, and Margaret was shunted aside, charged with the king's care. After the first Battle of St Albans, the compromise of 1455 enjoyed some success, with York remaining the dominant voice on the Council even after Henry's recovery. The problems which had caused conflict soon re-emerged, particularly the issue of whether the Duke of York, or Henry and Margaret's infant son, Edward, would succeed to the throne. Margaret refused to accept any solution that would disinherit her son, and it became clear that she would only tolerate the situation for as long as the Duke of York and his allies retained the military ascendancy. In 1456, Henry went on royal progress in the Midlands, where the King and Queen were popular. Margaret did not allow him to return to London where the merchants were angry at the decline in trade and widespread disorder. The King's court set up at Coventry. By then, the new Duke of Somerset was emerging as a favourite of the royal court, filling his father's shoes. Margaret also persuaded Henry to dismiss the appointments York had made as Protector, while York himself was made to return to his post as Lieutenant in Ireland. Disorder in the capital and piracy on the south coast were growing, but the King and Queen remained intent on protecting their own positions, with the Queen introducing conscription for the first time in England. Meanwhile, York's ally, Warwick (later dubbed "The Kingmaker"), was growing in popularity in London as the champion of the merchants. Following York's unauthorized return from Ireland, hostilities resumed. On September 23, 1459, at the Battle of Blore Heath in Staffordshire, a large Lancastrian army failed to prevent a Yorkist force under the Earl of Salisbury from marching from Middleham Castle in Yorkshire to link up with York at Ludlow Castle. Shortly afterwards the combined Yorkist armies confronted the much larger Lancastrian force at the Battle of Ludford Bridge. One of Warwick's lieutenants defected to the 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com Lancastrians, and the Yorkist leaders fled; York himself back to Ireland, and Edward, Earl of March (York's eldest son, later Edward IV of England), Salisbury, and Warwick to Calais. The Lancastrians were now backing in total control, and Somerset was sent off to be Governor of Calais. His attempts to evict Warwick were easily repulsed, and the Yorkists even began to launch raids on the English coast from Calais in 1459–60, adding to the sense of chaos and disorder. In 1460, Warwick and the others launched an invasion of England, and rapidly established themselves in Kent and London, where they enjoyed wide support. Backed by a papal emissary who had taken their side, they marched north. Henry led an army south to meet them while Margaret remained in the north with Prince Edward. The Battle of Northampton, on July 10 1460, proved disastrous for the Lancastrians. The Yorkist army under the Earl of Warwick, aided by treachery in the Lancastrian ranks, was able to capture King Henry and take him prisoner to London. As a result, Margaret in Anjou was ordered out of London with Prince Edward, and the Yorkist army under the Earl of Warwick, aided by treachery in the Lancastrian ranks, was able to capture King Henry and take him prisoner to London. Then on 1461, York's eldest son, coroneted as the Edward IV of England. York dynasty begun. 2.2 The Second Phase of the Wars:1464-1471 This phase can be separated into three periods: the Lancastrian counter-attack, Yorkist triumph and Resumption of crown.There were six battles in this period:. Battle of Hedgeley Moor: April 25, 1464 (Yorkist victory); Battle of Hexham: May 15, 1464 (Yorkist victory); Battle of Edgecote Moor: July 26, 1469 (Lancastrian victory); Battle of Lose-coat Field: March 12, 1470 (Yorkist victory); Battle of Barnet: April 14, 1471 (Yorkist victory); Battle of Tewkesbury: May 4, 1471 (Yorkist victory). The Duke of York left London later that year with the Earl of Salisbury to consolidate his position in the north against Margaret's army reported to be massing near the city of York. Richard took up a defensive position at Sandal Castle near 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com Wakefield at Christmas 1460. Although Margaret's army outnumbered Richard's by more than two to one, on December 30 York ordered his forces to leave the castle and mount an attack. His army suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Wakefield. Richard himself was slain in the battle, and both Salisbury and Richard's 17-year-old second son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland, were captured and beheaded. Margaret ordered the heads of all three placed on the gates of York. This event, or the later defeat of Richard III, later inspired the mnemonic "Richard of York Gave Battle In Vain" for the seven colors of the rainbow. The Act of Accord and the events of Wakefield left the 18-year-old Edward, Earl of March, York's eldest son, as Duke of York and heir to the throne. Salisbury's death left Warwick, his heir, as the biggest landowner in England. Margaret traveled to Scotland to negotiate for Scottish assistance. Mary of Gueldres, Queen of Scotland agreed to give Margaret an army on condition that she cede the town of Berwick to Scotland and Mary's daughter be betrothed to Prince Edward. Margaret agreed, although she had no funds to pay her army and could only promise booty from the riches of southern England, as long as no looting took place north of the river Trent. She took her army to Hull, recruiting more men as she went. Edward of York meanwhile, with an army from the pro-Yorkist Marches (the border area between England and Wales), met the Earl of Pembroke's army arriving from Wales, and defeated them soundly at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in Herefordshire. He inspired his men with a "vision" of three suns at dawn (a phenomenon known as "parhelion"), telling them that it was a sign of victory and represented the three surviving York sons; himself, George and Richard. This led to Edward's later adoption of the sign of the sunne in splendor as his personal emblem. Margaret was now moving south, wreaking havoc as she progressed, and her army supporting it by looting as it passed through the prosperous south of England. In London, Warwick used this as propaganda to reinforce Yorkist support throughout the south—the town of Coventry switching allegiance to the Yorkists. Warwick failed to start rising an army soon enough and, without Edward's army to reinforce him, was 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com caught off-guard by the Lancastrians' early arrival at St Albans. At the Second Battle of St Albans the Queen won the Lancastrians' most decisive victory yet, and as the Yorkist forces fled they left behind King Henry, who was found unharmed under a tree. Henry knighted thirty Lancastrian soldiers immediately after the battle. In an illustration of the increasing bitterness of the war, Queen Margaret instructed her seven-year-old son Edward of Westminster, to determine the manner of execution of the Yorkist knights who had been charged with keeping Henry safe and had stayed at his side throughout the battle. As the Lancastrian army advanced southwards, a wave of dread swept London, where rumors were rife about savage Northerners intent on plundering the city. The people of London shut the city gates and refused to supply food to the queen's army, which was looting the surrounding counties of Hertfordshire and Middlesex. Meanwhile, Edward was advancing towards London from the west where he had joined forces with Warwick. This coincided with the northward retreat by the queen to Dunstable, allowing Edward and Warwick to enter London with their army. They were welcomed with enthusiasm, money and supplies by the largely Yorkist-supporting city. Edward could no longer claim simply to be trying to wrest the king from bad councilors. This had become a battle for the crown itself. Edward now needed authority, and this seemed forthcoming when the Bishop of London asked the people of London their opinion and they replied with shouts of "King Edward". This was quickly confirmed by Parliament and Edward was unofficially crowned in a hastily arranged ceremony at Westminster Abbey amidst much jubilation, although Edward vowed he would not have a formal coronation until Henry and Margaret were executed or exiled. He also announced that Henry had forfeited his right to the crown by allowing his queen to take up arms against his rightful heirs under the Act of Accord, though it was by now becoming widely argued that Edward's victory was simply a restoration of the rightful heir to the throne, which neither Henry nor his Lancastrian predecessors had been. It was this argument which Parliament had accepted the year before. 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com Edward and Warwick marched north, gathering a large army as they went, and met an equally impressive Lancastrian army at Towton. The Battle of Towton, near York, was the biggest battle of the Wars of the Roses thus far. Both sides agreed beforehand that the issue was to be settled that day, with no quarter asked or given. An estimated 40,000—80,000 men took part with over 20,000 men being killed during (and after) the battle, an enormous number for the time and the greatest recorded single day's loss of life on English soil. Edward and his army won a decisive victory, the Lancastrians were routed, with most of their leaders slain. Henry and Margaret, who were waiting in York with their son Edward, fled north when they heard of the outcome. Many of the surviving Lancastrian nobles now switched allegiance to King Edward, and those who did not were driven back to the northern border areas and a few castles in Wales. Edward advanced to take York where he was confronted with the rotting heads of his father, his brother and Salisbury, which were soon replaced with those of defeated Lancastrian lords such as the notorious John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford of Skipton-Craven, who was blamed for the execution of Edward's brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, after the Battle of Wakefield. Henry and Margaret fled to Scotland where they stayed with the court of James III, implementing their earlier promise to cede Berwick to Scotland and leading an invasion of Carlisle later in the year. But lacking money, they were easily repulsed by Edward's men who were rooting out the remaining Lancastrian forces in the northern counties. Edward IV's official coronation took place in June 1461 in London where he received a rapturous welcome from his supporters as the new king of England. Edward was able to rule in relative peace for ten years. In the North, Edward could never really claim to have complete control until 1464, as apart from rebellions, several castles with their Lancastrian commanders held out for years. Dunstanburgh, Alnwick (the Percy family seat), and Bamburgh were some of the last to fall. The last to surrender was the mighty fortress of Harlech (Wales) in 1468, after a seven-year-long siege. There were two further Lancastrian revolts in the North in 1464. Several 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com Lancastrian nobles, including the Duke of Somerset, who had apparently been reconciled to Edward, readily led the rebellion. The first clash was at the Battle of Hedgeley Moor on April 25 and the second at the Battle of Hexham on May 15. Both revolts were put down by Warwick's brother, John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu. Somerset was captured and executed after the defeat at Hexham. The deposed King Henry was also captured in the North in 1465 and held prisoner at the Tower of London where, for the time being, he was reasonably well treated. The period 1467–70 saw a marked and rapid deterioration in the relationship between King Edward and his former mentor, the powerful Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick — "the Kingmaker". This had several causes, but stemmed originally from Edward's decision to marry Elizabeth Woodville in secret in 1464. Edward later announced the news of his marriage as a fact, to the considerable embarrassment of Warwick, who had been negotiating a match between Edward and a French bride, convinced as he was of the need for an alliance with France. This embarrassment turned to bitterness when the Woodvilles came to be favoured over the Nevilles at court. Other factors compounded Warwick's disillusionment: Edward's preference for an alliance with Burgundy (over France), and Edward's reluctance to allow his brothers George, Duke of Clarence, and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, to marry Warwick's daughters, Isabel Neville and Anne Neville, respectively. Furthermore, Edward's general popularity was also on the wane in this period with higher taxes and persistent disruptions of law and order. By 1469 Warwick had formed an alliance with Edward's jealous and treacherous brother George. They raised an army which defeated the King at the Battle of Edgecote Moor, and held Edward at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire. (At this point, Warwick briefly had two Kings of England in his custody.) Warwick had the queen's father, Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, executed. He forced Edward to summon a parliament at York at which it was planned that Edward would be declared illegal and the crown would thus pass to George, Duke of Clarence as Edward's heir apparent. However, the country was in turmoil, and Edward was able to call on the loyalty of his 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and the majority of the nobles. Richard arrived at the head of a large force and liberated King Edward. Warwick and Clarence were declared traitors and forced to flee to France, where in 1470 Louis XI of France was coming under pressure from the exiled Margaret of Anjou to help her invade England and regain her captive husband's throne. It was King Louis who suggested the idea of an alliance between Warwick and Margaret, a notion which neither of the old enemies would at first entertain but eventually came round to, realising the potential benefits. However, both were undoubtedly hoping for different outcomes: Warwick for a puppet king in the form of Henry or his young son; Margaret to be able to reclaim her family's realm. In any case, a marriage was arranged between Warwick's daughter Anne Neville and Margaret's son, the former Prince of Wales, Edward of Westminster, and Warwick invaded England in the autumn of 1470. This time it was Edward IV who was forced to flee the country when John Neville changed loyalties to support his brother Warwick. Edward was unprepared for the arrival of Neville's large force from the north and had to order his army to scatter. Edward and Gloucester fled from Doncaster to the coast and thence to Holland and exile in Burgundy. Warwick had already invaded from France, and his plans to liberate and restore Henry VI to the throne came quickly to fruition. Henry VI was paraded through the streets of London as the restored king in October and Edward and Richard were proclaimed traitors. Warwick's success was short-lived, however. He overreached himself with his plan to invade Burgundy in alliance with the King of France, tempted by King Louis' promise of territory in the Netherlands as a reward. This led Charles the Bold of Burgundy to assist Edward (who was also his brother in law), providing funds and an army to launch an invasion of England in 1471. Edward landed with a small force at Ravenspur on the Yorkshire coast. He soon gained the city of York, and rallied several supporters. His brother Clarence turned traitor again, abandoning Warwick. Having captured London, Edward's army met that of Warwick at the Battle of Barnet. The battle was fought in thick fog and some of Warwick's men attacked each other by mistake. Instantly, it was believed by all that 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com they had been betrayed, and Warwick's army fled. He himself was cut down trying to reach his horse. Margaret and her son Edward had landed in the West Country only a few days before the Battle of Barnet. Rather than return to France, Margaret sought to join with the Lancastrian supporters in Wales and marched to cross the Severn, but was thwarted when the city of Gloucester refused her passage across the river. Her army, commanded by the fourth successive Duke of Somerset, was brought to battle and destroyed at the Battle of Tewkesbury, and Prince Edward of Westminster, the Lancastrian heir to the throne, was killed. With no heirs to succeed him, Henry VI was murdered shortly afterwards (May 14, 1471), to strengthen the Yorkist hold on the throne. So, as a result, the powerful Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick — "the Kingmaker" and Margaret on Anjou‘s son Prince Edward were killed by Edward IV on the battle. From then on, the Lancastians agnate were totally died out except the Earl of Richmond- Henry Tudor. 2.3 The Third Phase of the Wars: 1485-1487 In the final phase of the wars, two important battles happened. There were: Battle of Bosworth Field: August 22, 1485 (Lancastrian victory); Battle of Stoke Field: June 16, 1487 (Lancastrian victory). Yorkist Dynasty‘s latest king Richard III had many enemies, chiefly the Lancastrian sympathisers, who rallied behind Henry Tudor, the House of Tudor being closely linked with the House of Lancaster. Henry Tudor landed in Pembrokeshire in the summer of 1485, gathered supporters on his march through Wales, and defeated Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Henry became King Henry VII of England and Richard was slain during the battle. Henry then strengthened his position by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and the best surviving Yorkist claimant. He thus reunited the two royal houses, merging the rival symbols of the red and white roses into the new emblem of the red and white Tudor Rose. Henry shored up his position by executing all other 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com possible claimants whenever any excuse was offered, a policy his son, Henry VIII, continued. Many historians consider the accession of Henry VII to mark the end of the Wars of the Roses. Others argue that the Wars of the Roses concluded only with the Battle of Stoke in 1487, which arose from the appearance of a pretender to the throne, a boy named Lambert Simnel who bore a close physical resemblance to the young Earl of Warwick, the best surviving male offspring of the House of York. The pretender's plan was doomed from the start, because the young earl was still alive and in King Henry's custody, so no one could seriously believe Simnel was anything but an imposter. At Stoke, Henry defeated forces led by John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, who had been named by Richard III as his heir but had been reconciled with Henry after Bosworth, thus effectively removing the remaining Yorkist opposition. Simnel was pardoned for his part in the rebellion and sent to work in the royal kitchens. Henry's throne was again challenged with the appearance of the pretender Perkin Warbeck who, in 1491 claimed to be Richard, Duke of York (the younger of the two Princes in the Tower). Henry consolidated his power in 1499 with the capture and execution of Warbeck. 3. The Impact of the Wars on English Social Development After the wars, with the political unification, the economic contact with other places via commerce, England began to pick up its way to strengthen itself, and feudal agriculture began to turn to capitalist agriculture, which gave birth to many capitalist farms in British villages and a new class of nobility who somehow had certain connection with capitalism also started to appear. English began to set aside a backlog of the capital directly or indirectly from their various efforts, making English economy recover and develop quickly. 3.1 The Impact of the Wars on Political System 3.1.1 The Collapse of Aristocracy During the Wars of the Roses, the aristocracy suffered dreadfully. Philippe de Commyne, a noble who lived at that time noted in his memoirs: ―It is the custom of the English that, once they have gained a battle, they do no more killing, 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com especially killing of common people; for each side seeks to please the commons…King Edward told me that in all the battles he had won, the moment he came to victory he mounted a horse and shouted that the commons were to be spared and the nobles slain…‖ So, some people in the past thought that the realm of England enjoyed one favor above all other realms, that neither the countryside nor the people were really destroyed nor were buildings burnt or demolished. Misfortune fell on soldiers and nobles. However, modern scholar K.B.MacFarlane gives us the following figures to show the brutality of the wars: 1425-1449 existing(73)New:(25) 98-25 extinctions=73 (25-51 percent) 1450-1474 existing:(73)New:(22) 95-24 extinctions=71(25-26percent) 1475-1499 existing:(71)New:(10) 81-20 extinctions=61 (24-69percent) After the wars,16 great families(dukes &earls)which existed in the last decade of Henry VI‘s reign, only two were unscathed by the wars-William, Earl of Arundel, who took no part in politics or the wars, and the second Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland, who was a simpleton. So, there are enough evidences to define this war as a funeral of old aristocracy. 3.1.2 The Rise of Class of Squire and Bourgeois Because of the collapse of aristocracy, the class of squire and bourgeois rose quickly. They acted several rolls in many aspects. In the country, the class of squire made there lives in breeding and real estate. During the enclosure movement they were been upstarts. Then as an advocator, they seemed to be increasingly important part in parliament where the king fighted with old aristocracy. 3.1.3 The Kingship of the Tudor Dynasty The Wars of the Roses resulted in massive political upheaval and huge changes-- the collapse of the Plantagenet dynasty and its replacement with the new Tudor. And because of the weakening of the feudal power of the nobles and a corresponding strengthening of the merchant classes, in parliament both of the parties maintained a balance of power. It was very helpful to increasing the power the kingship. Therefore, 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com the new Tudor rulers who changed England dramatically in the following years. 3.2 The Impact of the Wars on Economic System 3.2.1 The Commercialism The Wars of the Roses magnified the depression of the economy after the Hundred Years War. The new Tudor seized the opportunity to push the policy of commercialism for enlarging royal income and antagonizing with France. 3.2.2 The Bud of the Capitalism After the Wars of the Roses, England returned to a peaceful state. The feudal power of the nobles suffered dreadfully. Therefore, the commerce turned hot and the toll-gates were also totally canceled. Therefore, during the postwar period, commercialism and foreign trade were rising. The shipping, smelting, mining, weaving were quickly catapulted to big growth. At that time, the bud of the capitalism appeared. 3.3 The Impact of the Wars on Social Ideas After the Hundred Years War, the English lost their land on the continent, and hated Frenchmen. From then on, they found the difference between the two nations. And after the Wars of the Roses, the English realized that the aristocracy was seriously weakened. With the growth of commercialism, and the people seemed to escape from the charge of the nobles and the political complot. The English began to focus their attention on culture and art. During that period, William Shakespeare (1564-1616) turned out to be one of the most remarkable playwrights and poets that the world had ever known. Actually, the England stated to run towards to the Renaissance from the Wars of the Roses. Conclusion The essence of the Wars of the Roses is a cruel power struggle between two English ruling classes. During the wars, the two big feudal families went to their doom, and a great deal of feudal aristocrats were killed or executed in mutual slaughters. Their powers in society were severely decreased. 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com To fill the gap of power, the new aristocracies and bourgeoisie grew rapidly during the war and became the mainstay of autocratic monarchy which was established by Tudor. Postwar England, with strong royal sovereignty, stable political situation, and prosperous economy, saw the bud of capitalism. In this sense, the Wars of the Roses can be regarded not only as a historical event with a far-reaching effect, but also as the symbole of dawn for England to walk out the Middle Ages. The Wars of the Roses heralded the end of the medieval period in England and helped England move towards the Renaissance. 中国最大的论文知识平台www.lwxiezuo.com Bibliography [1]Barrie, John. War in Medieval English Society[M].Cornell University Press, 1974. [2]Carpenter, Christine. The Wars of the Roses: Politics and the Constitution in England, C. 1437-1509[M]. Cambridge University Press. [3]Coleman,D.C. The Economy of England[M].1450-1750 London, 1977. [4]Hicks, Michael. The Wars of the Roses1455-1485[M].Osprey Publishing, 2003. [5]Knappen, M.M. Constitutional and Legal History of England[M]. Archon Books, 1965. [6]McFarlane,A. The Wars of the Roses [M]. Brit.Acad, 1964. 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