the nature of religion

NOTES ON THE NATURE OF RELIGION George Cronk What is Religion? Religion as a "binding together" The English word word文档格式规范word作业纸小票打印word模板word简历模板免费word简历 "religion" (Middle English = religioun) is derived from the Old French religion, which in turn is derived from the Latin religio, which means beliefs about and reverence for the gods. Apparently, the Latin root of religio is the verb religare, "to bind together." The idea is that religion is a relationship between the religious devotee and that which is the object of religious devotion (the gods, God, the Tao, the Holy, etc.), a relationship that binds the two together. Secondarily, but very importantly, religion is also a binding together of all those who share the same or similar religious attitudes. In this way, religion gives rise to a community of devotees, a collectivity (church, synagogue, brotherhood, sisterhood, etc.) that is itself related to and bound together with the object of its devotion (the gods, etc.). Thus, through religion, devotees are bound together with one another, forming a community of devotion; and they are, even more importantly, bound together with the supreme reality to which they are devoted. The "here and now" is joined to "The Beyond;" the human to the superhuman; the natural to the supernatural; the immanent to the transcendent; the secular and profane to the holy, the sacred, the divine; the finite to the infinite; the temporal to the eternal; the mutable and the transient to the immutable and the permanent; the contingent to the necessary. These contrasts are depicted in the following chart: Religion the here and now "The Beyond" the human the superhuman the natural the supernatural the immanent the transcendent the secular and the profane the holy, the sacred, the divine the finite the infinite the temporal the eternal the mutable, the transient the immutable, the permanent the contingent the necessary Definitions of religion John MacQuarrie has written that there are "almost as many definitions and theories of religion . . . as there are authors on the subject." Consider the following list. What do you think of the definitions presented below? How would you define religion? Webster's New World College Dictionary (4th ed.): Re-li-gion . . . 1. (a) belief in a divine or superhuman power or powers to be obeyed and worshiped as the creator(s) and ruler(s) of the universe [and] (b) expression of such a belief in conduct and ritual 2. (a) any specific system of belief and worship, often involving a code of ethics and a philosophy [the Christian religion, the Buddhist religion, etc.] [and] (b) any system of beliefs, practices, ethical values, etc. resembling, suggestive of, or likened to such a system [humanism as a religion] 3. the state or way of life of a person in a monastery, convent, etc. 4. any object of conscientious regard and pursuit . . . . The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia: "Religion . . . is a system of thought, feeling, and action shared by a group that gives members an object of devotion; a code of ethics governing personal and social conduct; and a frame of reference 1 relating individuals to their group and the universe. Usually, religion concerns itself with what transcends the known, the natural, or the expected; it is an acknowledgment of the extraordinary, the mysterious, and the supernatural. "The evolution of religion cannot be precisely determined. In addition to the more elementary forms of belief and practice, such as animism, ancestor worship, totemism, and spiritism, there are the commonly termed higher religions, which embody a principle of transcendence. These include polytheism, in which there are many gods; cosmic dualism, which posits equally powerful deities [or cosmic forces] of good and evil; monotheism, in which there is a single god; supratheism [sometimes called transcendent monism], in which the devotee participates in the religion through a mystical union with the godhead [i.e., supreme reality, ultimate being]; and pantheism [also associated with transcendent monism], in which the universe [cosmos] is identified with God. "Religions are also classified as revealed (i.e., by divine agency) or nonrevealed (i.e., the result of human inquiry). JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY, and ISLAM are revealed religions, and BUDDHISM, HINDUISM, and TAOISM are largely nonrevealed religions." Paul Tillich (1886-1965), Christianity and the Encounter of the World Religions (1963): "Religion is the state of being grasped by an ultimate concern, a concern which qualifies all other concerns as preliminary and which itself contains the answer to the question of the meaning of our life." [Should we add that this ultimate concern is directed at "the Beyond" (the holy, the sacred, the divine, the transcendent, etc.)?] Ian S. Markham, from A World Religions Reader: "Religion . . . is a way of life (one which embraces a total world view, certain ethical demands, and certain social practices) that refuses to accept the secular view that sees human life as nothing more than complex bundles of atoms in an ultimately meaningless universe." Karl Rahner and Herbert Vorgrimler, from their Theological Dictionary (1965): "Religion in general . . . can be described as man's relations with the holy; subjective religion is veneration and adoration, which becomes objective religion when embodied in creed, word, actions (gestures, dance, ablutions, blessing, sacrifice, sacrificial meal), and law" (italics added). James Martineau: "Religion is the belief in an everlasting God, that is, in a Divine Mind and Will ruling the universe and holding moral relations with mankind." Friedrich Schleiermacher: Religion is "the feeling of dependence . . . , the consciousness that the whole of our spontaneous activity comes from a source outside of us." Anthony Wallace: "Religion is a set of rituals, rationalized by myth, which mobilizes supernatural powers for the purpose of achieving or preventing transformations of state in man or nature." Emile Durkheim: "Religion is only the sentiment(s) inspired by the group in its members, but projected outside of the consciousnesses that experience them, and objectified." James G. Frazier: "Religion is a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life." Lawrence S. Cunningham: "Religion signifies those ways of viewing the world which (1) refer to a notion of sacred reality (2) made manifest in human experience (3) in such a way as to produce powerful and long-lasting ways of thinking, feeling, and acting (4) with respect to problems of ordering and understanding existence." Karl Marx: "Religion is the sigh of the afflicted creature, the soul of a heartless world, as it is also the spirit of spiritless conditions. It is the opium of the people . . . . [It is] the illusory sun which revolves around man as long as he does not revolve around himself." Here is a comment by Ninian Smart (from his Encyclopedia Britannica article on the study of religion) on the problem of formulating a satisfactory definition of the nature of religion: 2 An acceptable definition of religion itself is difficult to attain. Attempts have been made to find an essential ingredient in all religions (e.g., the numinous, or spiritual, experience; the contrast between the sacred and the profane; belief in gods or in God), so that an "essence" of religion can be described. But objections have been brought against such attempts, either because the rich variety of men's religions makes it possible to find counterexamples or because the element cited as essential is in some religions peripheral. The gods play a very subsidiary role, for example, in most phases of Theravada ("Way of the Elders") Buddhism. A more promising method would seem to be that of exhibiting aspects of religion that are typical of religions, though they may not be universal. The occurrence of the rituals of worship is typical, but there are cases, however, in which such rituals are not central. Thus, one of the tasks of a student of religion is to gather together an inventory of types of religious phenomena. Approaches to the Study of Religion There are three main scholarly approaches to the study of religion: (1) the historical approach; (2) the phenomenological approach; and (3) the social scientific approach. John MacQuarrrie describes and comments on these as follows: The historical approach deals, of necessity, with texts, whether these be the doctrinal, devotional, or ritual texts that stem from the religious community per se or secular documents such as statistics through which the historian attempts to reconstruct the religious life of a community. The historians may weave both types of documents together to create a rich sense of the role of religion in the life of a people as a whole . . . . The phenomenological study of religion, although often starting with the results of the historian, is directed toward discovering the nature [or essence] of religion — the fundamental characteristics that lie behind its historical manifestations . . . . The phenomenological tradition has been criticized, both by the historians and the social scientists, for losing sight of the details of particular religions in overly general comparison and speculation, but contemporary scholars are attempting to overcome these problems by dissolving the artificial boundaries between the disciplines. A clear example of this tendency may be seen in the rise of social scientific studies of religion in the last hundred years. Psychology, sociology, and especially anthropology have contributed great depth to the understanding of religious phenomena. In the psychology of religion, the two most important figures remain William James and Sigmund Freud. James's Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) established a set of topics and approaches to those topics that set the overall tone for much later work in the field. While James dealt primarily with conscious expressions of religious experience, Freud and the psychoanalytic tradition stemming from him attempted to fit the various forms of religious experience into the framework of a general theory of the unconscious. C.G. Jung in particular has been influential among interpreters of religion . . . . One problem usually associated with the psychological approach is the difficulty of moving from the individual's experience to the structure and experience of the religious community. This problem has been confronted by the sociological and the anthropological traditions since the last third of the 19th century . . . . [O]ne thing should be made clear. Any approach taken in isolation from the others will lead to distortion and bias. The attempt to integrate a number of theories stemming from a wealth of traditions is necessary to grasp the character of the religions of the world. Typical Components of a Religious Belief System (or World-View) There are several elements contained in all or most religious systems, elements that are, in essence, responses to certain "big" questions that human beings have raised throughout the ages. These common or typical components of a religious system are (1) a vision of reality, (2) a doctrine of salvation, (3) a doctrine of right conduct, (4) a doctrine of the ultimate destiny of all things, and (5) a delineation of the nature and membership of the religion's community of devotion. 3 virginia 高亮 virginia 高亮 1. Every religion contains a vision of reality purporting to portray "things as they really are." In philosophy, a theory of reality is known as a "metaphysics." A typical religious metaphysical perspective includes three components: a cosmology, a theology, and an anthropology. a. A cosmology is a theory that provides answers to such questions as the following: Why does anything exist at all? Did the universe (cosmos) come into being, or has it just always existed? If the cosmos came into existence, how did it originate? Did something other than the cosmos cause the cosmos to be? What is the true nature of the cosmos? Is the cosmos "all there is, all there ever has been, and all there ever will be" (Carl Sagan), or is there a reality (or are there realities) above and beyond the cosmos itself? b. The word theology means literally "theory of god" (Greek, theos = god; logia = theory or study). However, in this context, the term should be understood to refer to that part of a religious system that sets forth a theory of Supreme Being, i.e., a theory of what is ultimately real, whether that highest reality be God (monotheism), or the gods (polytheism), or the Tao (Taoism), or the Supreme Buddha-Nature (Buddhism), etc. What is the highest, supreme level of being? What is its nature? Is it "personal" (i.e., alive, conscious, self-aware, intelligent, rational, capable of communicating meaningfully with other persons such as human beings, etc.); or is ultimate reality an impersonal power or force of some kind? Is there a relationship between the supreme reality and human beings? If so, what is the nature of that relationship? A key aspect of a religion's theology (or "Tao-ology," or "Buddhology," etc.) is the idea of "the Holy" (the sacred). According to John MacQuarrie, "The holy is usually in opposition to the everyday and profane and carries with it a sense of supreme value and ultimate reality. The holy may be understood as a personal God, as a whole realm of gods and spirits, as a diffuse power, as an impersonal order, or in some other way. Although the holy may ultimately be nothing but the social order, a projection of the human mind, or some sort of illusion, it is nevertheless experienced in religion as an initiating power, coming to human life and touching it from beyond itself . . . . Response to the holy may take the form of participation in and acquiescence to the customs and rituals of a religious community or of a commitment of faith. Faith is not merely belief but an attitude of persons in which they commit themselves to the holy and acknowledge its claim upon them. In a deeply religious person, faith commitment tends to shape all of that person's life and character." c. Anthropology is the study or theory (Greek, logia) of humanity (Greek, anthropos = man, human). As a social science, anthropology is the scientific study of the variety, physical and cultural characteristics, geographical distribution, customs, social relationships, etc., of humanity. In philosophy and religion, anthropology is the general (speculative, not scientific) theory of human nature and human existence. A religious anthropology includes a definition of human nature, a description of the basic (universal) conditions of human existence (e.g., aging, disease, famine, war, death), and a characterization of the major threat(s) to human well-being and happiness. What is human nature? Do human beings have souls? What is the relationship between the body and the soul? Is the soul immortal or not? If the soul lives beyond death, does it progress through a process of reincarnation, or does it go straight to heaven or to hell, or does it have some other destiny? Is the will free, or does Fate rule? Are human beings basically good or basically evil? What is it that blocks us in our pursuit of fulfillment and happiness? Why do we suffer? Does suffering have meaning? If so, what is it? Just what is the nature of "the human condition"? 2. Following from its theory of human nature and human existence, and especially in response to its diagnosis of the human condition or predicament, a religious system typically sets forth some doctrine of salvation, deliverance, or liberation (technically, a soteriology). How can we transcend the trials and tribulations of the human condition? How can we achieve lasting, ever-lasting, peace and happiness, in this life and in the life to come (if any)? What is the path to the "promised land"? 3. Another typical component of a religious system is a doctrine of right conduct. This will include both moral and ritual requirements. What is the right way to behave in the moral sphere, in relation to other people and in relation to society at large? Morally speaking, what am I free to do, and what am I forbidden to do? What is 4 virginia 高亮 the moral difference between "right" and "wrong" conduct? Ritual (sacrifice, sacrament, pilgrimage, prayer, fasting, etc.) has to do with conduct toward the object(s) of religious devotion (i.e., toward the Holy). What religious ceremonies am I obligated to perform or to participate in? What is the right or proper way to act within the ritual context as opposed to wrongful or improper ritual behavior? What taboos or prohibitions must I observe as I attempt to carry out the required rites of my religion? (According to MacQuarrie, "Participation in communal rituals marks a person as a member of the community, as being inside and integral to the community that is articulated in the system of beliefs. That in many traditions the disfavor of the community is expressed in its barring a person from the important cultic acts is not surprising because these acts insure the proper standing of the individual and community in relation to the holy.") Within the religious mindset, both the moral and the ritual components of the religion's code of conduct are understood to derive from and to be sanctioned by Supreme Reality (God, Tao, etc.). 4. All religions speak to the ultimate destiny or final culmination of all things (eschatology). Where is it all going? Where am I going to end up, i.e., ultimately? Will my death be the end of me, or will I live on beyond death, perhaps forever? Will I go to heaven or to hell, to nirvana or to annihilation? Is the human race as a whole scheduled for final destruction or for a transcendent vindication and fulfillment, a "Kingdom of God" or perhaps a heaven on earth? Will the world "come to an end"? If so, is the end near? What will it mean, a final nothingness or a grand beginning to a new and glorious phase of existence? Will the "end of the world" be succeeded by the coming of "a new heaven and a new earth"? 5. Most if not all religions are embodied in a community of believers and contain a conception of what constitutes membership (and non-membership) in that primary collectivity as well as a theory of how the community is related to the ultimate reality (God, Tao, etc.) that is the object of the community's religious passion. What constitutes membership in the community? Who is in, and who is out? How should the community be organized? What are the proper relationships between the members of the community (clergy- laity, husbands-wives, parents-children, teachers-disciples, etc.)? How is the community as a whole related to that which is venerated or worshipped (God, Tao, etc.)? John MacQuarrie has made the following comment on the element of community in a religious system: "Although religious solitaries exist, most religion has a social aspect that leads its adherents to form a community, which may be more or less tightly organized. In earlier times the religious community could scarcely be distinguished from the community at large; all professed the same faith, and the ruler was both a political and a religious leader. In the course of time, however, religious and civil societies have become distinct and may even come into conflict. In modern secular states — India and the United States, for example — a plurality of religious communities coexist peacefully within a single political entity. Each religious community, whether in a pluralistic or ho