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Journal of Experimental Social Psychology xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
YJESP-02806; No. of pages: 4; 4C:
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Journal of Experiment
.e
er, investigate the psychological process responsible for this effect.
Hereinwe propose and test the hypothesis that perceived sexual re-
ceptivity mediates the link between red and sexual attraction in men
viewing women. Data supporting this hypothesis would not only pro-
vide a more thorough understanding of the amorous influence of red
in humans, but would establish a more precise and detailed cross-
species parallel regarding the signal function of red in mating contexts.
The first step in our proposed mediational model is that men view
red on a woman as a signal of sexual receptivity. The societal pairing
of red and female sexual receptivity has a long history. Red was used
as early as 10,000 B.C.E. in lipstick and rouge to mimic the red blush of
mates, are biologically predisposed to interpret red on a female
conspecific as a signal of sexual readiness.
Our proposal, that red conveys the meaning of sexual receptivity
for men viewing women, may be derived from societal conditioning
or biological considerations alone, but we suspect that both are impli-
cated in the red-receptivity link. Specifically, we contend that the so-
cietal pairing of red and female sexual receptivity is not random, but
emerged from a biologically-based predisposition to interpret female
red as a sexual signal. Indeed, the societal use of red may not only re-
inforce the biological predisposition, but may extend it beyond the
tether of natural bodily processes. Accordingly, red may not only
sexual interest and excitation (Low, 1979); r
thology, folklore, and literature throughou
☆ Part of this research was supported by grant GR 18
search Foundation to Tobias Greitemeyer.
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: apazda@gmail.com (A.D. Pazda).
0022-1031/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All
doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.009
Please cite this article as: Pazda, A.D., et al.,
an, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
ating game for human
n find women wearing
le; they did not, howev-
excitation may be more prevalent and visible midcycle, meaning
women, like other female primates, may display red more prominent-
ly when most fertile. If so, it is likely that men, like other male pri-
males and females. They observed that me
red to be more attractive and sexually desirab
Introduction
Female red displays play an integr
many non-human primate species (e
males display red on their face, chest,
receptivity (Dixson, 1983; Setchell & W
specifics respond with increased gaze
tion attempts (Bielert, Girolami, & Jow
& Krasielburd, 2006). Elliot and Niesta
that red displays are also important i
in the mating process of
oons, chimpanzees). Fe-
talia as a signal of sexual
s, 2004), and male con-
timulation, and copula-
89; Waitt, Gerald, Little,
) recently demonstrated
sexual promiscuity and passion (Hutchings, 2004; Jobes, 1962); and
red has long signaled sexual availability in red-light districts. Thus,
men may associate red and female sexual receptivity due to societal
conditioning.
This red-receptivity link may also be rooted in biology. Women's
skin tone lightens during ovulation, their general blood flow is en-
hanced, and they are more easily sexually aroused (Bullivant et al.,
2004; Lynn, McCord, & Halliwell, 2007; Van den Berghe & Frost,
1986). As such, the aforementioned red blush of sexual interest and
FlashReport
Sexy red: Perceived sexual receptivity me
viewing woman☆
Adam D. Pazda a,⁎, Andrew J. Elliot a, Tobias Greitem
a University of Rochester, USA
b University of Innsbruck, Austria
a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 19 October 2011
Revised 13 December 2011
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
Color
Red
Attractiveness
Attraction
Desire
Inmany non-human primate
male conspecifics. In the pre
receptivity mediates the rela
were conducted, each of wh
mented the mediational rol
and Experiment 2 did so usi
dates were ruled out, and pa
ment red as a subtle, but sur
mating game for human and
j ourna l homepage: www
ed has been used in my-
t the ages to represent
82/12-1 from the German Re-
rights reserved.
Sexy red: Perceived sexual re
(2012), doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2
iates the red-attraction relation in men
er b
cies, female red displays are a signal of sexual receptivity and this signal attracts
t research, we proposed and tested a human analog whereby perceived sexual
between red and sexual attraction in men viewing women. Two experiments
provided support for the hypothesized mediational model. Experiment 1 docu-
f perceived sexual receptivity using the experimental–causal-chain approach,
he measurement-of-mediation approach. Alternative mediator variable candi-
ipants showed no evidence of awareness of the red effect. These findings docu-
ingly powerful environmental stimulus that can serve parallel functions in the
n-human primates.
© 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
al Social Psychology
l sev ie r .com/ locate / jesp
mean sexual readiness when viewed on a woman's body, but also
when viewed on objects in close proximity to her body. In the present
research, we predict that men viewing a woman wearing a red shirt
will perceive her to be more sexually receptive.
The second step in our proposed mediational model is that men
view sexually receptive women as particularly attractive and desir-
able. Men may prefer sexually receptive women because pursuing
ceptivity mediates the red-attraction relation in men viewing wom-
011.12.009
Fig. 1a). No participant mentioned color when guessing the purpose
of the experiment.
Experiment 1b
Experiment 1b examined the second link in the hypothesized
causal chain.
Method
Twenty-two males (ages 19–40, M=29.2) participated for mod-
est monetary compensation. Ethnicity was: 5 Caucasian and 17 Asian.
Participants followed a web link through Mechanical Turk to ac-
cess the experiment. A welcome screen stated that the experiment
was about first impressions and would involve viewing a picture of
a person for five seconds, reading a brief scenario about the person,
and then completing a brief questionnaire. Participants then read ei-
ther the high or low (parentheses) sexual receptivity scenario:
Imagine the woman in the picture is at a bar for the evening. She is
acting flirtatiously (reserved), and her body language is sexy
(stern) and seductive (rigid), seeming to indicate that she is (not) in-
terested in the possibility of having sex tonight.
The picture was the one used in the white condition in Experiment
1a. Participants viewed the picture, then completed the perceived at-
tractiveness measure, a general likeability measure, and, finally, a ma-
nipulation check.
Perceived attractiveness was assessed with Mehrabian and Blum's
(1997) 4-item measure (e.g., “Rate this person on facial attractive-
2 A.D. Pazda et al. / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
such women facilitates sexual conquests; a large number of sexual
conquests is congruent with gender-specific standards and scripts
and, therefore, is rewarded with admiration and social status
(Oliver & Hyde, 1993). Men may also prefer sexually receptive
women because pursuing such women increases their chances of re-
productive success via mating with many sexual partners in efficient
fashion (i.e., low time and effort costs; Schmitt & Buss, 1996). The
available data support a receptivity–attraction link, as men rate
women exhibiting receptivity cues (e.g., suggestive postures, provoc-
ative dancing) as more attractive (Clark, 2008; Schmitt, Couden, &
Baker, 2001), and are more inclined to make advances toward such
women (Hendrie, Mannion, & Godfrey, 2009). This effect is not limit-
ed to humans, but is present in many other mammalian species, in-
cluding primates (Andersson, 1994; Beach, 1976).
In the present research, we not only predicted a link between
men's perceptions of women's sexual receptivity and men's sexual at-
traction, we also predicted that perceived sexual receptivity would be
the psychological mechanism that explains the direct influence of red
on sexual attraction. Furthermore, given the subtlety of red as a stim-
ulus cue, we anticipated that the effect of red would take place with-
out participants' conscious awareness. Finally, and importantly, we
tested two other candidate mediators, kindness and intelligence,
characteristics that men across cultures value in women (Buss,
1989). If, as hypothesized, red carries a specific sexual meaning, rath-
er than a positive meaning in general, sexual receptivity alone would
be confirmed as a mediator. We conducted two experiments to test
our predictions using two different, complementary, approaches to
mediation.
Experiment 1a
Experiment 1 tested whether perceived sexual receptivity medi-
ates the influence of red on perceived attractiveness using the
experimental-causal-chain approach (Spencer, Zanna, & Fong,
2005). Experiment 1a examined the first link in the hypothesized
causal chain. White was used as an unobtrusive, achromatic contrast
to red.
Method
Twenty-five males (ages=22–40, M=28.7) participated for
modest monetary compensation. Ethnicity was: 9 Caucasian, 1 Afri-
can American, 11 Asian, and 4 “other.” In this and all subsequent ex-
periments, participation was restricted to heterosexuals/bisexuals
without a color deficiency.
Participants followed a web link through Mechanical Turk to ac-
cess the experiment. A welcome screen stated that the experiment
was about first impressions and would involve viewing a picture of
a person for five seconds and completing a brief questionnaire. The
picture was of a moderately attractive young woman with brown
hair, wearing either a red (n=11) or white (n=14) shirt. Shirt
color was manipulated using Adobe Photoshop; the picture was 350
pixels×450 pixels. Participants viewed the picture, then completed
the questionnaire.
Perceived sexual receptivity was assessed with four face-valid
items (e.g., “She is interested in sex”; α=.85). For this and all subse-
quent measures, participants responded using 1 (not at all/strongly
disagree) to 9 (extremely/strongly agree) scales. Participants were
also asked to guess the purpose of the experiment.
Results
An independent-samples t-test revealed an effect of color on per-
ceived sexual receptivity, t(23)=2.11, pb .05, d=0.88. Participants in
the red condition (M=5.50, SD=1.04) rated the woman as more re-
ceptive than participants in the white condition (M=4.30, SD=1.63;
Please cite this article as: Pazda, A.D., et al., Sexy red: Perceived sexual re
an, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2
ness”; α=.95). General likeability was assessed with a face valid bi-
polar item measuring the degree to which the target female was
perceived as unlikeable (1) to likeable (9). The high receptivity condi-
tion is also more positive in valence than the low receptivity condi-
tion, thus we sought to demonstrate an effect of sexual receptivity
Fig. 1. a: The influence of shirt color on perceived sexual receptivity in Experiment 1a.
b: The influence of sexual receptivity on perceived attractiveness in Experiment 1b.
ceptivity mediates the red-attraction relation in men viewing wom-
011.12.009
Method
after 5 s, they were told to close the folder and were given a question-
naire to complete.
Perceived kindness was assessed with two face-valid items from
Hatfield and Sprecher (1995; e.g., “How kind is this person?”;
Results
Multiple regression was used to examine direct and indirect ef-
fects. Regressing the two outcome measures on color condition
(red=1, green=0) revealed an effect for perceived attractiveness,
F(1,47)=5.02, pb .05 (β=.31), and sexual desire, F(1,47)=6.15,
pb .05 (β=.34), indicating that participants in the red condition
rated the woman as more attractive and sexually desirable than par-
ticipants in the green condition.
Regressing perceived sexual receptivity on color condition
revealed a significant effect, F(1,47)=4.75, pb .05 (β=.30). Partici-
pants in the red condition rated the woman as higher in receptivity
than participants in the green condition (Fig. 2).
Finally, regressing perceived attractiveness on color condition
with perceived sexual receptivity in the equation revealed that per-
ceived sexual receptivity was a positive predictor of perceived attrac-
tiveness, F(1,46)=20.60, pb .001 (β=.56). Participants perceiving
3A.D. Pazda et al. / Journal of Experimental Social Psychology xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
α=.84). Perceived intelligence was assessed with a single face-
valid item from Dijkstra and Buunk's (2002; “How intelligent do
you think this person is?”). The awareness question was the same
The picture was 4″×6″, printed on archival quality paper with an
Epson Stylus Photo printer. Having participants complete the study in
a laboratory setting allowed for more control of the color manipula-
tion by assuring that each participant would see the color under iden-
tical lighting and presentation conditions. The target female and the
shirt style were different from those used in the previous experiment.
Shirt color was manipulated with Adobe Photoshop. A GretagMac-
Beth spectrophotometer was used to determine the color parameters
from the spectral data (red LCh [40.6/40.4/20.1]; green LCh [40.3/
41.2/146.8]).
Perceived sexual receptivity was assessed with the same measure
used in the prior experiment (α=.66). Perceived attractiveness was
assessed with Elliot and Niesta's (2008) two-item measure (e.g.,
“How attractive do you think this person is?”; α=.91). Sexual desire
was assessed with Elliot and Niesta's (2008) four-item measure (e.g.,
“How much do you find this person sexually desirable?”; α=.89).
Forty-nine males (ages 18–33, M=23.5) in Austria participated
for course credit. All participants were Caucasian.
On arrival at the laboratory, participants were informed that the
experiment was on first impressions. They were given a folder con-
taining a picture of a moderately attractive young woman with dark
brown hair, wearing either a red (n=27) or green (n=22) shirt. Par-
ticipants were instructed to open the folder to look at the picture;
condition on perceived attractiveness but not general likeability to
highlight that the effect is receptivity specific. For the manipulation
check, participants responded to the item “She is interested in sex.”
Results
An independent samples t-test indicated that the manipulation
was effective; participants in the high sexual receptivity condition
rated the woman as more interested in sex (M=6.73, SD=1.95)
than participants in the low sexual receptivity condition (M=3.36,
SD=2.06), t(20)=3.93, pb .001. Another t-test revealed an effect of
receptivity on perceived attractiveness, t(20)=2.30, pb .05,
d=0.98. Participants in the high receptivity condition (M=6.99,
SD=1.54) rated the woman as more attractive than those in the
low receptivity condition (M=5.53, SD=1.44; Fig. 1b). Furthermore,
no difference was observed between the high and low receptivity
conditions on general likeability (p>.26), indicating that receptivity
specifically influenced judgments of attractiveness, not positive eval-
uations in general. Together, Experiments 1a and 1b document medi-
ation via the experimental–causal–chain approach.
Experiment 2
Experiment 2 tested both links in the mediational model simulta-
neously using the measurement-of-mediation approach (see Baron &
Kenny, 1986). We also sought to rule out two alternative mediator
variables. Green was used as a chromatic contrast to red; this allowed
us to test the influence of hue while controlling the other two color
properties, lightness and chroma.
used in the prior experiment.
Please cite this article as: Pazda, A.D., et al., Sexy red: Perceived sexual re
an, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2
the woman as higher in receptivity found her more attractive. Color
condition no longer significantly predicted perceived attractiveness
(p=.25), and the direct effect decreased 56%. The confidence inter-
vals for the indirect effect, .064–1.22, generated using PRODCLIN
(MacKinnon, 2008), did not include 0, further validating the media-
tional role of perceived sexual receptivity. Comparable results were
observed for sexual desire. Perceived sexual receptivity was a positive
predictor of sexual desire, F(1,47)=37.24, pb .001 (β=.66). Partici-
pants perceiving the woman as higher in receptivity found her more
sexually desirable. Color condition no longer significantly predicted
sexual desire (p=.20), and the direct effect decreased 61%. The con-
fidence intervals for the indirect effect, .068–1.28, did not include 0,
further validating the mediational role of perceived sexual receptivi-
ty. These findings document mediation via the measurement-of-
mediation approach.
Regressing perceived kindness and intelligence on color condition
yielded null results (ps>.67). No participant mentioned color when
guessing the purpose of the experiment.
General discussion
The present research provides strong support for our hypothesized
mediational model. Women wearing red were perceived by men as
more sexually receptive, and it is precisely this receptivity that men
found attractive. We obtained our findings using two different contrast
colors, two different female targets, and two different mediational ap-
proaches. We ruled out two alternative, like-valenced mediators, and
found no evidence of participants' awareness of the effect.
A noteworthy aspect of our research was the documentation of
mediation via two distinct approaches that nicely complement one
another. Each approach has unique strengths and weaknesses, with
.30* Perceived Sexual
Receptivity
.14
.14
(.34*)
(.31*)
.66**
Sexual Desire
Perceived
Attractiveness
Color
Condition
.56**
Fig. 2. The effect of color condition on perceived attractiveness and sexual desire medi-
ated by perceived sexual receptivity in Experiment 2. Color condition is coded 0 =
green, 1 = red. The values in the figure represent standardized coefficients from re-
gression analyses; the values in parentheses are from analyses of direct effects.
*pb .05; **pb .01.
ceptivity mediates the red-attraction relation in men viewing wom-
011.12.009
the strengths of one mapping onto the weakness of the other (e.g., the
measurement-of-mediation approach relies solely on correlational
data, but the experimental–causal-chain approach uses experimental
manipulation to test each link in the model; Spencer et al., 2005). As
such, documenting mediation with both approaches represents par-
ticularly strong support for our hypotheses.
Our data show that men view red as an indicator of women's sexual
receptivity, but they are mute on the accuracy of these perceptions (i.e.,
whetherwomen actually don redwhen feeling amorous). If accurate, our
findings point to a nonverbal signal system that effectively facilitates sex-
ual behavior. If inaccurate, our findings point to yet another way that
men over-impute sexual meaning to women's behavior (Abbey, 1982).
may need to be judicious in their use of red clothing. Wearing
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in so-
cial psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.
Beach, F. A. (1976). Sexual attractivity, proceptivity, and receptivity in female mam-
mals. Hormones and Behavior, 7, 105–138.
Bielert, C., Girolami, L., & Jowell, S. (1989). An experimental examination of the color
component in visually mediated sexual arousal of the male chacma baboon
(Papio ursinus). Journal of the Zoological Society of London, 219, 5
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