Willingness to Communicate in

Language Learning ISSN 0023-8333 Willingness to Communicate in English: A Model in the Chinese EFL Classroom Context Jian-E Peng Shantou University Lindy Woodrow University of Sydney This study involves a large-scale investigation of willingness to communicate (WTC) in Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) classrooms. A hypothesized model integrating WTC in English, communication confidence, motivation, learner beliefs, and classroom environment was tested using structural equation modeling. Validation of the measurements involved exploratory factor analyses on the dataset collected in a pilot study and confirmatory factor analyses in the main study. The results show that classroom environment predicts WTC, communication confidence, learner beliefs, and motivation. Motivation influences WTC indirectly through confidence. The direct effect of learner beliefs on motivation and confidence is identified. The model provides an adequate fit to the data, indicating the potential to draw on individual and contextual variables to account for classroom communication. Keywords willingness to communicate in English; communication confidence; motivation; learner beliefs; classroom environment; structural equation modeling Contemporary second language (L2) pedagogy has attached great importance to communicative interaction in class with a view to developing learners’ com- municative competence. Individual learners, however, are not always willing to attempt L2 communication. Willingness to communicate (WTC) in an L2, which is an individual difference (ID) factor perceived to facilitate L2 acquisi- tion, has been extensively studied in recent years (MacIntyre, 2007; MacIntyre, We would like to thank anonymous reviewers for their invaluable feedback and suggestions given on the early version of this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jian-E Peng, Shantou University Medical College, Room 605 Building 4, Dongxia Huayuan (Block 1), Dongxiabei Road, Shantou City, Guangdong Province, China (515041). Internet: pengjiane@stu.edu.cn Language Learning 60:4, December 2010, pp. 834–876 834 C© 2010 Language Learning Research Club, University of Michigan DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00576.x Peng and Woodrow Willingness to Communicate in English Do¨rnyei, Cle´ment, & Noels, 1998; Yashima, 2002). In educational contexts, the study of WTC in an L2 is of special importance in decoding learners’ com- munication psychology and promoting communication engagement in class. As MacIntyre et al. (1998) noted, the creation of WTC should be the “primary goal of language instruction” (p. 545). Many studies have been carried out to explore L2 WTC in relation to various ID variables such as personality, self-confidence, attitudes, and motiva- tion (MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; Yashima, 2002), utilizing various statistical techniques—in particular, structural equation modeling (SEM). SEM is a rig- orous technique for testing multiple dependence relationships simultaneously. Despite the rich findings from previous research, however, little effort has been devoted to studying L2 WTC in conjunction with classroom contextual vari- ables. In countries and regions where English is learned as a foreign language (EFL), the language classroom is an essential platform for learners to experi- ence interactive communication using the target language. Therefore, the role that classroom environmental factors play in L2WTC warrants close examina- tion. However, to date, this aspect remains underaddressed. The present study, inspired by an ecological perspective on classroom dynamics (van Lier, 2002), aims to incorporate this variable into the wider study of WTC focusing on Chinese university students inside their EFL classrooms. Theorizing and Research in L2 WTC The concept of WTC was originally developed in first language (L1) commu- nication, representing a personality trait (McCroskey & Richmond, 1987). In the L2 context, because L2 learning involves much uncertainty and complexity, L2 WTC is conceptualized to display dual characteristics at both trait and state levels (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Trait L2 WTC reflects a stable predisposition toward communication, whereas state L2 WTC is situated in specific contexts. Accordingly, L2 WTC is defined as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547). MacIntyre et al. (1998) proposed an L2 WTC model that in- tegrates various linguistic, psychological, and social variables as constitutive influences underlying L2WTC and L2 use. These variables include personality, communicative competence, social situation; intergroup climate, attitudes, and motivation; interpersonal motivation; L2 self-confidence (trait and state); and desire to communicate with a specific person. This theoretical model implies that L2 WTC is a composite variable influenced by the joint effect of variables both internal and external to individual learners. 835 Language Learning 60:4, December 2010, pp. 834–876 Peng and Woodrow Willingness to Communicate in English Subsequent research has lent support to the intertwined relationships be- tween L2 WTC and many other variables. Among a number of individual variables, self-confidence has been overwhelmingly found to be themost imme- diate antecedent of L2 WTC (Cle´ment, Baker, & MacIntyre, 2003; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; Yashima, 2002). Defined as the overall belief about one’s ability to engage in efficient L2 communication (MacIntyre et al., 1998), self- confidence is a combination of perceived competence and a lack of anxiety. These consistent findings indicate that learners who have higher perceptions of their communication competence and experience a lower level of communica- tion anxiety tend to be more willing to initiate communication. Attitudes and motivation conceptualized under the social psychological ap- proach (Gardner, 1985) are also found to be closely related to L2 WTC. This approach emphasizes that integrative attitudes toward or intention to identify with the L2 community strongly influence motivation in L2 learning. Accord- ing to Gardner’s (1985) socio-educational model, the construct of integrative motivation has three components: integrativeness, attitudes toward the learning situation, and motivation. Motivation is defined as comprising effort, desire, and attitudes toward learning the L2. Many early L2 WTC studies, mostly conducted in North America, were informed by this model and identified sig- nificant correlations between L2 WTC and attitudes and motivation (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000; MacIntyre, Baker, Cle´ment, & Donovan, 2002). In the EFL context, Yashima (2002) proposed the construct of “international posture” to replace integrativeness to capture EFL learners’ attitudes toward what En- glish symbolizes. Employing SEM, Yashima and associates (Yashima, 2002; Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide, & Shimizu, 2004) observed the direct influence of international posture on motivation and L2 WTC and the indirect effect of motivation on L2 WTC among Japanese EFL learners. Empirical studies have also found that L2 WTC is related to other more inherently stable individual factors such as personality, age, and gender. MacIntyre and Charos (1996) used path analysis to examine the effect of per- sonality traits on L2 WTC. Their model indicated that, generally, personality traits affect L2WTC indirectly through variables such as perceived confidence, L2 anxiety, and attitudes. They concluded that the influence of personalitymight be routed through other more proximal predictors of L2 WTC. MacIntyre and associates also observed differing levels of L2 WTC across age (MacIntyre et al., 2002) and gender (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000; MacIntyre et al., 2002). These findings have, without doubt, contributed to the understanding of how L2 WTC differs across individuals. However, for researchers and language ed- ucation practitioners in particular, additional insight is needed regarding how Language Learning 60:4, December 2010, pp. 834–876 836 Peng and Woodrow Willingness to Communicate in English L2WTC can be affected by classroom contextual factors, because these factors could be, to some extent, influenced by pedagogical methods. Possibly due to such concerns, some recent L2 WTC research attention has been accorded to educational settings. Central to this trend is the proposition that L2 WTC emerges as a function of situational contextual factors, such as topic, interlocutors, group size, and cultural background (Cao & Philp, 2006; Kang, 2005). Kang (2005) maintained that L2 WTC is situated in the joint effect of individual psychological conditions and situational variables. Cao (2009) proposed an ecological framework to examine such interactive effects. These studies, largely qualitatively oriented, highlight the significance of classroom contextual factors in L2WTC research. However, there are, as yet, few psychometric studies that have systematically tested the interrelationships of these contextual factors with L2 WTC. MacIntyre and associates (MacIntyre, 1994; MacIntyre, Baker, Cle´ment, & Conrod, 2001) referred to WTC as a final step before overt verbal action. It is a psychological process or a latent variable that is unlikely, if not impossible, to be fully observed. Its measurement is at best made possible through measuring certain observed variables (e.g., scale items in a survey) that are assumed to reflect L2WTC per se. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), a type of SEM, is a preferred statistical technique because it accounts for measurement errors when calculating parameter estimates. Furthermore, the interrelationships among several latent variables, which are often of interest in social science, can be simultaneously tested through SEM. The operationalization of L2 WTC has been evolving as more research is conducted in educational contexts. The first WTC scale was developed for L1 communication research by McCroskey and Baer (1985). This scale measures WTC in four communication contexts (public, meeting, small group, and dyad) with three types of receivers (stranger, acquaintance, and friend). Many L2 WTC studies adopted this scale to measure L2 WTC. This sounds practical as long as the L2 contact or exposure described in the scale (e.g., talk with a garbage collector in the L2) applies to the L2 learners. In an educational context such as the classroom, however, the communicative situations described in this scale are less likely to happen. The application of this generic scale has been questioned in Cao and Philp’s (2006) study in New Zealand’s L2 classroom. In the EFL classroom in Hong Kong, confusion was reported by respondents about “whether they should ‘imagine’ if they would communicate in situations they do not normally meet”; for example, “talking to a service station attendant (in English)” (Asker, 1998, p. 164). 837 Language Learning 60:4, December 2010, pp. 834–876 Peng and Woodrow Willingness to Communicate in English Focusing on the classroom context, MacIntyre et al. (2001) measured L2 WTC in the four skill areas of speaking, reading, writing, and listening both inside and outside the classroom. Weaver (2005) pointed out that some items in this scale are influenced by McCroskey and Baer’s (1985) L1 WTC scale and described situations less frequently occurring in the language classroom. By in- tensively interviewing students and teachers and examining textbooks, Weaver, using the Rasch model, developed a scale measuring L2 WTC in speaking and writing. Statistical analysis on 490 university students’ responses to this scale supports its validity, reliability, and psychometric usefulness (Weaver, 2005). Second language WTC research is of particular significance for English language teaching in China. China may have the largest number of EFL learn- ers in the world (Cheng, 2008), and the country’s rapid development has placed high demand for competent English users from all walks of life (Wu, 2001). English language instruction in China now is taking on more communica- tive features to foster students’ competence. Chinese students, however, are often stereotyped as passive learners in the language classroom (Crozet & Liddicoat, 1999; Liu, 2002). Their nonparticipation and reticence as frequently observed (Hu, 2002; Yu, 2001) may thus be dissonant with innovative cur- riculums and frustrate many teachers. Research into Chinese students’ WTC in English can advance theoretical and practical insights into enhancing En- glish teaching, learning, and communication in China and other similar EFL contexts. There is still scant research into variables affecting WTC among Chinese EFL learners. Liu and Jackson (2008) reported that Chinese students’ un- willingness to communicate is associated with language anxiety, perceived proficiency, and access to English. Wen and Cle´ment (2003) explored Chinese indigenous cultural influence on learners’ WTC. They speculated that Chinese Confucian heritage with elements such as other-directed self, face concerns, and a submissive way of learning is the driving force shaping Chinese students’ perceptions and learning behaviors in class. Such covert cultural influence was also observed in Peng’s (2007) qualitative study among 118 Chinese univer- sity students. Peng identified eight themes classified into two contexts that influence L2 WTC: Themes under the individual context are communication competence, language anxiety, risk-taking, and learners’ beliefs, and the social context includes classroom climate, group cohesiveness, teacher support, and classroom organization. These findings, exploratory and inspiring in nature, need more empirical support by robust statistical methods with larger samples before any generalization is possible. Language Learning 60:4, December 2010, pp. 834–876 838 Peng and Woodrow Willingness to Communicate in English Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Many L2 motivational theories have arisen during the past decades (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; Do¨rnyei, 2005) and L2 motivation continues to be a thriving area in second language acquisition (SLA) research (Do¨rnyei&Ushioda, 2009). The socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985, 2001), as previously discussed, was the dominant influence in L2 motivation research before the 1990s, as well as in early L2 WTC research. The issue of integrative motivation has created much controversy. It is suggested that integrative motivation plays a lesser role among Chinese EFL learners (Chen, Warden, & Chang, 2005; Warden & Lin, 2000). In Chinese EFL contexts, learning and using English mostly happen in the classroom and teaching and learning are largely exam-driven. Learners have little authentic interactionwith the target language community.Gardner claimed that the socio-educational model is applicable in EFL settings and refers to evidence from a large-scale project conducted in six countries (Gardner, 2006, 2009). The results indicated consistent results across the samples (Gardner, 2006). However, China was not one of the six countries. The study found integrative motivation to be higher in classrooms where the teacher was highly motivated. This suggests that closer scrutiny of classroom contextual variables may provide useful insights into language learning in EFL contexts. The present study considers Noels and associates’ (Noels, 2001; Noels, Pelletier, Cle´ment, & Vallerand, 2000) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation de- rived from self-determination theory (SDT) in educational psychology (Deci & Ryan, 1985) as an informative framework. Intrinsic motivation, which pertains to enjoyment and a satisfactory feeling associated with an activity, is composed of three substrates: knowledge, accomplishment, and stimulation. These three components respectively refer to motivations for gaining new knowledge, for achieving goals, and for “the sensations stimulated by performing the task” (Noels et al., 2000, p. 61). Extrinsic motivation refers to regulations that are external to an individual’s control. It consists of four types of regulations: exter- nal, introjected, identified, and integrated regulation, which are situated along a continuum of self-determination. External regulation refers to the performance of an activity being regulated by external incentives (e.g., for a better job). Introjected regulation is about reasons associated with learners’ self-imposed pressure to perform an activity (e.g., feeling guilty if one cannot speak En- glish). With identified regulation, one’s investment in an activity is driven by goals internalized as personally important. Integrated regulation represents the highest degree of self-determination in extrinsic motivation where one fully as- similates an activity to one’s values, beliefs, or the self. Following Noels et al. 839 Language Learning 60:4, December 2010, pp. 834–876 Peng and Woodrow Willingness to Communicate in English (2000), this study operationalized extrinsic motivation using only the former three regulations because the last type of regulation may be evident only among advanced language users (Noels, 2001). The rationale for choosing the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was twofold. First, the theoretical tenets of SDT are consistent with the ecolog- ical attention given to classroom dynamics in the current study (which is pre- sented later). SDT takes an organismic dialectical perspective and views human beings’ basic psychological needs, including autonomy, competence, and relat- edness, as being either supported or thwarted by environmental contingencies (cf. Ryan & Deci, 2002). The satisfaction of these needs may create intrinsic motivation. The ecological perspective also views the totality of individuals as interacting with the environment (van Lier, 2002). Inside the classroom so- cial environment in a Chinese cultural context, the need for relatedness seems particularly relevant to classroom dynamics. According to Wen and Cle´ment (2003), group cohesiveness, teacher support, and attachment to group mem- bers are factors influencing Chinese students’WTC inside the classroom. These factors obviously correspond to the relatedness within SDT. Another consideration was that compared to the socio-educational model that examines motivation from a macro interethnic perspective, the intrinsic- extrinsicmotivation framework offers a “cognitive perspective” (Do¨rnyei, 2005, p. 74) focused on the micro classroom context, which is more suitable for the Chinese monocultural and monolingual research context. Noels (2009) noted that the SDT framework usefully represents “the experiences of language learn- ers across different contexts” (p. 299). In her quasi-experimental study with 72 Chinese EFL young learners, Wu (2003) found that a classroom characterized by a predictable learning environment, moderately challenging tasks, instruc- tional support, and evaluation emphasizing self-improvement lead to positive perceived competence. Therefore, the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was chosen as one of the background variables in the present study. Learner Beliefs The variable of learner beliefs is relatively underinvestigated in SLA. This vari- able can have awide conceptual range (Do¨rnyei, 2005). They can be perceptions of the nature of language and language learning, termed “metacognitive knowl- edge” by Wenden (1999), or culture-specific perceptions proposed as “culture of learning” by Cortazzi and Jin (1996) (for a recent review, see Barcelos, 2003). By “culture of learning,” Cortazzi and Jin noted that classroom learning Language Learning 60:4, December 2010, pp. 834–876 840 Peng and Woodrow Willingness to Communicate in English behaviors are “set within taken-for-granted frameworks of expectations, atti- tudes, values and beliefs about what constitutes good learning, abo