克鲁格曼国际经济学PPTch11

nullnullChapter OrganizationChapter OrganizationIntroduction Sophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade Policy Globalization and Low-Wage Labor SummaryIntroductionIntroductionTwo controversies over international trade arose in the 1980s and 1990s. In the 1980s a new set of sophisticated arguments for government intervention in trade emerged in advanced countries. These arguments focused on the “high-technology” industries that came to prominence as a result of the rise of the silicon chip. In the 1990s a dispute arose over the effects of growing international trade on workers in developing countries. Sophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyThere are two kinds of market failure that seem to be present and relevant to the trade policies of advanced countries: Technological externalities The presence of monopoly profits in highly concentrated oligopolistic industriesSophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyTechnology and Externalities Externalities Firms in an industry generate knowledge that other firms can also use without paying for it. In high-tech industries firms face appropriability problems. Example: In electronics, it is common for firms to “reverse engineer” their rivals’ designs.Sophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyThe Case for Government Support of High-Technology Industries Subsidize the activity with externalities, not all activities in an industry. For instance, R&D (as opposed to manufacturing) should be subsidized. How Important Are Externalities? Externalities are hard to measure empirically. Problems of appropriability at the level of the nation (as opposed to the firm) are less severe but still important even for a nation as large as the United States.Sophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyImperfect Competition and Strategic Trade Policy In some industries where there are only a few firms in effective competition: The assumptions of perfect competition will not apply. Firms will make excess returns (profits). There will be an international competition over the excess returns. A subsidy from the government to domestic firms can shift the excess returns from foreign to domestic firms. Sophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyThe Brander-Spencer Analysis: An Example There are only two firms (Boeing and Airbus) competing, each from a different country (United States and Europe). There is a new product, 150-seat aircraft, that both firms are capable of making. Each firm decides either to produce the new product or not.Sophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyDon’t produceDon’t produceEquilibrium outcome is A= 0 and B=100: Airbus does not produce and Boeing produces.Table 11-1: Two-Firm CompetitionSophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyDon’t produceA subsidy of 25 to Airbus given by Europe results in A=125, B=0.Table 11-2: Effects of a Subsidy to AirbusDon’t produceSophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyProblems with the Brander-Spencer Analysis Insufficient information to use the theory effectively The exact payoffs of the firms cannot easily be obtained. Industries in isolation A policy that succeeds in giving U.S. firms a strategic advantage in one industry will tend to cause strategic disadvantage elsewhere. Foreign retaliation Strategic policies are beggar-thy-neighbor policies that increase our welfare at other countries’ expense. Sophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyDon’t produceEquilibrium outcome is A=0 and B=125; Boeing produces and Airbus does not.Table 11-3: Two-Firm Competition: An Alternative CaseDon’t produceSophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicySophisticated Arguments for Activist Trade PolicyDon’t produceA subsidy of 25 to Airbus given by Europe results in A=5, B=5. Table 11-4: Effects of a Subsidy to AirbusDon’t produceGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborThe rise of manufactured exports from developing countries is one of the major shifts in the world economy over the last generation. The workers who produce these goods are paid low wages and work under poor conditions.Globalization and Low-Wage LaborGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborThe Anti-Globalization Movement It became a highly visible presence chronologically: 1980s Alleged threat of competition from Japan in the United States Early 1990s Substantial concern in both the United States and Europe over the effects of imports from low-wage countries on the wages of less-skilled workers at home. Second half of the 1990s Alleged harm that world trade was doing to workers in the developing countries. 1999 Demonstrations disrupted the meeting of the World Trade Organization in Seattle.Globalization and Low-Wage LaborGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborTrade and Wages Revisited Activists argue that globalization makes workers in developing-country export industries worse off. Example: Wages in Mexico’s maquiladoras were below $5 per day, and conditions were appalling by U.S. standards. Economists argue that despite the low wages earned by workers in developing countries, those workers are better off than they would be if globalization had not taken place. Globalization and Low-Wage LaborGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborTable 11-5: Real WagesGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborLabor Standards and Trade Negotiations International trade agreements can improve wages and working conditions in poor countries by incorporating: A system that monitors wages and working conditions and makes the results of this monitoring available to consumers. Formal labor standards They are conditions that export industries are supposed to meet as part of trade agreements. They have considerable political support in advanced countries. They are strongly opposed by most developing countries. Globalization and Low-Wage LaborGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborEnvironmental and Cultural Issues Environmental standards in developing-country export industries are much lower than in advanced-country industries. The incorporation of environmental standards in trade agreements can cause: Improvements in the environment Potential export industries in poor countries to shut down Globalization has led to a homogenization of cultures around the world. Example: McDonald’s is now found almost everywhere. Globalization and Low-Wage LaborGlobalization and Low-Wage LaborThe WTO and National Independence Free trade and free flow of capital has undermined national sovereignty. WTO monitors not only the traditional instruments of trade policy, but also domestic policies that are de facto trade policies. SummarySummaryNew arguments for government intervention in trade emerged in the 1980s and 1990s. In the 1980s the new theory of strategic trade policy offered reasons why countries might gain from promoting particular industries. In the 1990s a new critique of globalization emerged, focused on the effects of globalization on workers in developing countries.SummarySummaryThere are two sophisticated arguments for activist trade policies: Governments should promote industries that yield technological externalities. Brander-Spencer analysis. With the rise of manufactured exports from developing countries, a new movement opposed to globalization has emerged. Low wages paid to export workers.