中国民间艺术

Chinese Folk Art, Festivals, and Symbolism in Everyday Life PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY Written and Designed by Nicole Mullen with contributions by Ching-chih Lin, PhD candidate, History Department, UC Berkeley. Additional contributors: Elisa Ho, Leslie Kwang, Jill Girard. Funded by the Berkeley East Asia National Resource Center through its Title VI grant from the U.S. Department of Education. Special thanks to Ching-chih Lin, for his extraordinary contributions to this teaching guide and the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in San Francisco for its generous print and electronic media contributions. Editor: Ira Jacknis Copyright © 2005. Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology and the Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. 103 Kroeber Hall. #3712, Berkeley CA 94720 Cover image: papercut, lion dance performance, 9–15927c All images with captions followed by catalog numbers in this guide are from the collections of the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology. All PAHMA objects from Beijing and Nanking are from the museum's Ilse Martin Fang Chinese Folklore Collection. The collection was assembled primarily in Beijing between 1941 and 1946, while Ms. Fang was a postdoctoral fellow at the Deutschland Institute working in folklore and women's studies. CHINA The People’s Republic of China is the third largest country in the world, after Russia and Canada. It is slightly larger than the United States and includes Hong Kong and Macau. China is located in East Asia. The capital city is Beijing, which is in the northeast part of the country. China is a country of great geographical contrasts. There are grasslands in Inner Mongolia, snowy mountains in Tibet, and wide plains in the Gobi Desert. China is the most populous nation in the world, with close to 1.3 billion people. The majority of Chinese people belong to the Han group (about 92%), but there are also 55 ethnic minority groups that live mostly in the west and along the southern border. The official language is Mandarin Chinese, though people tend to speak Cantonese in the south and in Hong Kong. Chinese civilization is one of the oldest known cultures in the world. Chinese history extends almost 5000 years, for most of which there is a written record. Until the 20th century China was organized according to dynasties and imperial rulers. China was united for the first time during the Qin dynasty (pronounced “Chin”) in the 2nd century BC. The massive Great Wall was constructed in this era to keep out enemies from the north. The Chinese writing system was also standardized during this time. The written characters that make up the Chinese language are pictographs, which were created to look like pictures of things in daily life. Buddha, bronze sculpture. 9–14630 CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 3 Other notable dynasties are the Han (206 BC–AD 220), when Buddhism began to flourish, the Tang (618–907), commonly regarded as the most glorious period of Chinese history, the Song (960–1279), during which Marco Polo visited China, and the Ming (1368–1644), when Beijing became the capital of the country. China is a country with many religions. For thousands of years China was an agricultural society based around ancestor worship. Even today, Chinese people believe that ancestors have a close relationship with the living. The two most common religions are Buddhism and Daoism. Many Chinese practice a combination of Buddhism, Daoism, and ancestor worship. Throughout different time periods in China’s history, many Chinese have emigrated from China to other parts of the world due to various economic or political circumstances. Today, Chinese populations exist in North America, Southeast Asia, Europe, South America, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, and Russia. Over 1.6 million Chinese live in the United States, making it the largest Chinese population outside of Asia. CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 4 TAIWAN Taiwan is a subtropical island consisting of rugged mountains and flat to gently rolling plains. The island is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean, located off China’s southeast coast. The capital of Taiwan is Taipei. Taiwan is a democratic society and the official language is Mandarin. Until the mid 17th century only indigenous peoples lived on the island of Taiwan. Indigenous populations still exist in Taiwan; however, they only make up about two percent of the total population. Today, more than 23 million people inhabit the island; the majority of these people are Han Chinese originating from mainland China. Many traditional Chinese beliefs and customs were brought from China and are very much a part of life in Taiwan today. The Dutch and Spanish both occupied parts of Taiwan in the 1600s. The Dutch were driven out of the country in 1662. Shortly after, the Manchus—the rulers of the Qing Dynasty—took control of Taiwan in 1683. They continued to rule over Taiwan until 1895. Next, Japan conquered Taiwan as a result of the Sino-Japanese war. At the end of World War II Taiwan was finally reunited with China. In 1949, when China became a communist nation, the Republic of China’s government moved to Taiwan. Taiwan’s new government considered themselves to be an independent republic separate from China. By 1951 Taiwan’s economy began to grow at a rapid pace. Taiwan has a dynamic capitalist economy, and public education is widespread. Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin. CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 5 SYMBOLISM Symbolism is present throughout all cultures. Symbols may be seen in pictures, words, art, architecture, and common household items. Symbols are another way of communicating the thoughts, meanings, and hopes of a particular cultural group. Symbolism representing luck, prosperity, long life, happiness, and wealth are all important aspects in Chinese culture. Symbols representing these virtues are often seen in everyday life and appear during holidays and festivals. There are also deities that represent some of these virtues: the God of Luck, the God of Prosperity, and the God of Longevity, to name a few. Many Chinese hope to increase good fortune in their lives by surrounding themselves with items that represent these lucky signs. The Chinese language influenced the development of symbolism. Chinese is a tonal language, therefore, depending on how a word is pronounced it could mean several different things. For example, the words for good fortune and bat are pronounced the same way although they are written with different characters. As a result, bats symbolize happiness and good luck in China. When five bats are seen together, they are said to represent the five blessings: health, long life, wealth, love of goodness, and death by natural causes. Detail on a pewter and brass container. When five bats are pictured with the character for longevity as seen above, it combines to form a strong and potent symbol for long life and good fortune. 9–15907 CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 6 CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 7 The Dragon is not a sign of terror as it appears in the Western world. On the contrary, the dragon is seen as a symbol of good fortune and protection. He has the power to make himself invisible at any time and can also reduce his size as small as a silk worm or expand in size so great that he fills up the skies. Fish are a sign of abundance. Two fish paired together symbolize marriage. The deer symbolizes wealth and longevity. It is said to be the only animal that knows how to find the the sacred fungus of immortality. Although not native to China, the horse was imported and quickly adopted into Chinese culture. The horse represents strength, speed, and stamina. The Phoenix is a popular symbol in Chinese culture. Known as one of the most beautiful birds, it represents good fortune, longevity, and abundance. Im ag es c ou rte sy o f D ov er P ub lic at io ns , In c, C op yr ig ht © 1 98 8. CHINESE FOLK ARTS Folk arts in China have developed over a thousand years. They include the arts of papercuts, wood- block prints, and embroidered textiles. These objects have been made for centuries by peasants. Paper, wood, cotton, and scissors were used to create these items. In the past, the upper classes in China laughed at such simple art, preferring calligraphy and landscape painting. They gave a name to Chinese folk arts: diao chong xiao ji, which means “the small skills of carving insects.” This term was used to poke fun at the folk art of the peasants. However, peasants did not have brushes on hand like the upper classes. They used scissors and knives instead—since they were household staples needed for such things as making a family’s clothing. Chinese folk arts are not only beautiful, but also important to Chinese religion and beliefs in the countryside. Many items show pictures of gods and spirits along with heaven and earth. In China people believe that pictures have a lot of power to change events in life. Folk arts are used both to decorate homes and to wish for good fortune in all aspects of life. Embroidered gourd pouch. Gourds and bamboo both symbolize long life. Gourds are also a sign of fertility. Collected in Beijing, China,1944. 9–21266 CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 8 PAPERCUTS Traditional papercuts are made at home with scissors or knives from very thin sheets of colored paper. In the past, people enjoyed making designs from paper because it was quick and did not require many tools. Girls as young as six years old were taught how to cut paper by older family members. Sometimes designs are only cut once. Other times a pattern is used over and over again by placing it on a clean sheet of paper and putting a smoking oil lamp beneath it. When the smoke has made its mark, it is removed and the outline that is left behind can be cut. Usually paper cuts are pasted on windows or hung on doors, especially during holidays and festivals. The most important time to make and display papercuts is during the New Year Festival. Each part of China has different styles of paper cuts. However, many paper cuts share two common themes: protec- tion from evil forces and the health and well-being of the family. Papercut designs can be pictures of anything, including lucky Chinese words, animals, children, or illustrations of popular stories. They are often made with red paper, since red is the color that represents happiness in China. A part of China known as Shaanxi Province is well known for making some of the most beautiful paper cuts. During the winter each household in Shaanxi pastes colorful paper cuts known as “window flowers” (chuang hua) on each window in its home. Top left: fish, painted; watercolor (?), 9-15722n Above: A old man tells tales to two young children as evening falls. 9-15927 CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 9 Papercuts showing scenes from daily life. Clockwise: A girl performs a traditional dance, two children, boy with ox, two men playing traditional musical instruments. 9–15927k,i,g,d CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 10 Papercuts of the Eight Immortals. The Eight Immortals are famous throughout China. They were all awarded immortality by completing acts of great nobility. Each figure represents a different aspect of life; for example, wealth, youth, old age, and wisdom. 9–15925 j,a,b,i,c,d,e,f CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 11 TEXTILES AND EMBROIDERY Textile arts in China include weaving, dyeing, and embroidery. China’s most famous fabric is silk. Silk has been produced in China for thousands of years. It even found its way to India and Rome hundreds of years ago through the trade route known as the Silk Road. At one time the method of making silk was a highly protected secret. Two thousand years ago only noble families and officials were allowed to wear clothing made of silk. Even after these rules changed, most Chinese people still wore clothes made of cotton because silk was too expensive. The most common of all fabrics in China is cotton. People began planting and producing cotton in the mid–13th century. Soon, weaving cotton cloth and creating clothes from it became very popular all around the country. Chinese groups in the south use natural vegetable dyes on cotton cloth to form bright blue design patterns such as flowers and butterflies. Throughout China’s long textile history, embroidery has been as important as the arts of weaving and dyeing. Pieces of cloth with stitched designs have been found in China as far back as 2500 years ago. During this early time some popular embroidery designs included: plants, flowers, animals, dragons, mountains, Headband with neckguard; embroidery, satin, silk, Mongolian style. Embroidery patterns: peonies (good fortune); fish (abundance). Design motifs include cranes and peaches (long-life) between clouds. Around crown: bats (happiness) and clouds (good fortune and happiness), bamboo (long life and courage). Collected in Beijing, China, 1945. 9–21251 CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 12 Table cloth (detail). Blue block-printed white cotton cloth. Peonies (good fortune), plum blossoms and butterflies (together they stand for long life and beauty). Collected in Beijing, China; 1942. 9–21253 and the moon and stars. In the past, young women were taught to weave, dye, and embroider so that they could make pieces to add to their marriage dowry. Such pieces included pillowcases, quilt covers, and other items used in the home. Young women were often chosen for marriage based on their embroidery skills rather than their beauty. Often peasant women were hired by the upper classes to embroider their clothing and other personal items. These embroidery projects helped supplement their income. Chinese embroidery often uses the “five colors” that are thought to represent the different natural forces in the world. Yellow stands for the earth; blue for wood; white for metal; red for fire; and black for water. When these five colors are used together in embroidery, they are known as the “threads of life on cotton cloth.” These threads are thought to protect the wearer from harm. Some of the most popular gifts for children in China include embroidered clothing and toys made by hand. Many hats and shoes for children are made in the shape of pigs and dogs, which are thought to fool spirits and protect children. Tigers are often sewn onto children’s clothing to scare away ghosts and help children grow up to be strong and fearless. CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 13 Above: Pair of pink child’s mittens. The palm of the glove is in the shape of a cat’s face with holes at the ears for fingers to stick out; appliquéd eyes and nose, thread mustache. Collected in Beijing China, 1945. 9–21269a,b Pair of lavender child’s slippers with tiger tip. Hunter green fringed tiger mask with “wang” sign (for king of the animals) stitched on forehead, appliquéd black and white eyes and white nose; hunter green long mustache and embroidered eyebrows. Collected in Beijing, China, 1945. 9–21293a,b Clockwise: Little boy’s headband. Heart shaped with floral design. Collected in Nanking, China, 1945. 9–21250 Pair of little boy’s silk boots with chrysanthemum embroidery. The chrysanthemum symbolizes autumn and long life. Collected in Beijing, China, 1944. 9–21284a,b Two-faced purse with flaps. Yellow satin embroidered in satin and stem stitch. Collected in Beijing, China, 1944. 9–21272 CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 14 Clockwise: Fitting the sole to the upper of a child’s shoe. Filling a pipe with tobacco from an embroidered pouch. Removing a sewing needle from a cicada-shaped needle case. Beijing, China, 1943. Photographs by Hedda Hammer Morrison. 9–21436 CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 15 WOODBLOCK PRINTS Perhaps the most common of all Chinese folk arts are woodblock prints. They are called nianhua in Chinese. This means “New Year’s pictures,” because they are always put up around the house during the New Year Festival. Woodblock prints are very bright and colorful posters, with thousands of different kinds of designs. They have been made since the 11th century. People in China use them for two reasons: to bring good luck and for decoration. Chinese people call buying nianhua “inviting in the gods” because pictures of gods are some of the most popular kinds of prints. In the past woodblock prints were made by men during the winter. First an artist would draw a design; the design was then carved into a piece of wood. Next, the wood was used to stamp the design and other wood blocks were used to press different colors of ink onto pieces of paper. Now they are made in large factories and millions are sold every year. There are two types of popular prints. One popular print has pictures of gods that people use in religious ceremonies. These are often burned at the end of the ceremony as an offering. In the past people also used woodblock printing methods to make paper money (or “spirit money”) to be offered to gods, ghosts, and ancestors. Other woodblock prints are used to decorate homes and bring good luck. Some of the images represented include: people working, famous Chinese tales, lucky kinds of fruit, and wholesome children holding coins. They are displayed all year long until the start of the New Year when new prints are posted. Woodblock print of the God of the Earth and his wife for family shrine at New Year’s. Collected in Beijing, China, 1942. 9–21435. CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 16 Left: Woodblock print of the God of Increased Happiness and Wealth. Two acolytes hold fans behind the enthroned god. Two officials in front. Over the inscription, red imprint: Dragon Hall. Collected in Beijing, China, 1942. 9–21438 Right: Woodblock print of the Spirit of Bridges. Two fish leap up toward the spirit’s belt. The acolyte helps him over a bridge. Collected in Beijing, China, 1942. 9–21440. CHINESE FOLK ART, FESTIVALS, AND SYMBOLISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE PHOEBE A. HEARST MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY 17 LUNAR NEW YEAR’S FESTIVAL Each year Chinese people celebrate the Lunar New Year Festival (Xinnian). This is an exciting and cheerful time of year and everyone greatly looks forward to this celebra- tion. It occurs annually on the first day of the first new moon, and often lasts up to two weeks. Chinese people celebrate January 1st as the official New Year Day, but traditional New Year festivities follow the lunar calendar. It always begins on the evening before the first day of the lunar month, and ends on the 15th day with the Lantern Festival. At this time of year, people pay respects to numerous gods and spirits. Many take the time to do some “spring cleaning,” making sure their homes are cleaned spotless. They also make sure that any old debts are repaid. Lucky money is distribu