胡壮麟语言学课件chapter12(名牌大学教授整理)

nullChapter 12Chapter 12Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsnullIn EuropeIn USABirth of Modern Linguistics 1907 – 1916Prague School 1926 –London School 1944 –American Structuralism 1911 –Bloomfield Era 1933 – 1950Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics 1950 –TG Grammar 1957 –Case Grammar 1968 –Birth of Modern LinguisticsBirth of Modern LinguisticsWhen is the beginning of modern linguistics? We date modern linguistics from the early twentieth century when scholars worked out detailed scientific methods for establishing relationships among languages. This is marked by the publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's book Course in General Linguistics (1916).Birth of Modern LinguisticsBirth of Modern LinguisticsDuring the years between 1907 to 1911, Saussure lectured on general linguistics in the University of Geneva. After he died in 1913, two of his students, C. Bally and A. Sechehaye, collected lecture notes from students and put them together to produce the great work, Course in General Linguistics, in 1916.Birth of Modern LinguisticsBirth of Modern LinguisticsThis book became the most important source of Saussure's ideas and of his influence upon succeeding generations of linguists. Saussure's ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, and psychology.Birth of Modern LinguisticsBirth of Modern LinguisticsWhy is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics? (1) The book “Course in General Linguistics” (1916), which is the most important source of Saussure's ideas, marked the beginning of modern linguistics.Birth of Modern LinguisticsBirth of Modern Linguistics (2) Saussure was the first to notice the complexities of language which direct our attention to essentials of language and make clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. He believed that language is a SYSTEM OF SIGNS, called conventions. He held this sign is the union of a form and an idea, which he called the signifier (能指) and the signified (所指).Birth of Modern LinguisticsBirth of Modern Linguistics (3) Saussure’s ideas on the arbitrary nature of sign, on the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of LANGUE and PAROLE and of SYNCHRONIC and DIACHRONIC linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics into a brand new stage.null concept thought（思维）or reference（关联意义）     word………………………………..thing symbol（符号） referent（所指） or form（形式）Birth of Modern Linguisticsnulle. g. – Can I use your bike? – I have to go to town. (ready-made sign预成) (signifier1能指) I have to go a long way. (signified1所指) (signifier2) I can’t go on foot. (signified2) (signifier3) … … I have to go by bike. (signifiedn) (signifiern+1) I can’t lend my bike to you. (generated sign生成) (intentional meaning)Birth of Modern LinguisticsThe Prague SchoolThe Prague SchoolThe Prague School (Circle of Linguistics of Prague) can be traced back to its first meeting under the leadership of V. Mathesius (1882 - 1946) in 1926. Activists in the Prague School included R. Jakobson (1896 - 1982) and N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938).The Prague SchoolThe Prague SchoolThis school practised a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of FUNCTION. It has been an extremely important source of influence in linguistics, as has been stated that "No other European group has wielded quite as much influence as this one", and it "has influenced every important development in the United States" (Bolinger, 1968). The Prague SchoolThe Prague SchoolOf the many ideas developed in Prague School, three points are of special importance. First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can draw on complete and controllable material for investigation. Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. Third, language was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.The Prague SchoolThe Prague School1. Phonology and phonological oppositions The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. The most influential scholar in this connection is Trubetzkoy, whose most complete and authoritative statements of principle are formulated in his Principles of Phonology published in 1939. Following Saussure's distinction between langue and parole, he argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. The Prague SchoolThe Prague School1. Phonology and phonological oppositions（音位对立） On this basis he developed the notion of "phoneme" as an abstract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. A phoneme may be defined as the sum of the differential functions. Sounds may be phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.The Prague SchoolThe Prague School1. Phonology and phonological oppositions In classifying distinctive features, he proposed three criteria: (1) their relation to the whole contrastive system; (2) relations between the opposing elements; and (3) their power of discrimination.The Prague SchoolThe Prague School1. Phonology and phonological oppositions Trubetzkoy' s contributions to phonological theory concern four aspects. First, he showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition for the phoneme. Second, by making distinctions between phonetics and phonology, he defined the sphere of phonological studies. Third, by studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes, he revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes. Finally, he put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.The Prague SchoolThe Prague School2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.nullSyntactic functions grammatically: subject, predicate, object, adverbial, etc. object adverbial I gave a book to him. subject predicatenullSyntactic functions logically: agent, patient, beneficiary, instrument I gave a book to him. instrumentnullSyntactic functions psychologically: theme（主位） rheme（述位） (known information) (new information) I gave a book to him. nullTo the question “How are you getting along”, the response might be like the following. I am reading a book. The book tells a story. The story is a about a dog. The dog is loyal to his master. His master took him out one day. That day it was not only snowy but also windy. The wind and snow were very heavy. …null We can see that each of the above sentences begins with known information and then ends with new information. This way of expression of our thoughts is concordant with our thought patterns. It is psychologically the right way to express our mind. The part that gives the known information is called theme and the other part that gives the new information rheme. The theme is the psychological subject of a sentence. The rheme shows the function of the speech (to convey information).The Prague SchoolThe Prague School2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) In research into the relation between structure and function, J. Firbas developed the notion of COMMUNICATIVE DYNAMISM (CD). This notion is based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static phenomenon, but a dynamic one.The Prague SchoolThe Prague School2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence. The degree of CD is the effect contributed by a linguistic element, for it “pushes the communication forward”.The Prague SchoolThe Prague School2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) The sentence He was cross could be interpreted in regard to the degree of CD as follows: The lowest degree of CD is carried by He, and the highest is carried by cross, the degree carried by was ranking between them.null grammatical subject Last night the mouse was caught by the cat. theme rheme logical psychological subject subject known information new informationThe London SchoolThe London SchoolThe London School generally refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first Professor of General Linguistics in Great Britain (1944). The majority of university teachers of linguistics in Britain were trained under Firth and their work reflected Firth's ideas. Hence, the name "London School" is quite appropriate for the distinctively British approach to the subject.The London SchoolThe London SchoolFirth was influenced by the anthropologist B. Malinowski (1884 - 1942). In turn, he influenced his student, the well-known linguist M.A.K. Halliday. The three men all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of language. Thus, London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.The London SchoolThe London School1. Malinowski's theories Malinowski was Professor of Anthropology (人类学) at the London School of Economics from 1927 onwards. The most important aspect of his theorizing, concerned the functioning of language. He said that language "is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought". According to him, the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs.The London SchoolThe London School1. Malinowski's theories Malinowski believed that utterances and situation are bound up inextricably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words. There is no way to characterize the meaning of utterances on the basis of internal considerations about the language alone. The meaning of spoken utterances could always be determined by the context of situation.The London SchoolThe London School1. Malinowski's theories He said that in order to assign meaning to a sound, one has to study the situations in which it is used. Meaning is not something that exits in sounds, but something that exists in the relations of sounds and their environment. Malinowski's concepts of "linguistic environment" and "meaning as functions in the CONTEXT OF SITUATION provided useful background for further development of linguistics carried out by Firth.The London SchoolThe London School2. Firth's theories Firth developed Saussure's and Malinowski's theories and put forward his own original points of view. Firth regarded language as a social process. He held that language is a means of doing things. Firth attempted to integrate linguistic studies with sociological studies: because human beings are inseparable from cultural values, and language is an important part of them, linguistics can help reveal the social nature of human beings. The London SchoolThe London School2. Firth's theories Firth’s own study focused on the context of situation. He defined it as including the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment. Firth’s second important contribution to linguistics is his method of PROSODIC ANALYSIS (节律 分析 定性数据统计分析pdf销售业绩分析模板建筑结构震害分析销售进度分析表京东商城竞争战略分析 法), called prosodic phonology. The London SchoolThe London School3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar M. A. K. Halliday (1925-) has developed the ideas stemming from Firth's theories in the London School. His Systemic-Functional (SF) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century, having great effect on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistics, and machine translation.The London SchoolThe London School3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar SF Grammar has two components: S GRAMMAR and F GRAMMAR. S grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. It consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. F grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably（不可避免地）determined by the uses or functions which they serve.The London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar A system is a list of things between which it is possible to choose. Axis of Choice Axis of Chain The London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar Axis of Choice Axis of Chain singular male first number gender person second plural female thirdThe London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar intention (目的) process action process Material process supervention (意外) process (John kicked the ball.) event process Behavioral process (John laughed.) perception(识别)process internalized process reaction process Transitivity Mental process cognition process （及物性）(John loves Mary.) externalized process Verbal process (John said it was cold in the room.) Relational process (John is in the bed.) Existential process (There is a cat on the sofa.) The London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar In this view, we can regard language as a multi-level code system, in which one sub-system is embedded in another. For example, MEANING SEMANTICS is coded by (SYNTAX) WORDING LEXICOGRAMMAR which is coded by SOUND ( or WRITING) PHONOLOGYThe London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar In systemic grammar, the relations of realization are represented by an arrow. The system in systemic grammar chiefly describes three components of functions, or three metafunctions, the ideational (概念), the interpersonal (人际) and the textual (语篇).The London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar material behavioral mental ideational verbal relational existential offer functions interpersonal command statement question textualThe London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar material process: to do something e.g. My brother built all these houses. (actor, process, goal) He broke the window. The window was broken by him. (goal, process, actor) He ran away. (actor, process) He cancelled the meeting.The London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar Mental process: to show perception, reaction and cognition e.g. He saw the north star. (sensor, process, phenomenon) She doesn’t like the milk. Relational process: to show the relationship between things e.g. Carlos is a poet. (identifier, identified) The film lasted two hours. The piano is Peter’s.The London SchoolThe London SchoolSystemic-functional grammar Behavioral process: a physical activity e.g. She laughed heartifully. (behaver, process, circumstantial环境成分) verbal process: to exchange information e.g. My watch says it’s 9:00. (sayer) existential process: to exist e.g. There’s a pen on the desk. (existent)The London SchoolThe London School3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar SF grammar is based on two facts: (1) language users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realize different semantic functions in social interaction; and (2) language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky’s TG Grammar that takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic competence as the object of study.American StructuralismAmerican StructuralismAmerican Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed in a very different style, from that of Europe, under the leadership of the anthropologist F. Boas (1858 - 1942), whose tradition has actually influenced the whole of the 20th-century American linguistics.American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism1. Early period: Boas and Sapir Specialized in the anthropology of North America, Boas worked as organizer of a survey of the many indigenous（本土的） languages of America north of Mexico. The result of the survey was the book Handbook of American Indian Languages (1911). Boas trained the men who investigated other languages. For decades, all the great names of American linguists learned their subject from Boas at first or second hand.American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism1. Early period: Boas and Sapir Boas held that there was no ideal type or form of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse. Boas was strongly opposed to the view that language is the soul of a race, and he proved that the structure and form of a language has nothing to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture. Thus, there were only differences in language structure, while there is no difference between languages in terms of being more or less reasonable or advanced.American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism2. Bloomfield’s theory The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is L. Bloomfield (1887 - 1949). He is such a landmark figure in the history of American linguistics that the period between 1933 and 1950 is known as Bloomfieldian Era, in which American descriptive linguistics formally came into being and reached its prime development.American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism2. Bloomfield’s theory Bloomfield's Language (1933) was once held as the model of scientific methodology and the greatest work in linguistics in the twentieth century. For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as BEHAVIORISM. Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of "stimulus-response reinforcement", and the adult’s use of language is also a process of STIMULUS-RESPONSE.American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism3. Post-Bloomfieldian linguistics Influenced by Bloomfield’s Language, American linguists such as Z. Harris (1909-), C. Hockett (1916-2000), G. Trager, H. L. Smith, A. Hill, and R. Hall further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict empiricism.American StructuralismAmerican Structuralism3. Post-Bloomfieldian linguistics Harris’s Methods in Structural Linguistics (1951) is generally taken as marking the maturity of American descriptive linguistics. The Italian linguist G. C. Lepschy regarded this book as the symbol and turning point of "Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics". Harris is regarded as one of the most distinguished linguists in the post-Bloomfieldian era. Harris’ method as one of the many possible ones of description is of great significance.American S