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欧洲历史上贵族的称谓

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欧洲历史上贵族的称谓欧洲历史上贵族的称谓 记得高中英语课上,有一次老师问我们为什么把“duke”翻译成“公爵”。我们当时只觉得这个老师无聊,难道不翻成“公爵”还翻成“杜克”吗,他见无人响应,便说:“是把这个词放到中国的语境下对应而成的。欧洲的五级贵族等级正好对应中国的五等贵族。” 现在想想觉得这个老师说的是个很有意义的问题——至少在翻译上是。欧洲和中国的贵族称谓既有相似之处,也有不同的地方。翻译的时候一个不小心就容易造成理解差异。 先说说君主的称谓吧。欧洲虽然小国林立,但与中国相似的一点就是,整个欧洲只有一个皇帝。帝国之外的国家...

欧洲历史上贵族的称谓
欧洲历史上贵族的称谓 记得 高中 高中语文新课程标准高中物理选修31全套教案高中英语研修观课报告高中物理学习方法和技巧高中数学说课稿范文 英语课上,有一次老师问我们为什么把“duke”翻译成“公爵”。我们当时只觉得这个老师无聊,难道不翻成“公爵”还翻成“杜克”吗,他见无人响应,便说:“是把这个词放到中国的语境下对应而成的。欧洲的五级贵族等级正好对应中国的五等贵族。” 现在想想觉得这个老师说的是个很有意义的问题——至少在翻译上是。欧洲和中国的贵族称谓既有相似之处,也有不同的地方。翻译的时候一个不小心就容易造成理解差异。 先说说君主的称谓吧。欧洲虽然小国林立,但与中国相似的一点就是,整个欧洲只有一个皇帝。帝国之外的国家元首名义上是比皇帝低的,于是就出现了emperor和king两种最主要的君主头衔。在中国,当然只有一个皇帝,周边小国都对天朝上邦称臣,他们的君主自然也不能称“皇帝”。臣属的朝鲜和越南都被中国皇帝封为“国王”。因此,对应中国的语境下看,emperor是“皇帝”,king是“国王”。 这个基本上没有什么异议。罗马帝国灭亡后,欧洲长期只有一个“皇帝”,也就是神圣罗马帝国的元首。但是在巴尔干半岛和安纳托利亚高原还长期存在一个拜占庭帝国,也就是东罗马帝国。众所周知的是,拜占庭帝国被土耳其人消灭后,娶了拜占庭公主的俄罗斯大公在几十年后称帝,因为他们自诩为东罗马帝国的继承人,号称“第三罗马”。由于他们选择的皇帝称号是“凯撒”,所以在中文里被译为“沙皇”。 十九世纪以后,皇帝的称号不再是神圣罗马帝国哈布斯堡家族的专属了。先是拿破仑自称“法兰西皇帝”——当他肢解了神圣罗马帝国以后,他的确成了欧洲的皇帝。哈布斯堡家族只好委屈自称“奥地利皇帝”。普鲁士统一德国后,国王成了“德意志皇帝”。英国吞并印度后,给英王增加了“印度皇帝”的称号。到一战爆发的时候,欧洲已经有四个皇帝了。 除了帝国和王国,欧洲还有各种各样的小诸侯国,以神圣罗马帝国最为甚。五级贵族等级均可成为独立的诸侯国,只不过子国和男国比较少。与中国不同的是,除公侯伯之外,还有archduke和prince,分别译为“大公”和“亲王”。 大公其实有两个:archduke和grand duke。前者一般局限于哈布斯堡家族,专门用于皇帝的儿子,相当于“皇子”的称谓。后者具有独立统治权,比如卢森堡大公就是Grand Duke of Luxembourg。亲王统治的国家——principality,有列支敦士登、摩纳哥、安道尔。似乎中文直接把principality译成“大公国”,可人家君主明明是“亲王”。但译成“亲王的领地”“亲王领”听起来又很奇怪。反观中国的“亲王”,其领地虽可称“王国”,却缺乏principality的独立性。真正能称得上“王国”的只有朝鲜和越南。 欧洲与中国的另一个不同是女性元首的存在。欧洲语言大多具有阴阳对立的构词特点。比如,演员actor,女演员actress。这种阴阳对立的情形也广泛存在于贵族称谓中。可是,empress既可以指“皇后”也可以指“女皇”,于是就有了更加正式的称呼。女皇被称为empress regnant,皇后被称为empress consort。类似地,女王被称为queen regnant,王后被称为queen consort。 曾经看到有人把“queen consort”译成“王妃”,现在觉得很有道理。朝鲜国王的妻子被称为“王妃”,因为朝鲜比中国低一级,君主称“王”,其妻自然不能称“后”,应改称“妃”。中世纪的欧洲也是这样。皇帝名义上比法国、英国的国王们都要高一等,所以他们的妻子似乎不能称“王后”。不过这样一来,princess也不能叫“王妃”了,得降一级,难道叫“嫔”不成, 注:查理曼帝国时期,公爵(Duke)的意思是大军区司令,侯爵(Marquis)是边境地区的军事长官,伯爵(count)是地方长官,子爵(Viscount)是副伯爵,男爵(Baron)是国王侍从。后来查理曼帝国王权衰落,地方势力崛起,这些名词就演变成爵位名称了 元首的配偶也有多种称谓。除了上述的皇后、王后(王妃)之外,最多的就是“夫人”了。这些都很简单,可是女元首的丈夫叫什么呢, 先看看女皇吧。神圣罗马帝国因为实行萨里克法典,没有女皇。拜占庭帝国倒是有女皇,她们的丈夫直接成了皇帝。俄罗斯的女皇不是没有丈夫,就是丈夫已经死了,所以女皇的丈夫基本上没有什么特别的称谓。 女王的丈夫就要复杂得多了。第一种称呼是“jure uxoris king”。jure uxoris是拉丁语,意思是“因其妻而具有的权利”。这种“国王”是在妻子成为女王后得到加冕的,他们与女王共同统治这个国家,相当于是共治者。他们正式被称为“某某几世”,可以以君主的身份被正式载入史册。但一旦妻子去世,他们就会丧失权力,王位将由女王的继承人继承。最典型的例子是卡斯蒂利亚女王伊莎贝尔一世的丈夫费迪南二世。他因为妻子的缘故成为了jure uxoris king of Castile,卡斯蒂利亚的共治国王。但伊莎贝尔一世在1504年死后,胡安娜一世继承卡斯蒂利亚王位,他就只是阿拉贡国王了。 不过也有例外。波兰女王雅德薇嘉死后,她的丈夫亚盖洛二世就成了波兰国王,独自统治波兰。葡萄牙的情况更是搞笑。只有当女王生下孩子,她们的丈夫才能被加冕为jure uxoris king。玛丽亚一世即位时已经有了儿子,所以她的丈夫就成了佩德罗三世;玛丽亚二世登基时还没有孩子,所以直到孩子出生她的丈夫才变成了费迪南二世。 第二种情况是“king consort”,相对应于“queen consort”。这种“国王”没有统治国家的权力,也不能称“某某几世”,因此不算真正的国家元首。最著名的king consort是西班牙国王菲利普二世。他在1554年娶了英国女王玛丽一世后成为了英国的“king consort”,但是没有统治英国的权力。英国历史上虽有七位女王,但惟有玛丽一世的丈夫获得了“king consort”的头衔。 那么其他英国女王的丈夫的正式头衔是什么呢,第一位女王,“九日女王”简格雷,她只同意封丈夫吉尔福达德利为克拉伦斯公爵。不过她只统治了九天,所以不知道她是不是有时间兑现这一 承诺 党员整改承诺书工程质量保证服务承诺书供货时间与服务承诺方案食品安全承诺书我公司的设计优势和服务承诺 。 第三位女王伊丽莎白一世终生未婚。第四位女王玛丽二世的丈夫是荷兰执政威廉三世。他们二人在“光荣革命”后登上王位,威廉三世因此也就是英国国王威廉三世了。第五位女王安妮的丈夫是丹麦王子乔治。他在1689年大姨子玛丽二世登基的时候就被封为坎伯兰德公爵,此后一直没有晋封。 维多利亚的丈夫阿尔伯特被封为“prince consort”。发明这个称谓的原因是,传统上人们认为king比queen高一级,但女王的丈夫应该比女王低一级,所以选择了prince这个词。阿尔伯特因此被称为“亲王”。伊丽莎白二世效仿维多利亚,给丈夫菲利普一个“prince of the United Kingdom”的称号。 苏格兰女王玛丽斯图亚特的第二任丈夫亨利达恩利曾被封为“king consort”,但他希望自己能成为“Crown Matrimonial”(中文译作“并肩王”,不过中国却没有这个称谓)。Crown Matrimonial指的是女王的丈夫可以在女王去世且没有子嗣的情况下登上王位,他登基后可以再婚,再婚的孩子还可以继承王位。Crown Matrimonial曾授予过玛丽斯图亚特的第一任丈夫、法国国王弗朗索瓦二世。如果玛丽早于弗朗索瓦而死且没有子嗣,弗朗索瓦将成为苏格兰国王,而且他再婚的孩子还将继承苏格兰王位——当然,这一切都没有发生。 传统上,贵族必须与贵族通婚。只有这样,婚后双方才能拥有贵族头衔,他们的孩子才是合法的王位继承人。然而,王子与灰姑娘的恋情却一直不断上演。到十九世纪之后,社会等级日渐消弥,贵族与平民结合的阻力也不那么大了,所以出现了许多“贵庶通婚”(morganatic marriage)的情况。 早期的“贵庶通婚”与这个词字面上的意思有差异。“庶”并不一定是平民,而是指非王室成员的贵族。例如,一战前被刺杀的那位奥地利皇储弗兰茨?斐迪南大公,他与索菲?肖台克的婚姻便属于“贵庶通婚”,但索菲?肖台克是波希米亚的一位伯爵的女儿,并非真正的平民出身。但哈布斯堡王朝的惯例是,皇位继承人的妻子一定要是王室出身。比如,奥地利末代皇帝卡尔一世的妻子齐塔皇后出身于帕尔马?波旁王室,虽然这个小国早已成为了意大利的一部分,却是正经的王室。索菲?肖台克的父亲虽然是位伯爵,可不是王室成员,因此只能算平民。 因此,弗兰茨?斐迪南大公的婚姻遭到了皇帝弗兰茨?约瑟夫一世的强烈反对,但皇帝最终不得不妥协。索菲嫁给了大公,却不能成为大公夫人。她被册封为霍亨堡女公爵,她和大公的子女不能继承皇位。只能继承她的头衔和名号。 贵庶通婚是法律允许的合法婚姻。然而,“庶”的一方婚后不能随配偶得到王室头衔,但可以得到一个新册封的贵族头衔。他们的子女是婚生子女,却不能继承“贵”的一方的头衔。 贵庶通婚一般都是男贵女庶的情况,但也有女贵男庶的情况。例如,拿破仑的第二任妻子、奥地利的玛丽?路易丝后来改嫁给了奈佩格伯爵。 二十世纪以后,贵庶通婚大量出现,王室对贵庶通婚也越来越宽容。事实上,戴安娜并非真正的平民,只是非王室出身的贵族而已;她与查尔斯也不是英国王室中头一个进行贵庶通婚的。伊丽莎白二世的母亲,已故的王太后,就是苏格兰贵族出身,与王室没有血缘关系,只能算平民。只不过王太后与乔治六世结婚的时候,后者只是约克公爵,而非王位继承人,所以王室对此比较宽容。戴安娜和王太后都得到了王室头衔,她们的子女也都是合法的继承人。 查尔斯王储的妻子卡米拉则是一位真正的平民。当然,现在王子娶平民也不是什么新鲜事了。可是,鉴于两人曾长期偷情又先后离婚的感情史,卡米拉不可能成为王后。她被封为“康沃尔女公爵”(Duchess of Cornwall),头衔是princess consort,中文译为“伴妃”。 如果国王去世了,王后叫什么呢,最常见的情况是“queen dowager”,直译过来就是“孀居的王后”。听起来惨兮兮的,不过也确实反映了欧洲宫廷的一个惯例:太后的地位低于王后。如果太后不是新国王的母亲,这个当然很好理解;但即使新国王是太后的儿子,太后的地位仍然低于王后。 1801年,俄罗斯发生政变,沙皇保罗一世被杀。保罗一世的妻子玛丽亚?费奥多罗夫娜突发奇想,想要效仿婆婆叶卡特琳娜二世登基。保罗一世的儿子、未来的亚历山大一世苦劝母亲,最终打消了玛丽亚皇后的疯狂念头。作为交换,亚历山大一世保证,母亲在成为太后之后,仍享有宫中第一夫人的地位。这个协定招致了亚历山大一世的妻子伊丽莎白皇后对丈夫和婆婆极大的怨恨。从这个例子我们可以看出欧洲通行的惯例。 太后还有一个称谓,叫“queen mother”。得到这种头衔的太后一定要具备两个条件:首先,她必须曾经做过王后;其次,新国王必须是她的儿子。因此,所有的queen mother一定都是queen dowager,但不是所有的queen dowager都是queen mother。 无论是queen dowager还是queen mother,她们都必须做过王后。因此,倘若一个女人没有当过王后,即使她的儿子成了国王,她也不可能得到“太后”的称号。比如,维多利亚女王的母亲肯特公爵夫人维多利亚,在女儿登基后被称为“queen’s mother”。一字之差,意思完全不同。类似的还有亨利七世的母亲玛格丽特•博福特。她只当过伯爵夫人,儿子继位后尊其为“king’s mother”。无论是“女王的母亲”还是“国王的母亲”,听起来都很不伦不类。窃以为“圣母娘娘”听上去要好些。 乔治三世的父亲在做太子的时候就死了,所以他的母亲奥古斯塔也没有做过王后。乔治三世登基后,奥古斯塔被称为“princess dowager of Wales”(威尔士亲王遗孀/太妃)。 当无法册封母亲为太后时,国王们为了尽孝,通常采用的方式是册封她们很多贵族头衔和领地。弗朗索瓦一世的母亲、萨瓦的路易丝就被封为昂古莱姆、安茹和奥弗涅女公爵。 中国其实从前对太后的称号控制得也很严格。庶出皇帝的母亲只能封太妃,藩王出身的皇帝的母亲也不是所有都能成为太后。只是慢慢地, 制度 关于办公室下班关闭电源制度矿山事故隐患举报和奖励制度制度下载人事管理制度doc盘点制度下载 就改了。 插一句: 中国讲究的是“母以子贵,子以母贵”。母以子贵很好理解,因此,虽然中国王朝也强调“嫡庶之分,内外有别”,还是会有非皇后出身的人成为太后。事实上,在藩妃和后宫成为太后的过程中,很多时候都伴随着权力的斗争和转移,例如:汉哀帝、胡太后、嘉靖皇帝等。 但是总体上来说,随着历史的演进,对后宫晋升太后变得越来越宽容了,但对藩妃晋升太后控制得仍然比较严格。嘉靖因为追尊父母的问题和朝臣发生冲突(当然更多的是政治冲突),本身就说明当时的制度对藩妃的歧视。这种歧视其实是多方面原因造成的,比如中央对地方的绝对控制,出继和立嗣的传统观念,大宗对小宗的绝对优势等等。 再说说“子以母贵”。皇后的儿子比后宫的儿子有优先继承权,这就是子以母贵。那么后宫之间呢,其实周朝时候的宗法制规定的是,等级高的后宫的儿子比等级低的后宫的儿子有优先继承权。也就是说,当没有嫡子的情况下,庶子间谁的母亲地位高谁就越有可能被立为太子。选择太子并不是根据年龄的长幼,而是根据母亲的地位高低。长子的母亲可能只是个普通宫女——没戏;幼子的母亲是贵妃——极有可能成为太子。当然这都是最传统的宗法制。中国历史的发展就是对制度的不断修改。 继续... 欧洲的君主不能像中国的皇帝一样合法纳妾。当然,大多数君主都有过情人,但国王的情人却不能像中国的妃嫔一样得到名分。所谓名不正则言不顺,国王的情妇若是不能封个贵妃昭仪什么的,哪能有什么地位呢,所以,渐渐地,这些女人们也有了封号。 法国国王的情妇们有一个正式的称谓,叫“ma?tresse en titre”,即“正式的情妇”。被正式授予这个称呼,就标志着这个女人得到了官方的承认,有了名分。但除了法国以外,其他国家很少给与国王的情妇正式的名分。 最普遍的做法是将情人弄到宫里来,封她们做女官,然后再册封为贵族夫人。事实上,绝大多数皇家情妇都做过女官。比如,法国国王亨利二世的情妇狄安娜?德?普瓦蒂埃就曾是国王的女官,后来成了国王的情妇,并被封为瓦伦蒂努瓦公爵夫人、埃唐普公爵夫人。 国王极少和他们的情妇结婚,当然也有例外。亨利八世的第二任妻子安妮?博林就曾是他的情妇。安妮?博林先被任命为宫廷女官,然后被封为彭布洛克女侯爵,最后在1533年和国王结婚,加冕为王后。 私生子是不能继承王位的。只有西班牙、葡萄牙、意大利某些国家出现过私生子继位的情况,那是因为这些地方受东方文化影响较大。在西欧,即使国王将他们的私生子合法化,他们也不能继承王位。例如,亨利四世的父亲兰开斯特公爵约翰?冈特的第三个妻子凯瑟琳?斯温佛德,就曾是他的情妇。约翰?冈特第二个妻子去世后,他立刻和凯瑟琳结婚,并把他和凯瑟琳的孩子身份合法化,可他们的孩子还是被剥夺了继承权。而亨利七世的母亲玛格丽特?博福特正是凯瑟琳和约翰?冈特的孙女,这就是亨利七世继承王位受人质疑的原因。 路易十四曾授予自己的私生子继承权。路易十四和情妇蒙特斯庞侯爵夫人的两个儿子——曼恩公爵和图鲁兹伯爵在1714年被路易十四授予继承权。路易十四晓谕众人,倘若王室绝嗣,将由曼恩公爵继位,图鲁兹伯爵次之。路易十四只有一个婚生子路易王太子,在1711年就死了。王太子有三个儿子,长子布格涅公爵和三子贝里公爵分别在1712年和1714年死去;次子安茹公爵菲利普已成为西班牙国王,依照《乌德勒支条约》,菲利普及其子女不得继承法国王位。路易十四此时膝下仅有一个曾孙,也就是后来的路易十五。但他担心小王子夭折,这样一来,作为西班牙国王的孙子和作为奥尔良公爵的侄子一定会为了争夺王位大打出手。为了防止内战爆发,他决定授予曼恩公爵和图鲁兹伯爵继承权。 贵庶通婚生下的孩子一般不能继承贵族的头衔或拥有王室的封号。比如,前面提到过的弗兰茨?斐迪南大公和索菲女公爵的孩子,他们只能继承母亲的名号。不过,有些国王、贵族会给他们的孩子另外设立一个头衔作为补偿。比如,符腾堡公爵亚历山大和他的匈牙利伯爵小姐妻子婚后生有三个孩子,国王威廉一世册封他们的长子弗兰西斯为特克亲王(prince of Teck)。八年后,卡尔一世又晋封他为特克公爵(从这里可以看出,欧洲的“亲王”是低于“公爵”的)。弗兰西斯的女儿玛丽后来嫁给了英国国王乔治五世。 国王的子女也有不同的称呼。英法两国的王储有着特殊的头衔。英国是“威尔士亲王”(prince of Wales),法国叫“道芬”(le Dauphin);相应地,他们的妻子则是“威尔士王妃”(princess of Wales)和“道芬娜”(la Dauphine)。西班牙、葡萄牙的王子叫infante,公主叫infanta。 奥地利和俄罗斯的皇子全部封为大公,公主全部封为女大公。需要指出的是,虽然中文翻译一样,但俄奥两国的大公却不是同一个词。奥地利的皇子皇女们被称为archduke/archduchess,而沙皇的子女则被称为grand duke/duchess。一般来说,archduke/archduchess局限于哈布斯堡家族内部,是皇子皇女的荣誉头衔。Grand duke/duchess应用范围要广泛一些,可以指沙皇的儿女,也可以指具有独立统治权的国家元首,比如卢森堡大公(Grand Duke of Luxembourg)。 法国宫廷在十七世纪成为全欧洲模仿的对象。凡尔赛的繁琐礼仪也同其奢华一道闻名于世。法国王室和宗室有着各种各样不同的称谓。第一种是“血亲王子”(prince du sang),指身份合法的宗室成员。首先是“第一血亲王子”,即血缘与王室最近的宗室,他们被称为“Monsieur le Prince”(亲王殿下),他们的妻子是“Madame la Princesse”。当王室绝嗣时,第一血亲王子就将成为王位继承人。亨利四世登基前就是瓦卢瓦王室的第一血亲王子。 还有一种血亲王子叫“Monsieur le Duc”(公爵殿下),他们的妻子是“Madame la Duchesse”。这一称谓专属于孔蒂亲王家族。1709年之前孔蒂家族是波旁王室的第一血亲王子。1709年,Monsieur le Prince的称号被授予了路易十四的侄子奥尔良公爵菲利普二世。孔蒂家族则被称为Monsieur le Duc。 作为波旁王朝最远支的宗室,苏瓦松伯爵家族则得到了“Monsieur le Comte”(伯爵殿下)的头衔。苏瓦松伯爵源自孔蒂家族,1566年得到世袭伯爵头衔。苏瓦松伯爵的妻子则被称为“Madame la Comtesse”。 血亲王子中最后一种称号是授予已故孔蒂亲王的王妃们的,即“Madame la Princesse Douarière” (douarière即dowager)。大革命之前共有三位孔蒂亲王太妃,她们按照顺序依次被称为“第一太妃”、“第二太妃”、“第三太妃”(法国宫廷似乎非常喜欢排序,路易十五的八个女儿被称为“第一公主”、“第二公主”等等一直到“第八公主”)。 第二种是专门授予国王的子女们的。国王的儿子被称为“fils de France”,直译过来便是“法兰西的儿子”;女儿们被称为“fille de France”,即“法兰西的女儿”。“fils de France”也通指法国王储,不管他们是不是国王的儿子。国王的孙子是“petit-fils de France”(法兰西的孙子),孙女叫“petit-fille de France”(法兰西的孙女)。 前面已经说过,法国的王储叫“道芬”(Dauphin)。从路易十四起,王储被称为“Monsieur le Dauphin”,王妃叫“Madame la Dauphine”。路易十四的第一个王储是他的唯一的婚生子,被称为le Grand Dauphin,即“大王储”。1711年大王储死后,他的长子布格涅公爵被祖父立为新王储,宫中称其为le Petit Dauphin,即“小王储”。大王储还有一个称号,叫“Monseigneur”。他死后,这个称号传给了他的儿子们:布格涅公爵、安茹公爵和贝里公爵。 Monsieur是法语中的“先生”。在中世纪的法国,Monsieur专指国王的次子或国王的大弟弟。例如,查理九世是亨利二世的次子,从他出生到哥哥弗朗索瓦二世去世,他都是Monsieur。Monsieur通常是王位的第二继承人或头号继承人。与第一血亲王子不同的是,Monsieur是王室出身,而第一血亲王子是宗室出身。Monsieur的妻子叫做Madame。 国王的长女有个特殊的称号“Madame Royale”。但这个称号不局限于国王的女儿。路易十四的侄女、奥尔良公爵的长女玛丽?路易丝也曾使用过这个头衔。她嫁到西班牙以后,她的妹妹安妮?玛丽也沿用了这个称号。不过后来,她们全部被称为“Mademoiselle”。路易十三的侄女、蒙庞西埃夫人奥尔良的安妮曾被册封为“la Grande Mademoiselle”(大郡主)。Madame是“夫人”,Mademoiselle是“小姐”,自然是有地位高低的。对应在中国语境中,前者是“公主”,后者就是“翁主”“郡主”什么的了。 王室和奥尔良家族的私生子还有两个称号。凡是身份合法化了的王室私生子都被称为“Légitimé de France”,女儿被称为“Légitimée de France”。路易十四的私生女们后来都得到了“Mademoiselle”的头衔。只是比起正牌的宗室郡主,她们的头衔后面必须缀上自己的封地,以示区别。比如,蒙特斯庞夫人的女儿弗朗索瓦丝•玛丽,未来的摄政王妃、奥尔良公爵夫人,就被称为“Mademoiselle de Blois”(布卢瓦郡主)。奥尔良家族的私生子有一个非常刺耳的名字“b?tard d'Orléans”(奥尔良的私生子)。 由于天主教会的势力在中世纪非常强大,许多教士的权力也逐渐世俗化,像国王和贵族一样统治他们自己的教区。这些教区后来也形成了一个个独立的主教国或大主教国,被称为 “principality-bishop/archbishop”。主教(bishop)和大主教(archbishop)都享有极大的政治、经济特权,有的还可以选举教皇。因此,某些贵族家庭中的小儿子因为无法继承家产,便利用家庭的关系为自己争取到一个主教职位,甚至王室也不例外。 教会在神圣罗马帝国的权力尤其突出。1356年卡尔四世皇帝颁布《金玺诏书》,规定神圣罗马帝国皇帝由七大选帝侯选出。当时,这七位选帝侯中有三位是大主教,分别是美茵茨大主教、特里尔大主教和科隆大主教。 选帝侯被称为“Prince Elector”。除了上述三个大主教外,1356年规定的选帝侯还包括:波希米亚国王、巴拉丁伯爵、萨克森公爵和勃兰登堡边区长。1621年,因为接受了属于哈布斯堡家族的波希米亚王位,巴拉丁伯爵被剥夺了选帝侯的称号,皇帝委任巴伐利亚公爵为选帝侯。1648年《威斯 特伐利亚条约》又恢复了巴拉丁的选帝侯地位,于是帝国的选帝侯就增加到八个。1692年,又增加了第九个选帝侯,即布伦瑞克•吕讷堡公爵,他被称为“汉诺威选帝侯”。1777年,由于巴拉丁选侯继承了巴伐利亚王位,选帝侯的数量又下降到八个。 1801年,奥地利在拿破仑战争中战败,割让莱茵河西岸的领土给法国。这样一来,特里尔和科隆大主教区就被并入法国了,美茵茨选帝侯也被转到了鲁根斯堡大主教区。1803年,皇帝又新设了四个选帝侯,使选帝侯数量达到了十个,分别授予符腾堡公爵、巴登边区长、黑森?卡塞尔方伯(注:这个“方伯”原文是landgrave,其实是日语的译法,不知道中文是怎么翻译的)和萨尔茨堡公爵。1805年,奥地利兼并了萨尔茨堡,又把原属萨尔茨堡的选帝侯授予了沃尔茨堡大公。 在上面的叙述中,有两个头衔对中国人而言是比较陌生的:边区长和方伯。其实他们的英文分别是margrave和landgrave。Margrave在很多书中被译为“边疆伯爵”,但是最初它并不是贵族头衔,而是一种官职。它与中国历史上的节度使非常相像。最初设置这一职务是在加洛林王朝。查理曼大帝征服了大片领土,需要人替自己管理辽远的边境。当时,帝国南部与穆斯林统治的西班牙接壤,东部与斯拉夫人相邻,西部有维金人和布列顿人的威胁,时刻都有爆发战争的可能,因此急需军事长官坐镇。于是,查理曼大帝任命了一批margrave,作为边区长官,负责边境战事。 边区一般控制的疆域都比较大,而且主要分布在帝国东部,也就是今天德国、奥地利境内,但在西部和南部,也设有边区。例如,在今天的加泰罗尼亚一带,设有西班牙边区,负责与穆斯林的战事;在布列塔尼半岛和诺曼底半岛,设有布列顿边区和诺曼边区,负责与布列顿人和维金人的战事。 需要指出的是,margrave最初是一种官职。这就意味着,理论上讲,它是不可世袭的。但margrave具有极大的权力。他们不但独立掌握军队,而且打仗获胜后,战利品归他们自己所有,新开辟的疆土也将直接划入他们的边区。因此,近代许多国家都是从边区发展而成的。因此许多边区在几代之后,都实现了长官职位的世袭化。 在这之后,边区长逐渐扩大自己的领地,建立起一个个独立的王国。神圣罗马帝国中最重要的两个国家——普鲁士和奥地利,都是从边区发展起来的。普鲁士原为勃兰登堡边区,奥地利本是东部边区(统治奥地利东部、意大利东北部和巴尔干西北部的地区)。西班牙边区后来发展为巴塞罗那伯国,这个国家后来通过联姻的手段与阿拉贡合并,并最终成为了统一的西班牙王国的一部分。反观中国的节度使,也大致沿袭着同样的过程。最初是镇守边境的边将,受朝廷节制;接着权力越来越大,成为割据一方的藩镇;最后成为独立的国家。到了中世纪后期,随着军事战争需求的下降,边区长的军事重要性逐渐下降,更多地则变成了一种彰显身份的贵族爵位。因此个人以为,在这个时候,把margrave译为“边疆伯爵”才是比较合适的,在这之前宁愿称其为“边区长”。在神圣罗马帝国,边区长/边疆伯爵的地位低于公爵,高于伯爵,大约相当于侯爵。 (英文版 ) Two regulations promulgated for implementation is in the party in power for a long time and the rule of law conditions, the implementation of comprehensive strictly strategic plan, implementation in accordance with the rules and discipline to manage the party, strengthen inner-party supervision of major initiatives. The two regulations supporting each other, the < code > adhere to a positive advocate, focusing on morality is of Party members and Party leading cadres can see, enough to get a high standard; < rule > around the party discipline, disciplinary ruler requirements, listed as "negative list, focusing on vertical gauge, draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the" bottom line ". Here, the main from four square face two party rules of interpretation: the first part introduces two party Revised regulations the necessity and the revision process; the second part is the interpretation of the two fundamental principles of the revision of laws and regulations in the party; the third part introduces two party regulations modified the main changes and needs to grasp several key problems; the fourth part on how to grasp the implementation of the two regulations of the party. < code > and < Regulations > revised the necessity and revised history of the CPC Central Committee the amendment to the Chinese Communist Party members and leading cadres honest politics several guidelines > and < Chinese Communist Party discipline and Punishment Regulations > column 1 by 2015 to strengthen party laws and regulations focus. Two party regulations revision work lasted a Years, pooling the wisdom of the whole party, ideological consensus, draw historical experience, respect for the wisdom of our predecessors, which reflects the unity of inheritance and innovation; follow the correct direction, grasp the limited goals, adhere to the party's leadership, to solve the masses of the people reflect a focus on the problem. The new revision of the < code > and < rule >, reflects the party's 18 and the eighth session of the third, the spirit of the fourth plenary session, reflecting the experience of studying and implementing the General Secretary Xi Jinping series of important speech, reflects the party's eighteen years comprehensive strictly practice. (a) revised two regulations of the party need of < the ICAC guidelines > in < in 1997 Leaders as members of the Communist Party of China clean politics certain criteria (Trial) > based on revised, the promulgation and implementation of January 2010, to strengthen the construction of the contingent of leading cadres play an important role. But with the party to manage the party strictly administering the deepening, has not been able to fully meet the actual needs. Content is too complicated, "eight prohibition, 52 are not allowed to" hard to remember, and also difficult to put into practice; the second is concisely positive advocated by the lack of prohibited provisions excessive, no autonomy requirements; the third is banned terms and discipline law, both with the party discipline, disciplinary regulations repeat and Criminal law and other laws and regulations repeat; the fourth is to "clean" the theme is not prominent, not for the existing problems, and is narrow, only needle of county-level leading cadres above. < rule > is in 1997 < Chinese Communist Party disciplinary cases (Trial) > based on revision, in December 2003 the promulgation and implementation, to strengthen the construction of the party play very important role. Along with the development of the situation, which many provisions have been unable to fully meet the comprehensive strictly administering the practice needs. One is Ji law, more than half of the provisions and criminal law and other countries laws and regulations Repetition; two is the political discipline regulations is not prominent, not specific, for violation of the party constitution, damage the authority of Party Constitution of misconduct lack necessary and serious responsibility to pursue; third is the main discipline for the leading cadres, does not cover all Party members. Based on the above situation, need to < the criterion of a clean and honest administration > and < rule > the two is likely to be more relevant regulations first amendment. By revising, really put the authority of Party discipline, the seriousness in the party tree and call up the majority of Party members and cadres of the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness. (II) two party regulations revision process the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China attaches great importance to two regulations revision . Xi Jinping, general books recorded in the Fifth Plenary Session of the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, on the revised regulations < > made clear instructions. According to the central deployment, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection from 2014 under six months begin study two regulations revision. The Standing Committee of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection 4 review revised. Comrade Wang Qishan 14 times held a special meeting to study two regulations revision, amendment clarifies the direction, major issues of principle, path and target, respectively held a forum will listen to part of the province (area) secretary of the Party committee, Secretary of the Discipline Inspection Commission, part of the central ministries and state organs Department The first party committee is mainly responsible for people, views of experts and scholars and grassroots party organizations and Party members. Approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, on 7 September 2015, the general office of the Central Committee of the Party issued a notice to solicit the provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) Party, the central ministries and commissions, state ministries and commissions of the Party (party), the General Political Department of the military, every 3 people organization of Party of two regulations revision opinion. Central Commission for Discipline Inspection of extensive solicitation of opinions, careful study, attracting, formed a revised sent reviewers. In October 8 and October 12, Central Committee Political Bureau Standing Committee and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee After consideration of the two regulations revised draft. On October 18, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formally issued two regulations. Can say, two laws amendment concentrated the wisdom of the whole party, embodies the party. Second, < code > and < Regulations > revision of the basic principles of two party regulations revision work and implement the party's eighteen, ten eight plenary, the spirit of the Fourth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee and General Secretary Xi Jinping important instructions on the revised < low political criterion > and < Regulations >, highlighting the ruling party characteristics, serious discipline, the discipline quite in front of the law, based on the current, a long-term, advance as a whole, with Bu Xiuding independent < rule > and < rule >. Main principle is: first, adhere to the party constitution to follow. The constitution about discipline and self-discipline required specific, awaken the party constitution of party compasses party consciousness, maintaining the authority of the constitution. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that "no rules, no side round. Party constitution is the fundamental law, the party must follow the general rules. In early 2015 held the eighth session of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection Fifth Plenary Session of the 16th Central Committee, Xi Jinping again pointed out that constitution is the party must follow the general rules, but also the general rules." the revision of the < code > and < rule > is Method in adhere to the regulations established for the purpose of combining rule of virtue is to adhere to the party constitution as a fundamental to follow, the constitution authority set up, wake up the party constitution and party rules the sense of discipline, the party constitution about discipline and self-discipline specific requirements. 4 second is to adhere to in accordance with the regulations governing the party and the party. The Party of rule of virtue "de", mainly refers to the party's ideals and beliefs, excellent traditional style. The revised the < code > closely linked to the "self-discipline", insisting on the positive initiative, for all members, highlight the "vital few", emphasized self-discipline, focusing on the morality, and the majority of Party members and the ideological and moral standards. The revised < > Ji method separately, Ji, Ji Yan to Method, as a "negative list", emphasizing the heteronomy, focusing on vertical gauge. Is this one high and one low, a positive reaction, the strict party discipline and practice results transformation for the integration of the whole party to observe moral and discipline requirements, for the majority of Party members and cadres provides benchmarking and ruler. Third, insist on to. In view of the problems existing in the party at the present stage, the main problems of Party members and cadres in the aspect of self-discipline and abide by the discipline to make clearly defined, especially the party's eighteen years strict political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline and to implement the central eight provisions of the spirit against the four winds and other requirements into Disciplinary provisions. Not one pace reachs the designated position, focusing on in line with reality, pragmatic and effective. After the revision of major changes, major changes in the < code > and < rule > modified and needs to grasp several key problems (a) < code > < code > adhere to according to regulations governing the party and party with morals in combination, for at the present stage, the leadership of the party members and cadres and Party members in existing main problems of self-discipline, put forward principles, requirements and specifications, showing Communists noble moral pursuit, reflected at all times and in all over the world ethics from high from low 5 common requirements. One is closely linked to the "self-discipline", removal and no direct relation to the provisions of . the second is adhere to a positive advocate, "eight prohibition" 52 are not allowed to "about the content of the" negative list moved into synchronization amendment < cases >. Three is for all the party members, will apply object from the leadership of the party members and cadres to expand to all Party members, fully embodies the comprehensive strictly required. The fourth is prominent key minority, seize the leadership of the party members and cadres is the key, and put forward higher requirements than the ordinary Party members. Five is to simplify, and strive to achieve concise, easy to understand, easy to remember. The revised < code > is the ruling Party since the first insists on a positive advocate forAll Party members and the self-discipline norms, moral declaration issued to all members of the party and the National People's solemn commitment. > < criterion of a clean and honest administration consists of 4 parts, 18, more than 3600 words. After the revision of the < code >, a total of eight, 281 words, including lead, specification and Party member cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms, etc. Part 3 members low-cost clean and self-discipline, the main contents can be summarized as "four must" "eight code". Lead part, reiterated on ideal and faith, fundamental purpose, the fine traditions and work style, noble sentiments, such as "four must" the principle of requirements, strong tone of self-discipline, The higher request for 6 and supervised tenet, the foothold in permanent Bao the party's advanced nature and purity, to reflect the revised standards requirements. Members of self-discipline norms around the party members how to correctly treat and deal with the "public and private", "cheap and rot" thrifty and extravagance "bitter music", put forward the "four norms". Party leader cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms for the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "vital few", around the "clean politics", from civil servant of the color, the exercise of power, moral integrity, a good family tradition and other aspects of the leadership of the party members and cadres of the "four norms" < > < norm norm. "The Party member's self-discipline norms" and "party members and leading cadre clean fingered self-discipline norms," a total of eight, collectively referred to as the "eight". "Four must" and "eight" of the content from the party constitution and Party's several generation of leaders, especially Xi Jinping, general secretary of the important discussion, refer to the "three discipline and eight points for attention" statements, and reference some embody the Chinese nation excellent traditional culture essence of epigrams. (2) the revised regulations, the main changes in the revised Regulations > to fully adapt to the strictly requirements, reflects the according to the regulations governing the law of recognition of deepening, the realization of the discipline construction and Jin Ju. < rule > is party a ruler, members of the basic line and follow. And the majority of Party members and cadres of Party organizations at all levels should adhere to the bottom line of thinking, fear discipline, hold the bottom line, as a preventive measure, to keep the party's advanced nature and purity. 1, respect for the constitution, refinement and discipline. Revised < rule > from comprehensive comb physical constitution began, the party constitution and other regulations of the Party of Party organizations and Party discipline requirements refinement, clearly defined in violation of the party constitution will be in accordance with regulations to give the corresponding disciplinary action. The original 10 categories of misconduct, integration specification for political discipline, discipline, honesty and discipline masses Ji Law and discipline and discipline and other six categories, the content of < rule > real return to Party discipline, for the majority of Party members and listed a "negative list. 7 2, highlighting the political discipline and political rules. > < Regulations according to the stage of the discipline of outstanding performance, emphasizing political discipline and political rules, organization and discipline, in opposition to the party's leadership and the party's basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, the basic requirement of behavior made prescribed punishment, increase the cliques, against the organization such as violation of the provisions, to ensure that the central government decrees and the Party of centralized and unified. 3, adhere to strict discipline in the law and discipline In front, Ji separated. Revised < Regulations > adhere to the problem oriented, do Ji separated. Any national law existing content, will not repeat the provisions, the total removal of 79 and criminal law, repeat the content of the public security management punishment law, and other laws and regulations. In the general reiterated that party organizations and Party members must conscientiously accept the party's discipline, die van comply with national laws and regulations; at the same time, to investigate violations of Party members and even criminal behavior of Party discipline and responsibility, > < Regulations distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, so as to realize the connection of Party discipline and state law. 4, reflect Wind building and anti-corruption struggle of the latest achievements. < rule > the party's eighteen years implement the spirit of the central provisions of the eight, against the requirements of the "four winds" and transformation for disciplinary provisions, reflecting the style construction is always on the road, not a gust of wind. In the fight against corruption out of new problems, increase the trading rights, the use of authority relatives profit and other disciplinary terms. Prominent discipline of the masses, the new against the interests of the masses and ignore the demands of the masses and other disciplinary terms and make provisions of the disposition and the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses. Discipline to protect the party's purpose. 8 of these regulations, a total of three series, Chapter 15, 178, more than 24000 words, after the revision of the regulations a total of 3 series, Chapter 11, 133, 17000 words, divided into "general" and "special provisions" and "Supplementary Provisions" Part 3. Among them, add, delete, modify the provisions of the proportion of up to nearly 90%. 1, the general general is divided into five chapters. The first chapter to the regulations of the guiding ideology, principles and scope of application of the provisions, highlight the strengthening of the party constitution consciousness, maintenance the authority of Party Constitution, increase the party organizations and Party members must abide by the party constitution, Yan Centralized centralized, would examine at all levels of the amended provisions implementing and maintaining Party discipline, and consciously accept the party discipline, exemplary compliance with national laws and regulations. The second chapter of discipline concept, disciplinary action types and effects of the regulations, will be a serious warning from the original a year for a year and a half; increase the Party Congress representative, by leaving the party above (including leave probation) punishment, the party organization should be terminated its representative qualification provisions. The third chapter of the disciplinary rules of use prescribed in the discipline rectifying process, non convergence, not close hand classified as severely or heavier punishment. "Discipline straighten "At least eighteen years of five years, these five years is to pay close attention to the provisions of the central eight implementation and anti -" four winds ". The fourth chapter on suspicion of illegal party disciplinary distinguish five different conditions, with special provisions were made provisions, to achieve effective convergence of Party and country 9 method. < rule > the provisions of Article 27, Party organizations in the disciplinary review found that party members have committed embezzlement, bribery, dereliction of duty dereliction of duty and other criminal law act is suspected of committing a crime shall give cancel party posts, probation or expelled from the party. The second is < Regulations > Article 28 the provisions of Party organizations in the disciplinary review But found that party members are stipulated in the criminal law, although not involved in a crime shall be investigated for Party discipline and responsibility should be depending on the specific circumstances shall be given a warning until expelled punishment. This situation and a difference is that the former regulation behavior has been suspected of a crime, the feeling is quite strict, and the latter for the behavior not involving crime, only the objective performance of the provisions of the criminal code of behavior, but the plot is a crime to slightly. < Regulations > the 29 provisions, Party organizations in the discipline review found that party members and other illegal behavior, affect the party's image, the damage to the party, the state and the people's interests, we should depend on the situation Seriousness given disciplinary action. The loss of Party members, seriously damaging the party's image of behavior, should be given expelled from the party. At this article is party member is in violation of the criminal law outside the other illegal acts, such as violates the public security administration punishment law, customs law, financial laws and regulations behavior. The fourth is < cases > Article 32 stipulates, minor party members and the circumstances of the crime, the people's Procuratorate shall make a decision not to initiate a prosecution, or the people's court shall make a conviction and exempted from criminal punishment shall be given within the party is removed from his post, probation or expelled from the party. Party members and crime, sheets were fined in accordance with For acts; the principal Ordinance amended the provisions of the preceding paragraph. This is the new content, in order to achieve Ji method effective convergence. Five is < > the thirty third article 10 of the provisions, the Party member due to an intentional crime is sentenced to criminal law (including probation) sheets or additional deprivation of political rights; due to negligence crime and was sentenced to three years or more (excluding three years) a penalty, shall give expelled punishment. Due to negligence crime is convicted and sentenced to three years (including three years) in prison or be sentenced to public surveillance, detention, shall in general be expelled from the party. For the individual may not be expelled from the party, should control Approval. This is followed and retained the original > < Regulations the provisions of punishment party authorization rules and report to a level party organizations. For is "party members with criminal acts, and by the criminal punishment, generally should be expelled from the party". The fifth chapter of probationary Party member of the discipline and discipline after missing members of the treatment and punishment decisions, such as the implementation of the provisions, clear the related party discipline and punishment decision made after, for duties, wages and other relevant alteration formalities for the longest time. 2, sub sub section will the original regulations of 10 categories of acts of violation of discipline integration revised into 6 categories, respectively, in violation of the punishments for acts of political discipline "in violation of discipline behavior of punishment" in violation of integrity of disciplinary action points "of violation punishments for acts of mass discipline" "the violation of work discipline, punishment" in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment "6 chapters. 3, annex" Supplementary Provisions "clear authority making supplementary provisions of, cases of interpretative organ, as well as regulations implementation time and retroactivity etc.. 11 (3) learning understanding > < regulations needs to grasp several key problems The first problem -- about the violation of political discipline behavior > < new ordinance chapter 6 the political discipline column for the six disciplines, that is the main opposition to Party leadership and the opposition of the basic theory, basic line, basic program and basic experience, basic requirements of misconduct made provisions of the disposition, especially the eighteen since the CPC Central Committee put forward the Yan Mingzheng treatment of discipline and political rules requirements and practical achievements transformation for Discipline article, increase the false debate central policies, cliques, against the organization review, make no discipline of the principle of harmony terms. These are the party's eighteen years in comprehensive strictly Process combined with the practice of rich content. (1) false debate the central policies and undermine the Party of centralized and unified the problem is made in accordance with the provisions of the party constitution. Constitution in general programme requirements adhere to democratic centralism is one of the requirements of the construction of the party must adhere to the four cardinal. Application of this principle is not only the party the basic organization principle and is also the mass line in party life, it requires that we must fully develop inner-party democracy, respect for the dominant position of Party members, safeguarding the Party member democratic rights, give full play to the enthusiasm and creativity of the party organizations at all levels and Party members, at the same time, also must implement the right concentration, ensure the party's mission < the chaos in unity and concerted action to ensure that the party's decision to get quickly and effectively implementing. The Party Central Committee formulated the major principles and policies, through different channels and ways, fully listen to the party organizations and Party members of the opinions and suggestions, but 12 is some people face to face not to say back blather "" will not say, after the meeting said, "" Taiwan does not say, and nonsense ", in fact, not only disrupt the people thought, some causing serious consequences, the damage to the Party of the centralized and unified, hinder the central policy implementation, but also a serious violation of the democratic system of principles. There is no doubt that shall, in accordance with the Regulations > 4 Specified in Article 6 to give the appropriate punishment. For did not cause serious consequences, to give criticism and education or the corresponding tissue processing. (2) about the destruction of the party's unity < New Regulations > the forty eighth to fifty second article, to damage Party's unity unified and violation of political discipline, punishment situation made explicit provisions. Article 52 of the new "in the party get round group, gangs seek private gain, cliques, cultivate private forces or through the exchange of interests, for their own to create momentum and other activities to gain political capital, given a serious warning or withdraw from their party posts disposition; if the circumstances are serious, to give Leave a party to observation or expelled from the party. (3) on against the organization review of the provisions of the constitution, party loyalty honesty is party members must comply with the obligations. Members must obey the organization decision, shall not violate the organization decided encounters by asking questions to find organization, rely on the organization, shall not deceive the organization, against the organization. For example, after the investigation does not take the initiative to explain the situation, but to engage in offensive and defensive alliance, hiding the stolen money is against survey organization, is a violation of the behavior of political discipline. Article 24 of the original > < Regulations, although the provisions of the interference, hinder group review the behavior of the fabric can be severely or 13 Aggravated punishment, but did not put this kind of behavior alone as a discipline for qualitative amount of discipline. > < new regulations increase the Article 57, "anti organization review, one of the following acts, given a warning or serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, give expelled from the party: (a) on supply or forged, destroyed, transfer, conceal evidence; (II) to prevent others expose, providing evidence Material; (III) harboring co personnel; (4) to the organization to provide false information, to hide the fact; (5) the him against the acts of the organization review. "< rule > add this clause to the Constitution requires more specific, the previous no punishment in accordance with the definite list and put forward clear punishment in accordance with. (4) about organizing or participating in superstitious activities as < Regulations > about engage in activities of feudal superstition obstruction of social management order" violations of Article 164 the provisions, but according to the original < rule > only in disrupting production, work, social life order The case to be disciplinary treatment, in other words, alone make the feudal superstition, organize or participate in the activities of feudal superstition of, does not constitute a violation. Which is not consistent with the requirements of our party's political party. > < new regulations in this change is, superstitious activities on the political discipline, increase the Article 58, is the organization of Party members, in superstitious activities included in violation of the negative list of political discipline deserves punishment, which and Party members should adhere to the correct political principle, political standpoint and viewpoint is consistent. 14 the second question about organization and discipline violation behavior of democratic centralism is our The party's fundamental organizational system. < New Regulations > Chapter 7 "in violation of the behavior of organizational discipline punishment" mainly for violation of democratic centralism, contrary to the "four obey the discipline behavior for source classification rules. Increased not in accordance with the relevant provisions or requirements to the organization for instructions to report on major issues; do not report truthfully report about personal matters; falsify personal archives; hide before joining the party serious mistakes; leading cadres in violation of the relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of the old Xiang, Alumni Association, comrades in arms; to obtain illegal country residence abroad or foreign nationality, illegal for private frontier Documents such as discipline terms. (1) on the report truthfully report personal matters in 2010 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China office, office of the State Council introduced < provisions on issues related to the leading cadres to report personal >, is clear about the request, deputy division level and above leading cadres should truthfully report changes in my marriage and spouse, children, moved to the country (territory), practitioners, income, real estate, investment and other matters, for failing to report, do not report, concealed and unreported, according to the seriousness of the case, giving criticism and education, and to make a correction within a time limit, shall be ordered to make a check, the commandment Jiemian conversation, informed criticism or jobs, free Post processing, constitute violations, in accordance with the relevant provisions shall be given a disciplinary sanction. But since the original < Regulations > and there is no corresponding specific terms, the violation of the regulations, do not report, as a false report about personal matters, there is no corresponding disciplinary action terms, in practice it is difficult to operate. In this regard, in order to solve is not reported, as a false report about personal matters 15 asked censure, the new < Regulations > add the Article 67 of violation of personal matters related to reporting requirements, report truthfully report the clear punishment basis, making this kind of violation behavior is no longer free drilling for Exhibition on matters of personal checks to verify and supervision of cadres, discipline review provides a powerful discipline guarantee. (2) about the illegal organization, to fellow, alumni, friends of the war will < regulations stipulated in Article 68 of >, leading cadres of the party in violation of relevant provisions of the organization, will participate in the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrade in arms to give the punishment according to the seriousness of the case. Here special needs note is three points: this provision for only the leading cadres ", reflecting the high requirements of leading cadres; second violation in 2002, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, the central Organization Department and the The relevant provisions of the General Political Department jointly issued the < off in leading cadres not to participate in the initiative to set up "the villagers would be" alumni "" comrades in arms organization notice >. That is to say, to the spontaneous formation of fellow, Alumni Association, comrades in arms will constitute the premise of discipline is a violation of the provisions of this. The notification specified, leading cadres are not allowed to participate in the spontaneous incorporation of fellow, alumni, between comrades association would like the organization and shall not bear the sorority Human and the organizer shall not hold the corresponding position in the sorority; shall not borrow machine woven "network" and engage in kiss sparsely, round and round the gangs, but not "align" "Jieyi Gold Orchid" behavior. The third is to emphasize here that shall be organized to participate in the initiative to set up the villager, Alumni Association, comrades in arms. The so-called 16 spontaneous was established mainly means without registration. Therefore, Party members include leading cadres in the normal range of fellow, alumni, comrades in the party is not a violation of the rules of Party discipline. The three problem about integrity violations discipline Lian Jie discipline has been eighteen years clean government and anti The focus of the work of corruption. This Ordinance to amend, honesty and discipline this biggest adjustment, the new content, most of which prescribed by the original < criterion of a clean and honest administration > 8 ban and 52 are not allowed into the basic this part. (1) the central eight provisions of the spirit and requirements into < New > in the regulations of the party's eighteen years, central resolutely implement the provisions of the eight and pay close attention to the node and intensive briefing, on public funds, private bus, public funds tourism, gifts of public funds, the big parade and lavish weddings and festive, illegal payment allowances and subsidies, illegal construction of buildings such as the original masses reflects the relatively strong, "four winds" problem of the Resolute rectification. But original < Regulations > to eat and drink, super standard reception and no clear and specific expression, new < rule > will implement eight Central provisions of the spirit of the problem increased to "clean cheap self-discipline" chapter, clear to exceed the standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eating and drinking etc. some in violation of the provisions of the spirit of the eight central relevant persons responsible for punishment, once the violation will be according to the < rule > severely punished, binding, enhanced significantly. One is to add Article 87, about to obtain illegal, hold, and the actual use of the sports card, golf ball cards and other consumer card. Illegal access to private clubs made the punishment provisions. The second is increase the Article 97, has made provisions of the disposition of illegal self pay or 17 spamming allowances, subsidies and bonuses. The third is added to the Article 99, on violation of super standard, beyond the scope of the reception or borrow machine eat and drink to make the provisions of punishment. The fourth is to increase the Article 101, on the management of conference activities in violation of the provisions made sanctions regulations. The fifth is the increased Article 102, for violation of office space management provisions made the punishment provisions. Six is to split the original < rule > Article 78, formed article 98, Article 100 of public Models of tourism, violate the provisions on the administration of the use of discipline of the bus through the list of made a more detailed provisions, apply more operational. Seven is increased the article 96, in violation of the relevant provisions of the, to participate in public funds to pay for dinner, high consumption of entertainment, fitness activities and public funds to buy gift, send gifts to make the provisions of the disposition. On the violation of the central provisions of the spirit of the eight, in addition to > < new regulations into "violation of honesty and self-discipline" misconduct outside, is different with the original < Regulations >, revised < rule > clearly defined not only to disposition of the directly responsible persons, but also dispose of collar Guide responsibilities. (2) increased trading rights, use of authority or position influence as relatives and close to profit violation of the terms of the < New Regulations > absorption < clean politics several guidelines > the relevant provisions spirit, increase the "negative list, including trading rights, the functions and powers or duties of influence as relatives and staff around profit. Increase Article 81" mutual use of office or authority ring for each other and their spouses, children and their spouses and other relatives, around 18 personnel and other specific relationship between the people to seek benefits engage in trading rights, given a warning or serious warning Sanctions; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, shall be expelled from the party. Increase Article 82 "connivance, acquiescence to the spouse, children and spouse etc. relatives and staff around the effect of Party members and cadres personal authority or position for personal gain, if the circumstances are relatively minor, given a warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are relatively serious, giving removed from or placed on probation within the party post; if the circumstances are serious, the given Expelled from the party. Party members and cadres of the spouses, children and their spouses does the actual work and get salary or although the actual work but to receive significantly beyond the same rank salary standard, Party members and cadres informed fails to correct, in accordance with the provisions of the preceding paragraph. "(3) about the gifts, gifts misconduct from handling practices in recent years, engaged in official cadres received gifts, gifts problems more prominent. This has seriously affected the image of Party members and cadres, damaged the relations between the party and the masses, and is a hotbed of corruption, is really necessary for this kind of behavior to be disciplined. < rule > no on accepting gifts, gifts, Card consumption behavior to engage in simple "one size fits all", but the difference between the different separately. One is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting may affect the impartial enforcement of the official gifts, gifts, consumer cards to depending on the seriousness of the case shall be given disciplinary sanctions. That is to say, for may affect the fair execution of business gifts, gifts, consumer cards are not allowed to accept. 19 is in accordance with the provisions of Article 83, accepting was significantly higher than normal ceremony is still exchanges of gifts, gifts, consumer card to disciplinary action. This is new regulations that daily life is purely reciprocity, accepting the same thing, boys , fellow friends gifts, gifts, shopping cards, although and fair execution of business has nothing to do, also want to as the case shall be dealt with, the situation is obviously beyond normal reciprocity ". The so-called" reciprocity ", one is emphasizes the reciprocal in protocol. In other words is you to me how, I to you how, not only does not go. The second is to significantly exceeded the normal local economy level, customs and habits, economic capacity of individual gifts, gift value. Specific sanctions to according to the processing of a variety of factors to consider, as appropriate. The third is the root according to the provisions of Article 84," to Engaged in public service personnel and their spouses and children, children's spouses and other relatives and other specific relationship presented Ming Xianchao normal reciprocity of gifts, gifts, consumer card, if the circumstances are relatively serious, given a warning until probation. "In accordance with the above provisions, gift giving significantly beyond the normal reciprocity, giver constitute the discipline. (4) on illegal trading of stocks or of other regulations of securities investment < > Article 88 is engaged in punishment regulation of camp and activity in violation of the relevant provisions on. Among them, 3 will" buying and selling stocks or in other securities investment "column as one of disciplinary cases Out. First need to be clear, > < regulations did not change the provisions of the Ordinance. The ordinance of the provisions of the second paragraph of Article 77 provisions "who, in violation of the provisions of the sale of stocks" is one of the violation, and at the beginning of the first paragraph of this article "violation of 20 against the relevant provisions of the" textual representation of the repeat revision. In, just from the legislative technique removed the "personal" in violation of the provisions, content and not to change the original provisions. Need to clear is, "buy or sell a stock or of other securities investment" refers to violation of the relevant provisions refers to in April 2001, the Party Central Committee, the State Council promulgated the On the work of the party and government organs staff's personal investment in securities if dry provisions >. According to the provisions of Article 3, use of work time, office facilities, the sale of stocks and securities investment fund belongs to illegal behavior. The fourth question, about the violation of the masses of the disciplinary actions < new regulations > would violate public discipline behavior of a single set of a class of restored "three rules of discipline and eight note" in the discipline of the masses of excellent traditional. < New Regulations > Chapter 9 "to violate the masses of disciplinary action", mainly the destruction of the party's close ties with the masses of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary; enrich and perfect the super standard, beyond the scope of Xiang Qun < All to raise fund and labor, in for involving the public affairs deliberately, chinakayao, in social security, policy support, disaster relief funds and materials and other matters assigned any kind and affectionate friends, obviously unfair acts against the interests of the masses of the disciplinary terms; increase the terms not in accordance with the provisions of the public party provided, government, factory and village (neighborhood) provided etc. violation of the people's right to know the behavior of the discipline. The fifth issue, on the violation of work discipline violation of work discipline added "negative list, including Party organizations carry out strictly Main responsibility for poor discipline terms. (1) the new party organization comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party does not fulfill the 21 or perform poor disciplinary terms < New Regulations > has a lead people to pay attention to the new terms, that is, in chapter ten "on the violation of work discipline behavior punishment" increase in the one hundred and fourteenth "party fail to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility of the party or to perform comprehensive strictly the main responsibility for administering the ineffective, resulting in serious damage or serious adverse effects, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership and give a warning or serious warning. The situation is serious, giving removed from their party posts or on probation Punishment. "Here the changes. For the first time, the main responsibility write < rule >. (2) new shall report does not report or false reporting discipline shall increase the 117 bar" in the higher level units to check to inspect the work or report to the parent unit, work report of shall report the matters do not report or do not report, cause serious damage or serious adverse effects of, to the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership, to give warning or a serious warning; if the circumstances are serious, giving removed from their party posts or placed on probation. "For example, during the tour visits to the region, the unit Members the obligation to the inspection teams to reflect the true situation, to conceal not reported or intentionally to the inspection teams to provide false information, causing serious damage or serious adverse effects of, the person directly responsible and the responsibility of leadership should be in accordance with the provisions of < rule > Article 117 to give the appropriate punishment. (3) the new not granted in accordance with the provisions of punishment, not according to the provisions of the implementation of disciplinary measures 22 violation of the provisions of Article 115 "Party organizations have one of the following circumstances, the direct leadership responsibility. Probation: members were sentenced punished, in accordance with the provisions give disciplinary action or in violation of state law Rules of behavior should be given disciplinary punishment and dispose of; disciplinary punishment by decision or complaint review the decision made, not in accordance with the provisions of the implementation decisions on punishment of the party, position, rank, and the treatment of the matters; Party members subject to disciplinary action, not in accordance with the cadre management authority and organizational relationships of by dispose of Party members to carry out education and supervision of daily management. "What needs to be pointed out is," cliff "demoted with cars, housing, secretary problem, implementation is not a discipline and party posts and ranks treatment by the organization department is responsible for the implementation, with cars, housing by the logistics department is responsible for the implementation of, Ji Commission responsible oversight responsibilities. The six questions, about the acts violating the discipline of life "in violation of discipline of life behavior punishment", mainly to "four winds" problems and a serious violation of social morality, family virtue acts of misconduct made provisions on disciplinary, an increase of extravagant life, contrary to the social public order and good customs disciplinary terms. Worth mentioning is, > < Regulations in Article 150 about "adultery" "mistress (Cardiff) formulation in the new < rule > is removed, to expand the scope of Article 127 provisions" and others hair improper sexual relations, let face disciplinary action Wider more strict. Four, and earnestly do a good job in the < code > and < rule > implement system of life lies in execution. < code > and < Regulations > is 23 Party organizations at all levels of a strong constraint and all Party members follow. Learning and implementing the < code > and < rule > is party committees (party), commission for discipline, discipline inspection group), the majority of Party members and cadres of the common responsibility, must party caught together, the party one execution. () Party committees (party) and play and implement comprehensive strictly the main responsibility, pays special attention to the two party regulations learning cross penetration. One is to Adhere to the party constitution is fundamental to follow, and resolutely safeguard the authority of the Party Chapter. The second is to adhere to the problem oriented, to strictly political discipline and political rule moments in the first place. The third is to adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front must not allow the bottom line to break the discipline. The fourth is to seriously organize the study of propaganda and education, in the city party members to create a disciplined, about the rules of the strong atmosphere. (II) Commission for Discipline Inspection at all levels (Discipline Inspection Group) to an important basis for the revised two party regulations as, adhere to easily blame, strengthen supervision and enforcement And early method in combining Ji, increase accountability efforts. One is to two regulations within the party important basis, adhere to the party constitution duties, with strict discipline to maintain the constitution authority. The second is to adhere to high standards and keep the bottom line, adhere to Ji Yan in law and discipline, the discipline and rules quite in front, grasping grasping small, easily blame, comprehensive use of supervision and discipline of "four kinds of form" in the discipline embodies the strict requirements and care for the discipline, tighten up, Yan. According to discipline in accordance with regulations to carry out disciplinary review. Increase the violations punishment, clues can initiate an investigation on the trial of cases According to the discipline on the provisions of the proportion of processing and control manager maintains discipline. To focus on investigating non convergence, don't accept hand serious disciplinary violations at the same time, pay more attention to the general review of discipline 24 behavior, and gradually increase the lighter punishment. Four is to illuminate two party regulations, combined with the local district of the Department of party conduct Lianzheng to relevant laws and regulations system clean, timely research proposes to establish, change, waste release opinion, avoid conflict, and the fasten system of cage, and gradually formed not rot, not rot, not want to rot system and working mechanism. (3) the leadership of the party members and cadres should play an exemplary role. The rate of higher consciousness of the front of the Ordinance to lead practice self-discipline norms, leading to maintain discipline of seriousness and authority. One is the above rate, demonstration and guidance, take the lead in learning and mastering the < code > and < > the requirements and regulations, do the deep understanding, learning to use. The second is to play an exemplary role in abiding by discipline rate, take the lead in practicing self-discipline norms, firmly establish before the discipline are equal, the system has no privilege, discipline is no exception, and consciously do standards, require more strict measures more practical. Third is to consciously accept supervision, conscientiously participate in the democratic life and debriefing honesty responsibility, such as Real to the party organization to report personal matters, and to accept the supervision of the work and life of the normal, habits under the supervision of the exercise of power, to carry out the work. The fourth is to set an example for the strict enforcement of discipline. Leading cadres should take the lead in the maintenance of discipline of seriousness and authority, to dare to seriously, dare to struggle, dare to offend people, for misconduct not laissez faire, but do not indulge, not tolerate to ensure the party constitution of party compasses party put in place. (4) the majority of Party members and cadres to set high standards and hold the bottom line, consciously abide by the < code > and < rule >. One is to control the < standard > and < 25 cases >, tight Close connection with their own thoughts, practical work and life, efforts to solve the problems, to enhance the study and implement of the effectiveness and pertinence. The second is to establish a high standard and hold the bottom line, consciously in the self-discipline pursuit of high standards, strictly in the party away from the red line discipline, discipline, about the rules and know fear, distrust, the formation of the honor system, comply with the system, safeguard system of good habits. Regulations and discipline regulations of < < New Revision of the Communist Party of China clean fingered self-discipline criterion > and < Chinese Communist Party Disciplinary Regulations > is the Party Central Committee in the new situation to promote the comprehensive strictly root of the lift, the regulations of the party construction of keeping pace with the times. We should study and implement the Standards > and < > as the primary political task, adhere to the party constitution duties, adhere to the discipline of, Ji Yan in law, the full implementation of supervision and discipline accountability responsibilities for coordination and promotion "four overall" strategic layout in XX District vivid practice to provide a strong guarantee. - Si Jian Wu, and effectively enhance the implementation of the implementation of the < code > < > The consciousness of General Secretary Xi pointed out that the party is in charge of the party, to manage the party; strictly, it can cure good party. Criterion > and < rule > keep pace with the times is our party to form a new potential strictly rules, to deepen understanding of the ruling law, is a comprehensive strictly, and strengthen the supervision within the party important grasper. Criterion > closely linked to the theme of self-discipline, self-discipline intensity-modulated, focusing on morality, for the majority of Party members and cadres set to see, feel the high standard, show the Communists noble moral sentiment; District Ordinance < < rule > the constitution of discipline integration into a political discipline, organization and discipline, honesty and discipline, discipline of the masses, work discipline, discipline, emphasize discipline, focusing on established rules, to draw the party organizations and Party members do not touch the bottom line. Party committees (party) to effectively strengthen the study and publicize the implementation of the < code > and < rule > the organization and leadership of criterion > and < > a full range, multi angle, deep publicity, the formation of study and publicize and implement the boom, in order to consolidate the development of good political environment to create a positive environment and atmosphere. The majority of Party members and cadres to strict requirements, the < rule > and < Ordinance cases > as a guide to action and behavior criterion, adhere to the moral standards and discipline of the bottom line, to maintain the discipline of worship and awe, learning, compliance, and maintain party discipline and rules of the model. The discipline inspection and supervision organs and cadres to the < code > and < > as the deepening of the "three", and strengthen supervision and discipline of accountability is important to follow correctly grasp the use of supervision and discipline of "four types", promote the comprehensive strictly in new roots. Strict discipline, adhere to the discipline and rules quite in front of the enterprise in the implementation of expensive to implement to execute. The discipline inspection and supervision organs to implement the < code > and < Efforts to investigate cases > as an opportunity, adhere to the party should manage the party strictly, serious performance of their duties to promote two regulations implementation. Change discipline concept. From the simple "investigation of illegal" to a comprehensive "stare at violate discipline"; from the business case to prosecute the big cases and timely solve the signs of tilt to. From the orientation to the normal supervision; from the tube "minority" to resist the "most". Guide Party members and cadres to seriously implement the < code > and < rule >, consciously abide by the political, organizational, honest people, work, life six discipline. Urge the leadership cadres sent to play an exemplary role, take the lead in strictly enforced. Relaxation and rest Strong wind is Su Ji, closely linked to the "four winds" prone to multiple, the masses reflect the strong important nodes and, glued to the four winds "new form, new trends, seriously investigate and deal with violations of the central eight provisions of the spirit, to increase the bulletin exposure intensity, the formation of Chajiu" four winds "loudly, continue to release and discipline must be strict signal. At the same time, extended supervision tentacles, through the development of the rural and fishery party conduct Lianzheng construction inspection, issued in a timely manner, Chajiu occurred in grassroots side of corruption and unhealthy, and earnestly safeguard the interests of the masses and social stability. The creativity and discipline. Grasp and make good use of the supervision and discipline of" four types ", to ensure the Promoting clues to lots of discipline and the law of the vacuum tube, strict together. Not only to the "less" and "very few" thorough investigation severely punished, but also the "most" to maintain zero tolerance trend through layers of conductive pressure, let the discipline about the rules for each party members and cadres consciously follow. At present, it is necessary to implement the "list" management, strictly follow the clues to the disposal of five standards, make the classification of disposal, dynamic cleanup. Zadok Party committees at all levels to implement the main responsibility, comprehensive use of disciplinary action and tissue processing and other means to effectively curb the commonplace, used to see do not blame the "small problem", not because of "practice" and "exception". Prominent Discipline characteristics, the problems of violation of discipline and rules into the focus of supervision and discipline and disciplinary review. At the same time, increase case double check the intensity, the serious problems of discipline violations or "four winds" ban but not absolutely, not only to be held directly responsible, but also held leadership responsibility; not only to pursue studies the main responsibility of the Party committee, and to pursue Commission for Discipline Inspection and supervision responsibilities and promote accountability to become the new norm. The implementation of supervisory responsibility. Maintain < code > and < rule > the seriousness and authority of the discipline and rules and truly become the party's ruler. Discipline as supervision within the party the specialized agency, we must strengthen the responsibility to act, adhere to the Impartial discipline accountability, earnestly will be strict discipline, discipline must be punished, and severely punish the acts in violation of rules and regulations.
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