My Wood by Forster

My Wood by Forster Unit 4 Lesson 9 My Wood E. M. Forster Text Text 1 Background information 4 Allusions 5 Annotations 6 参考译文 11 《我的小树林》中修辞技巧赏析 14 Terms of Speech figures 17 Further reading 19 How much land does a man need? A few years ago I wrote a book which dealt in part with the difficulties of the English in India. Feeling that they would have had no difficulties in India themselves, the Americans read the book freely. The more they read it the better it made them feel, and a cheque to the author was the result. I bought a wood with the cheque. It is not a large wood—it contains scarcely any trees, and it is intersected, blast it, by a public footpath. Still, it is the first property that I have owned, so it is right that other people should participate in my shame, and should ask themselves in accents that will vary in horror, this very important question: What is the effect of property upon the character? Don’t let’s touch economics; the effect of private ownership upon the community as a whole is another question—a more important question, perhaps, but another one. 1 Let’s keep to psychology. If you own things, what’s their effect on you? What’s the effect on me of my wood? In the first place, it makes me feel heavy. Property does have this effect. Property produces men of weight, and it was a man of weight who failed to get into the Kingdom of Heaven. He was not wicked, that unfortunate millionaire in the parable, he was only stout; he stuck out in front not to mention behind, and as he wedged himself this way and that in the crystalline entrance and bruised his well-fed flanks, he saw beneath him a comparatively slim camel passing through the eye of a needle and being woven into the robe of God.[1] The Gospels all through couple stoutness and slowness. They point out what is perfectly obvious, yet seldom realized: that if you have a lot of things you cannot move about a lot; that furniture requires dusting, dusters require servants, servants require insurance stamps, and the whole tangle of them makes you think twice before you accept an invitation to dinner or go for a bathe in the Jordan. Sometimes the Gospels proceed further and say with Tolstoy that property is sinful; they approach the difficult ground of asceticism here, where I cannot follow them. But as to the immediate effects of property on people, they just show straightforward logic. It produces men of weight. Men of weight cannot, by definition, move like the lightning from the East unto the West, and the ascent of a fourteen-stone bishop into a pulpit is thus the exact antithesis of the coming of the Son of Man.[2] My wood makes me feel heavy. In the second place, it makes me feel it ought to be larger. The other day I heard a twig snap in it. I was annoyed at first, for I thought that someone was blackberrying, and depreciating the value of the undergrowth. On coming nearer, I saw it was not a man who had trodden on the twig and snapped it, but a bird, and I felt pleased. My bird. The bird was not equally pleased. Ignoring the relation between us, it took fright as soon as it saw the shape of my face, and flew straight over the boundary hedge into a field, the property of Mrs. Henessy, where it sat down with a loud squawk. It had become Mrs. Henessy’s bird. Something seemed grossly amiss here, something that would not have occurred had the wood been larger. I could not afford to buy Mrs. Henessy out, I dared not murder her, and limitations of this sort beset me on every side. Ahab[3] did not want that vineyard—he only needed it to round off his property, preparatory to plotting a new curve—and all the land around my wood has become necessary to me in order to round off the wood. A boundary protects. But—poor little thing—the boundary ought in its turn to be protected. Noises on the edge of it. Children throw stones. A little more and then 2 a little more, until we reach the sea. Happy Canute.[4] Happier Alexander![5] And after all, why should even the world be the limit of possession? A rocket containing a Union Jack, will, it is hoped, be shortly fired at the moon. Mars. Sirius. Beyond which„ But these immensities ended by saddening me. I could not suppose that my wood was the destined it is so very small and contains no mineral nucleus of universal dominion— wealth beyond the blackberries. Nor was I comforted when Mrs. Henessy’s bird took alarm for the second time and flew clean away from us all, under the belief that it belonged to itself. In the third place, property makes its owner feel that he ought to do something to it. Yet he isn’t sure what. A restlessness comes over him, a vague sense that he has a personality to express—the same sense which, without any vagueness, leads the artist to an act of creation. Sometimes I think I will cut down such trees as remain in the wood, at other times I want to fill up the gaps between them with new trees. Both impulses are pretentious and empty. They are not honest movements towards money-making or beauty. They spring from a foolish desire to express myself and form an inability to enjoy what I have got. Creation, property, enjoyment form sinister trinity in the human mind. Creation, property, enjoyment are both very, very good, yet they are often unattainable without a material basis, and at such moments property pushes itself in as a substitute, saying, “Accept me instead—I’m good enough for all three.” It is not enough. It is, as Shakespeare said of lust, “The expense of spirit in a waste of shame”: it is “Before, a joy proposed; behind, a dream.” Yet we don’t know how to shun it. It is forced on us by our economic system as the alternative to starvation. It is also forced on us by an internal defect in the soul, by the feeling that in property may lie the germs of self-development and of exquisite or heroic deeds. Our life on earth is, and ought to be, material and carnal. But we have not yet learned to manage our materialism and carnality properly; they are still entangled with the desire for ownership, where (in the words of Dante) “Possession is one with loss.” And this brings us to our fourth and final point: the blackberries. Blacberries are not plentiful in this meagre grove, but they are easily seen from the public footpath which traverses it, and all too easily gathered. Foxgloves, too—people will pull up the foxgloves, and ladies of an educational tendency even grub for toadstools to show them on the Monday in class. Other ladies, less educated, roll down the bracken in the arms of their gentlemen friends. There is paper, there are tins. Pray, does my wood belong to me or doesn’t it? And, if it does, should I not 3 own it best by allowing no one else to walk there? There is a wood near Lyme Regis, also cursed by a public footpath, where the owner has not hesitated on this point. He had built high stone walls each side of the path, and has spanned it by bridges, so that the public circulate like termites while he gorges on the blackberries unseen. He really does own his wood, this able chap. Dives in Hell did pretty well, but the gulf dividing him from Lazarus[6] could be traversed by vision, and nothing traverses it here. And perhaps I shall come to this in time. I shall wall in and fence out until I really taste the sweets of property. Enormously stout, endlessly avaricious, pseudo-creative, intensely selfish, I shall weave upon my forehead the quadruple crown of possession until those nasty Bolshies come and take it off again and thrust me aside into the outer darkness. Questions for Comprehension and Consideration 1. What are the four effects Forster describes as resulting from his purchase of the wood? Explain briefly some of the details Forster uses to explain each of these four effects. 2. In the opening section of the essay, Forster describes the response of Americans to a book he wrote. Why does he emphasize the reaction of Americans? What relationship does the opening paragraph have to the rest of the essay? 3. Forster uses many allusions (references to works or events outside the essay itself) to explain his ideas. Research several of these allusions and explain how these contribute to the central idea of the essay. (For example, in the second paragraph Forster refers to the Gospel of Matthew, 19:24, and to Leo Tolstoy’s views on property.) 4. In the fifth paragraph, Forster begins with specific examples from his own wood and his response to it and ends with generalizations. As he moves from the concrete to the abstract, his tone changes. Analyze the change in tone and explain how Forster uses personal experience as a way to exemplify his general thesis concerning the effects of ownership. 5. In this essay, Forster uses his own experience with ownership to generalize about society’s materialism. Do you consider yourself materialistic? In what ways? Do you consider it a positive or negative trait in yourself or others? Think of something you have purchased after wanting it for a long time. In an essay explain the two or three main ways in which owning this item has affected your life. 4 Background information About the author Edwdard Morgan Forster E. M. 福斯特(E. M. Forster, 1879,1970)生于伦敦，幼年丧父， 由姑妈和母亲抚养带大，后入剑桥大学国王学院学习。1901年福斯特大学毕业后去希腊和 意大利旅行，并创作了《天使不敢涉足的地方》(Where Angels Fear to Tread, 1905)和《一 间看得见风景的房间》(A Room with a View, 1908)两部 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 现令人窒息的英国中产阶级社会 与意大利生气勃勃生活的对立的小说，以及带有自传色彩的《最长的旅行》(The Longest Journey, 1907)。《霍华兹别墅》(Howards End, 1910)针对英国社会经济与文化、富人与穷 人、男性与女性之间愈益尖锐的矛盾冲突，探索建立“联结”关系的途径，《印度之行》(A Passage to India, 1924)则以英国海外殖民地为背景，书中的关注点是英国人和印度人能否成 为朋友，出色地描写了不同民族心理和不同文化心态之间的冲突和张力，这两部小说奠定了 福斯特作为20世纪英国最重要小说家之一的地位。他在小说理论方面也颇有建树，《小说面 面观》(Aspects of the Novel, 1927)涉及一般小说理论和具体写作技巧，书中提出的一些概念 经常被评论家使用，已成为20世纪英国小说艺术的经典理论著作。1946年剑桥大学授予他 荣誉研究员称号。福斯特喜欢剑桥自由自在的学术讨论气氛，在那里一直生活到逝世。 E. M. Forster was a member of the Bloomsbury Group—writers, artists, and philosophers living in London who helped shape the modernist movement of the first half of this century. Forster was born in London, but was raised in the countryside of Herforshire. While studying at King’s College, Cambridge, he became deeply interested in cultures other than his own and later traveled widely. In 1912 he sailed with two friends to India where his observations and experiences provided him with the materials from which he later created his highly acclaimed novel A Passage to India (1924), the book to which he refers in the first paragraph of “My Wood.” His fiction often dealt with the effects of social conventions on the natural course of human relationships. Forster’s other major novels are Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905), A Room With a View (1908), Howards End (1910), Maurice (1914). Forster acquired a well-deserved reputation as a social and literary critic, as well as a short story writer. Comments “My Wood” is part of Forster?s 1936 Essay, Abinger Harvest. In this essay, Forster explains the effects produced by owning property. It encourages us to think about the nature of materialism and the seductive power of our possessions With wit and humor, Forster suggests that purchasing land may not bring the uncomplicated happiness we might expect. 5 ALLUSION,典故,--,An,allusion,is,a,reference,to,a,person,,place,,event,,or,thing,that,bears,an,association,to,the,topic,of,a,discourse.,This,association,expands,the,discourse,by,drawing,in,ideas,that,illustrate,the,topic,,provide,a,comparison,or,contrast,,suggest,consequences,,evoke,an,image,,or,otherwise,enlarge,or,elucidate,the,author's,ideas.,In,much,"classic",literature,,allusions,are,made,to,the,Bible,,to,Greek,and,Roman,writers,,and,to,mythology.,However,,allusions,may,be,made,to,any,field:,history,,politics,,science,,Etc.,,The,nature,of,the,allusions,affects,both,the,immediate,comprehension,of,the,discourse,as,well,as,its,eventual,fate.,While,allusions,enhance,the,understanding,of,informed,readers,,they,impede,the,comprehension,of,those,less,knowledgeable.,And,if,the,allusions,are,to,people,,places,,events,,and,literary,works,of,significance,,they,also,help,embed,the,literature,within,the,cultural,cannon,,enhancing,its,interest,,relevance,,and,longevity.,On,the,other,hand,,if,they,point,to,minor,events,,little,known,persons,,or,passing,fads,,the,accessibility,of,the,discourse,is,eventually,diminished,,making,it,dated,and,obscure,,a,fit,subject,for,doctoral,students,writing,dissertations.,E.,M.,Forster's,essay,"My,Wood",is,rich,in,allusions,of,the,first,kind. [1] See Matthew, XIX, 23-24. (Then Jesus said to His disciples, “Assuredly, I say to you that it is hard for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven. And again I say to you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.” [2] Son of Man Jesus Christ [3] See 1 Kings, XXI, 1-8. (Now Naboth the Jezreelite had a vineyard in Jezreel, beside the palace of Ahab king of Samaria. And after this Ahab said to Naboth, “Give me your vineyard that I may have it for a vegetable garden, because it is near my house; and I will give you a better vineyard for it; or, if it seems good to you, I will give you its value in money.” But Naboth said to Ahab, “The Lord forbid that I should give you the inheritance of my fathers.” And Ahab went into his house vexed and sullen because of what Naboth the Jezreelite had said to him; for he had said, “I will not give you the inheritance of my fathers.” And he lay down on his bed, and turned away his face, and would eat no food. But Jezebel his wife came to him, and said to him, “Why is your spirit so vexed that you eat no food?” And he said to her, “Because I spoke to Naboth the Jezreelite, and said to him, ‘Give me your vineyard for money; or else, if it please you, I will give you another vineyard for it; and he answered, ‘I will not give you my vineyard.’ ” And Jezebel his wife said to him, “Do you now govern Israel? Arise, and eat bread, and let your heart be cheerful; I will give you the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite.” So she wrote letters in Ahab’s name and sealed them with his seal, and she sent the letters to the elders and the nobles who dwelt with Naboth in his city. 6 [4] Canute (Cnut) (c. 995—1035) King of England, Denmark and Norway. He invaded Scotland in about 1027, and conquered Norway in 1028. His empire broke up after his death. [5] Alexander III of Macedon (356-323B.C.) the Great king [6] See Luke XVI, 19-31 the parable: The Rich Man and Lazarus 【Luk16:19】 'There was a rich man who was dressed in purple and fine linen and lived in luxury every day. 有一个财主，穿着紫色袍和细麻布衣服， 天天奢华宴乐。 【Luk16:20】 At his gate was laid a beggar named Lazarus, covered with sores 又有一个讨饭的，名叫拉撒路，浑身生 疮，被人放在财主门口， 【Luk16:21】 and longing to eat what fell from the rich man's table. Even the dogs came and licked his sores. 要得财主桌子上掉下来的零碎充饥。并 且狗来舔他的疮。 7 【Luk16:22】 'The time came when the beggar died and the angels carried him to Abraham's side. The rich man also died and was buried. 后来那讨饭的死了，被天使带去放在亚 伯拉罕的怀里。财主也死了，并且埋葬 了。 【Luk16:23】 In hell, where he was in torment, he looked up and saw Abraham far away, with Lazarus by his side. 他在阴间受痛苦，举目远远地望见亚伯 拉罕，又望见拉撒路在他怀里。 【Luk16:24】 So he called to him, `Father Abraham, have pity on me and send Lazarus to dip the tip of his finger in water and cool my tongue, because I am in agony in this fire.' 就喊着说，我祖亚伯拉罕哪，可怜我吧， 打发拉撒路来，用指头尖蘸点水，凉凉 我的舌头。因为我在这火焰里，极其痛 8 苦。 【Luk16:25】 'But Abraham replied, `Son, remember that in your lifetime you received your good things, while Lazarus received bad things, but now he is comforted here and you are in agony. 亚伯拉罕说，儿阿，你该回想你生前享 过福，拉撒路也受过苦。如今他在这里 得安慰，你倒受痛苦。 【Luk16:26】 And besides all this, between us and you a great chasm has been fixed, so that those who want to go from here to you cannot, nor can anyone cross over from there to us.' 不但这样，并且在你我之间，有深渊限 定，以致人要从这边过到你们那边，是 不能的，要从那边过到我们这边，也是 不能的。 【Luk16:27】 'He answered, `Then I beg you, father, send Lazarus to my 9 father's house, 财主说，我祖阿，既是这样，求你打发 拉撒路到我父家去。 【Luk16:28】 for I have five brothers. Let him warn them, so that they will not also come to this place of torment.' 因为我还有五个弟兄。他可以对他们作 见证，免得他们也来到这痛苦的地方。 【Luk16:29】 'Abraham replied, `They have Moses and the Prophets; let them listen to them.' 亚伯拉罕说，他们有摩西和先知的话， 可以听从。 【Luk16:30】 '`No, father Abraham,' he said, `but if someone from the dead goes to them, they will repent.' 他说，我祖亚伯拉罕哪，不是的。若有 一个从死里复活的，到他们那里去的， 他们必要悔改。 【Luk16:31】 'He said to him, `If they do not listen to Moses and the 10 Prophets, they will not be convinced even if someone rises from the dead.'' 亚伯拉罕说，若不听从摩西和先知的话， 就是有一个从死里复活的，他们也是不 听劝。) Annotations ANNOTATION,--,A,note,added,to,a,text,in,order,to,comment,,explain,,criticize,,translate,,cite,sources,,gloss,,or,paraphrase.,Annotations,are,often,used,to, explain,",allusions,".,An,annotated,edition,of,a,book,is,one,that,includes,notes,by,an,editor.,, 1The British first came to India in 1608 and remained until 1947 when India was granted independence. The movement to gain independence was led by Mahata Ghandi whose primary tactic was civil disobedience. The book that Forster is alluding to is A Passage to India (1924). 2Matthew 19:24 "It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God." 3 The Jordan is the river in which John the Baptist christened repentant sinners. 4Tolstoy is a Russian writer and philosopher, author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina. This is an apparent reference to a short story by Tolstoy entitled "How Much Land Does a Man Need?" 5A stone is a British unit of weight; 14 stone equals 196 pounds. 6Ahab -- "Ninth century B.C. Pagan king of Israel and husband of Jezebell who, according to the Old testament, was overthrown by Jehu" 11 7Canute -- "Known as The Great.?994?-1035. King of England (1016-1035), Denmark (1018-1035), and Norway (1028-1035) whose reign, at first brutal, was later marked by wisdom and temperance. He is the subject of many legends" 8Alexander -- "Known as Alexander the Great.?356-323 B.C.. King of Macedonia (336-323) and conquerer of Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia. His reign marked the beginning of the Hellenistic Age". Forester takes both Canute and Alexander as examples of men who were never content with the land they possessed, but who always wanted more. Alexander is sometimes described as having conquered all the known world, so vast had become his empire. 9Shakespeare -- William. "1564-1616. English playwright and poet whose of works is considered the greatest in English literature. His plays, body many of which were performed at the Globe Theatre in London, include historical works, such as Richard II, comedies, including Much Ado about Nothing and As You Like It, and tragedies, such as Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear. He also composed 154 sonnets. The earliest collected edition of his plays, the First Folio, contained 36 plays and was published posthumously" (1623) 10A sonnet by William Shakespeare. Th' Expense Of Spirit In A Waste Of Shame William Shakespeare Th' expense of spirit in a waste of shame Is lust in action; and till action, lust Is perjured, murderous, bloody, full of blame, Savage, extreme, rude, cruel, not to trust; Enjoyed no sooner but despis'd straight: Past reason hunted; and no sooner had, Past reason hated, as a swallowed bait, On purpose laid to make the taker mad: Mad in pursuit, and in possession so; Had, having, and in quest to have, extreme; A bliss in proof, and proved, a very woe; Before, a joy proposed; behind, a dream. All this the world well knows; yet none knows well To shun the heaven that leads men to this hell. 11Dante Alighieri -- "1265-1321. Italian poet whose masterpiece, The Divine Comedy (completed 1321), details his visionary progress through 12 Hell and Purgatory, escorted by Virgil, and through Heaven, guided by his lifelong idealized love Beatrice" . 12Lyme Regis -- A resort city in the county of Dorset on the southwest coast of England. 13Dives -- "A man of great wealth in the parable of Lazarus and the rich man in the Bible. 14Bolshies -- "Bolshevik -- A member of the left-wing majority group of the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party that adopted Lenin's theses on party organization in 1903. b. A member of the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party that seized power in that country in November 1917. c. A member of a Marxist-Leninist party or a supporter of one; a Communist. Also called Bolshevist. 2. Often bolshevik. An extreme radical: a literary bolshevik. [Russian Bol'shevik, from bol'she, comparative of bol'sho? large" (American). A key principle of the Communist Party was the abolition of private ownership of property. Industries were owned and run by the state. Individual farms were united into collectives. 13 参考译文 我的树林 (英) E. M. 福斯特 几年前我写了一本书，其中一部分谈到英国人在印度所遭的困境。美国人觉得自己若在印度不会如此窘迫，读该书时便无拘无束，他们越读越自在，其结果，是让书的作者赚了一张支票。我用这支票买下一片树林，林子不大，几乎没有什么树，还有一条该死的公共小道从中横穿而过。但这是我拥有的第一份财产，因而如果别人和我一样感到遗憾，那是很正常的事。他们因恐怖而生变的语调，会对自己提出这样一个重要问题:财产对人的性格会起什么样的影响,我们这里不探讨经济学，私人财产对整个社区的影响，完全是另外一个问题------也许是个更重要的问题，我们只是就财产从心理方面进行探讨，你所拥有的东西会对你产生什么影响,我的树林又怎么影响了我呢, 首先，它让我感觉沉重不便起来。财产确实能起到这一效果。它使人笨重，而笨重的人是进不了天国的。《圣经》中那个不幸的百万富翁并不坏，只是胖而已，他大腹便便，屁股浑圆，在水晶门内东挪西插想挤进去，肥嘟嘟的身体两侧被挤得到处青肿，却看见他的下方，一只较瘦的骆驼穿过针眼，织进了上帝的袍子。《新约》的四部福音书全把胖子与迟缓连在一起，指出了一个明显却被人忽略的事实，那就是拥有太多的东西必然会造就行动不便。有家具就需要经常抹灰，抹灰要仆人，有仆人你就得给他买保险。这许多事绞在一起，使你在接受赴宴邀请或如约前往约旦河沐浴之前，不得不三思而行了。有关财产问题福音书中有些地方还有更深入的阐述，其观点与托尔斯泰近似，即财产是罪恶的。这里面涉及的苦行主义令人费解，我也不敢苟同。但说到财产对人的直接影响，他们确实一语中的，财产让人笨重。根据定义，笨重的人不可能像闪电一样，迅速地从东移到西。一位体重14石的大主教登越讲坛，和基督的到来肯定形成鲜明对比。我的树林让我感到笨重不便。 其次，它老让我惦记着这片树林要是再大些就好了。 一天，我听到树林里传来细枝折断的声音，很不高兴。心想，一定是有人在采黑莓，弄坏了灌木丛。待走近一看，发现不是人踩断了树枝，是一只鸟，我高兴极了。嗬，我的鸟～可那鸟似乎并不领情，毫不顾及我与它的关系，一见我的脸孔，顿受惊吓，飞过树篱，停在一块田地上，惊恐地叫着。那块田是亨尼西太太的领地，鸟转眼成了亨尼西太太的鸟了。这可真是大问题，我的林子要是再大一点哪会有这等问题,我没钱买下亨尼西太太的田地，又 14 不敢杀了她。这局限让我烦透了。亚哈本并不喜欢那个葡萄园----他是需要它使自己的财产更完整，用它设计出一个新的地形曲线。我想使自己的林子更完整，因此，林子周围的土地对我便是必不可少了。边界可以保护树林的完整，可是可怜的边界本身也需要保护。我常听到林子边界附近传来吵嚷声，还有小孩在那扔石头。边界向外扩一点，再扩一点，直至扩到海边。克努特多快乐～亚历山大更快乐～最后我甚至要抱怨，世界怎么成了财产的限制,我多么希望带有英国国旗的火箭可以发往月球、火星、天狼星和其他星星。然而，无边无际的想象终以我的悲哀而告终。我的树林不可能成为宇宙疆域的中心，它范围太小，除了黑莓，又没有其他矿产。亨尼西太太家的鸟在第二次受惊后，自管自地飞掉了，但那丝毫没有给我什么慰籍。 第三，财产让拥有者老在捉摸应该对其做些什么，但却不知该做什么，他们为焦躁情绪所控，只是模糊地意识到，自己有某种个性需要表达出来。而这种意识----当然需要是清醒的意识而不是模糊的意识----正是艺术家的创造源泉。我有时想砍掉树林里还留着的树，有时又想在树林空处栽上些树。其冲动皆出于虚荣无聊，并非挣钱或为美化环境。这些冲动全源于我愚蠢的自我表现欲，源于我不知如何享受财产的无能。创造、财产、享受，这三者在人的头脑中形成邪恶的三位一体。创造和享受都很好，但没有一个物质基础，均无从获得。这时，财产伺机挤入以图取代:“让我来吧，我一个就够了，我可以一个顶三。”其实并不是这样，它正像莎士比亚谈到贪欲时指出的，是“生气消耗在耻辱的浪费之中”，它“事前给个乐儿;事后，只是一场梦”。但是我们却无法躲避财产。我们的经济 制度 关于办公室下班关闭电源制度矿山事故隐患举报和奖励制度制度下载人事管理制度doc盘点制度下载 迫使我们必须拥有财产，否则我们就有可能饿死。心灵的某种内在缺陷，也逼迫我们占有财产。我们总以为财产可以帮助促进自我发展，培养优雅和英雄行为。世间的生活是物质的和世俗的，也应该是物质的、世俗的。问题是我们还没有学会恰当地处理这种物质性和世俗性，它们依然与占有欲纠缠在一起，但丁对此的描述是，“那种占有，是伴着损失的占有。” 写到这儿，我们该谈谈第四点，也就是最后一点了，即黑莓问题。 我这小树林黑莓不算多，但从那条横穿树林的小道上很容易看到，也就更好采集了。还有毛地黄----常有人在林子里拔毛地黄。一些好为人师的太太们，甚至刨地采毒菌，好在星期一拿到班上示人。另一些教养不佳的太太们，倚在男友的怀里，把地上的欧洲蕨弄得一塌糊涂。林子里到处散落着废纸和罐头盒。天哪，这还是我的树林吗,我是不是不让他人进入，才算是更完整地拥有树林,莱姆里吉斯附近有个树林也有一条公共通道，可它的主人在这点上毫不含糊，他在小道两旁垒起高高的石墙，石墙上架了若干小桥。这样，众人如白蚁般在 15 小道上来回穿行时，主人在林子里大嚼黑霉没人看见。他这才是真正拥有了自己的林子，这个能干的家伙～ 《圣经》里的那个财主在地狱里表现挺好，那里，肉眼能穿过分隔他与拉撒路的鸿沟，看到另一边的一切。但在这树林里，什么也甭想穿透这两堵石墙。适当的时候，我也许会采取这一 措施 《全国民用建筑工程设计技术措施》规划•建筑•景观全国民用建筑工程设计技术措施》规划•建筑•景观软件质量保证措施下载工地伤害及预防措施下载关于贯彻落实的具体措施 ，垒墙围栅，品尝真正拥有财产的甜蜜。肥硕臃肿、贪欲无度、假充创新、极度自私，我要纺织一项由此四物组成的“拥有”的花冠，戴在头上，直到那些讨厌的布尔什维克们来拿掉我的帽子，把我扔到外面的黑暗之中。 摘自 新东方专稿 16 《我的小树林》中修辞技巧赏析 摘要:《我的小树林》是英国著名小说家、散文家爱德华.摩根.福斯特(Edward Morgan Forster) 于二十世纪三十年代所创作的散文。在该散文中,福斯特分析了财产的拥有给人带来的四个恶劣后果。作者运用了典故、引用、夸张等修辞手法,既突出了该散文的主题,也突出了该散文讽刺的口吻。 关键词:《我的小树林》 福斯特 财产 典故 引用 《我的小树林》是英国著名小说家、散文家爱德华.摩根.福斯特于二十世纪三十年代所创作的散文, 被收录在福斯特的杂文集《阿宾哲收获集》中。在该散文中,福斯特以讽刺、幽默的口吻讲述了自己在购买了一片小树林后所经历的心理变化,进而探讨了财产给人类带来的恶劣的心理影响。作者在该散文中运用了大量的修辞技巧,如:典故、引用、假正经、夸张等。 一.修辞技巧对主题的烘托 1924年,福斯特发表了小说《印度之旅》,该小说的发表在美国受到了极大的欢迎,非常畅销,而该小说的畅销为作者带来了不小的一笔财富,由此作者用这笔钱购买了一片小树林。也就是在购买了这片小树林之后,作者发现了财产对人们的心理影响。在《我的小树林》中,作者一开篇就结合自身的经历提出了一个问题“财产对人有什么影响?”。随后,作者紧紧围绕这个问题,从四个方面分析了财产对人造成的心理影响:即,财产可以让人变得“笨重”、“贪婪”、“假装创新”及“自私”。为了有效突出该主题,作者运用了不同的修辞技巧,主要包括“典故”和“引用”。 1. 典故的运用 典故是一种重要的修辞手段,是诗词曲赋中常用的一种表现方法,其主要特点是借助一些历史人物、神话传说、寓言故事等来表达自己的某种愿望或情感。 在该散文中,作者运用了圣经典故、历史典故等,增加了文章的色彩与效果。 圣经中的许多故事经常被作为典故在文学作品中应用。基督教的教义中“原罪”之说提倡人的“禁欲与简单生活”以赎罪,只有在赎罪后人才可以在死后进入天堂。而财产的拥有则加重了人在世间的罪恶。所以,在文章的第二段,作者提出了“财产首先让人感觉笨重”的主题。作者首先指出笨重的人是无法进入天堂的。作者运用圣经中的典故“富人要想进入天国比骆驼穿过针眼都难”。这个典故的运用暗示了有财产的人要想进天堂是很困难的;既而,作者指出在《福音全书》中,“笨重就等同于动作迟缓”,然后,作者提到圣经中的典故“到约旦河接受洗礼”;最后,作者指出“笨重的人由于动作迟缓而使得他们在去约旦河洗浴之前不得不三思而后行”。通过这些圣经中的典故的运用,作者揭示出第二段的主题:财产的拥有让人感觉笨重,笨重的人行动迟缓,行动迟缓的人很难到约旦河接受洗礼,并最终被上帝拥入怀抱。作者通过这一系列圣经中典故的运用是想告诉读者:人一旦拥有了财产就会背上沉重的精神负担,而这些精神负担会让他们在做任何事情前犹豫不决,而最终失去被上帝接纳的机会。 17 此外,在文章的第四段作者指出“财产的拥有让人变得无限贪婪”。作者有一天在自己的小树林里看到一只小鸟后惊喜万分,他首先想到的是“这是我的小鸟”。但小鸟在看到作者后受到惊吓后飞走了,最后落在了作者的邻居Mrs Henessy的田地里。这让作者感到极大的伤害和失落。作者此时提到圣经中的典故“亚哈并不想霸占葡萄园”在圣经中,亚哈由于贪婪并受到魔鬼的指使霸占了拿波的葡萄园。该典故暗示了作者对自己小树林的不满足,映射了作者在看到小鸟落到邻居家的田里后,内心的欲望进一步扩大的心理过程。在该段的后半部分,为了进一步强调自己私欲的膨胀,作者夸张地运用了“幸福呀,克努特大帝!”、“亚里山大大帝更幸福!”的表达方法表达了自己对两位大帝的羡慕与崇拜。作者在文章中表达了对这两位以领土扩张与占领而著名于人类历史的大帝的羡慕与颂扬,从而使他的对财产的贪婪之心跃然纸上。 在文章的最后一部分,作者指出:“财产让人变得自私”。 作者的小树林里有许多黑莓,为了防止路人采摘,作者也想模仿别人在小树林周围建一堵高墙。在该部分,作者又一次运用了圣经中“拉撒路”的典故来突出主题。在圣经中,有一个财主(Dives),天天奢华宴乐。一个讨饭的拉撒路(Lazarus),乞讨财主桌子上掉下来的零碎充饥。后来拉撒路死了,被天使带去放在亚伯拉罕的怀里。财主死后被埋葬了,在阴间受痛苦,举目远远地望见亚伯拉罕和他怀里的拉撒路,他企求主可怜他。亚伯拉罕说:“儿阿,你该回想你生前享过福,拉撒路也受过苦。如今他在这里得安慰,你倒受痛苦。在你我之间,有深渊限定,以致人要从这边过到你们那边,是不能的,要从那边过到我们这边,也是不能的。”通过这个典故的运用作者试图告诉读者:圣经中的穷人与富人之间虽有天堂与地狱之隔,但至少他们还可以彼此看到对方。而作者如果在自己的小树林周围建起高高的围墙的话,经过作者小树林的路人由于高墙的阻隔甚至在作者独享黑莓的时候不能够看上一眼。此处作者通过圣经中典故的运用突出了作者该段的主题“财产让人自私”。 2. 引用的运用 “引词入文”已经成为一种比较普遍的修辞现象,具有增强表达效果和强化艺术魅力的双重修辞功能,有利于刻画人物,揭示主题,点染意境。在《我的小树林》中,作者多处运用了对名人、名言的引用来突出主题。 在文章的第二段,作者引用了俄罗斯小说家托尔斯泰(Tolstoy)的观点 “ property is sinful…”。托尔斯泰一生提倡简单的生活方式,并认为财产是邪恶的。在该段中,托尔斯泰对财产看法的引用与圣经中有关“财产使人笨重、行动迟缓”的典故的运用相互印证,进一步突出了作者的观点:财产对人产生恶劣的心理影响,使得该段的主题更加鲜明,令人信服。 文章的第五段阐述了“财产让人变得„假装创新?”,因为这种所谓的“创新”具有“炫耀”与“空洞”的特征。在该段中,作者引用了莎士比亚对贪欲的评价。前一句引用表达了莎士比亚的观点“欲望的结果就是让人丧失自己的精神和意志”;而第二句引用则表达莎士比亚“财产„事前给个乐儿;事后,只是一场梦?”的辨证思想。通过这两个引用的巧妙运用,作者试图表达财产与欲望不可分割的关系,而所有对财产的欲望最终给人带来的不过是一场梦。所以在该段的最后一句,作者引用了旦丁的名言“占有是伴着损失的”,即:一切的“得”与“失”都是相伴产生的,该引用进一步强化了该段的主题。 二.修辞手法与讽刺口吻 在《我的小树林》中,作者不仅通过典故与引用的运用突出了文章中各个部分的主题,而且还 18 通过其他一些修辞手法的运用突出了文章中的讽刺与幽默的口吻。在这些修辞手法中,比较突出的是“假正经”(mock seriousness)与夸张手法。 所谓的“假正经”指的是在文学作品中,作者将一些无关紧要的小事情用较为严肃的、正式的表达方法表达出来,从而产生一种反差,其主要功能是突出讽刺和幽默的口吻。在《我的小树林》中,作者多次用到此修辞手法,使文章的讽刺色彩更加突出。例如,在文章的第一段,作者表达了自己对所购买的小树林的不满之处:“不够大,树也不多,还有一条公用的道路从中穿过”。然后作者写到: “…other people should participate in my shame…”,在该句中,作者实际上要表达的是“如果别人和我一样(因为树林小,树木少,等原因)为此感到遗憾,那是很正常的事…”但作者却运用了非常正式的表达方法 “participate in my shame”来表达别人与作者的相同的看法这一简单的主题,体现了作者幽默与自嘲的口气。在文章的第四段,作者讲述了自己有一天听到了小树林里有树枝被折断的声音,他的第一个感觉是有人在小树林里偷采黑莓,他马上想到:偷采黑莓的人会 “depreciating the value of the undergrowth”。作者想要表达的是“有人在树林里采黑莓,会不小心踩坏里面的植物”。而作者运用了 “depreciating the undergrowth”这一表达方法,尤其是“depreciating”的运用更为夸张,更使得作者内心由于这分财产的获得而变得小心翼翼,惶惶然的心情以一种幽默而辛辣的口吻跃然纸上。 三.结束语 《我的小树林》虽然篇幅不长,却充分体现了作者的写作技巧与优美精练的语言。通过包括典故和引用的运用,作者成功地表达了该散文的主题,即:人一旦有了财产就会变得“笨重”、“贪婪”、“假装创新”和“自私”。而通过假正经和夸张手法的运用,突出了文章幽默和讽刺的口气。当然,除了上文中所提到的修辞手法外,文章的语言特征及其他的一些修辞手法在文章中的运用也使文章增色不少,但因篇幅有限,在此不一一赘述。 19 ~acpjr/Blackboard/Common/Glossary/GlossTwo.html#J, Literary, Rhetorical, and Linguistic Terms , , By:,,Dr. Charles Phillips, Associate,Professor,of,English,, Southside,Virginia,Community,College, , ALLEGORY,--A,symbolic,story,disguised,to,represent,meanings,other,than,those,indicated,on,the,surface.,The,characters,in,an,allegory,often,have,no,individual,personality,,but,are,embodiments,of,moral,qualities,and,other,abstractions.,The,allegory,is,closely,related,to,the,parable,,fable,,and,metaphor,,differing,from,them,largely,in,intricacy,and,length.,A,great,variety,of,literary,forms,have,been,used,for,allegories.,John,Bunyan's,Pilgrim's,Progress,,a,prose,narrative,,is,an,allegory,of,man's,spiritual,salvation.,,ALLUSION,--,An,allusion,is,a,reference,to,a,person,,place,,event,,or,thing,that,bears,an,association,to,the,topic,of,a,discourse.,This,association,expands,the,discourse,by,drawing,in,ideas,that,illustrate,the,topic,,provide,a,comparison,or,contrast,,suggest,consequences,,evoke,an,image,,or,otherwise,enlarge,or,elucidate,the,author's,ideas.,In,much,"classic",literature,,allusions,are,made,to,the,Bible,,to,Greek,and,Roman,writers,,and,to,mythology.,However,,allusions,may,be,made,to,any,field:,history,,politics,,science,,Etc.,, The,nature,of,the,allusions,affect,both,the,immediate,comprehension,of,the,discourse,as,well,as,its,eventual,fate.,While,allusions,enhance,the,understanding,of,informed,readers,,they,impede,the,comprehension,of,those,less,knowledgeable.,And,if,the,allusions,are,to,people,,places,,events,,and,literary,works,of,significance,,they,also,help,embed,the,literature,within,the,cultural,cannon,,enhancing,its,interest,,relevance,,and,longevity.,On,the,other,hand,,if,they,point,to,minor,events,,little,known,persons,,or,passing,fads,,the,accessibility,of,the,discourse,is,eventually,diminished,,making,it,dated,and,obscure,,a,fit,subject,for,doctoral,students,writing,dissertations.,E.,M.,Forster's,essay,"My,Wood",is,rich,in,allusions,of,the,first,kind.,, ANECDOTE,--A,brief,narrative,or,story,often,serving,to,make,a,point.,Anecdotal,evidence,may,be,accumulated,to,substantiate,a,case,or,suggest,a,conclusion.,Or,,an,anecdote,may,be,amusing,or,entertaining,within,itself.,Anecdotes,may,be,fictional,,or,non-fictional.,Anecdotes,are,often,expressed, 20 orally,,but,good,anecdotes,find,their,way,into,print.,For,example:,Recall,the,anecdote,of,George,Washington,,that,he,could,not,tell,a,lie,when,he,cut,down,the,cherry,tree.,, 21 HOW MUCH LAND DOES A MAN NEED? Leo Tolstoy I AN elder sister came to visit her younger sister in the country. The elder was married to a tradesman in town, the younger to a peasant in the village. As the sisters sat over their tea talking, the elder began to boast of the advantages of town life: saying how comfortably they lived there, how well they dressed, what fine clothes her children wore what good things they ate and drank, and how she went to the theatre, promenades, and entertainments. The younger sister was piqued, and in turn disparage the life of a tradesman, and stood up for that of a peasant. 'I would not change my way of life for yours,' said she. We may live roughly, but at least we are free from anxiety. You live in better style than we do but though you often earn more than you need, you are very likely to lose all you have. You know the proverb, "Loss and gain are brothers twain." It often happens that people who are wealthy one day are begging their bread the next. Our way is safer. Though a peasant's life is not a fat one, it is a long one. We shall never grow rich, but we shall always have enough to eat.' The elder sister said sneeringly: 'Enough? Yes, if you like to share with the pigs and the calves! What do you know of elegance or manners! However much your goodman may slave, you will die as you are living -- on a dung heap -- and your children the same.' 'Well, what of that?' replied the younger. 'Of course our work is rough and coarse. But, on the other hand, it is sure; and we need not bow to any one. But you, in your towns, are surrounded by temptations; to-day all may be right, but to-morrow the Evil One may tempt your husband with cards, wine, or women, and all will go to ruin. Don't such things happen often enough?' Pahom, the master of the house, was lying on the top of the oven, and he listened to the women's chatter. 22 'It is perfectly true,' thought he. 'Busy as we are from childhood tilling mother earth, we peasants have no time to let any nonsense settle in our heads. Our only trouble is that we haven't land enough. If I had plenty of land, I shouldn't fear the Devil himself!' The women finished their tea, chatted a while about dress, and then cleared away the tea-things and lay down to sleep. But the Devil had been sitting behind the oven, and had heard all that was said. He was pleased that the peasant's wife had led her husband into boasting, and that he had said that if he had plenty of land he would not fear the Devil himself. 'All right,' thought the Devil. 'We will have a tussle. I'll give you land enough; and by means of that land I will get you into my power.' II Close to the village there lived a lady, a small landowner, who had an 1estate of about three hundred acres. She had always lived on good terms with the peasants, until she engaged as her steward an old soldier, who took to burdening the people with fines. However careful Pahom tried to be, it happened again and again that now a horse of his got among the lady's oats, now a cow strayed into her garden, now his calves found their way into her meadows -- and he always had to pay a fine. Pahom paid up, but grumbled, and, going home in a temper, was rough with his family. All through that summer, Pahom had much trouble because of this steward; and he was even glad when winter came and the cattle had to be stabled. Though he grudged the fodder when they could no longer graze on the pasture-land, at least he was free from anxiety about them. In the winter the news got about that the lady was going to sell her land, and that the keeper of the inn on the high road was bargaining for it. When the peasants heard this they were very much alarmed. 'Well', thought they, 'if the innkeeper gets the land, he will worry us with fines worse than the lady's steward. We all depend on that estate.' So the peasants went on behalf of their Commune and asked the lady not to sell the land to the innkeeper offering her a better price for it 23 themselves. The lady agreed to let them have it. Then the peasants tried to arrange for the Commune to buy the whole estate so that it might be held by them all in common. They met twice to discuss it, but could not settle the matter; the Evil One sowed discord among them, and they could not agree. So they decided to buy the land individually, each according to his means; and the lady agreed to this plan as she had to the other. Presently Pahom heard that a neighbour of his was buying fifty acres, and that the lady had consented to accept one half in cash and to wait a year for the other half. Pahom felt envious at that,' thought he, 'the land is all being sold, and I shall get 'Look none of it.' So he spoke to his wife. 'Other people are buying,' said he, 'and we must also buy twenty acres or so. Life is becoming impossible. That steward is simply crushing us with his fines.' So they put their heads together and considered how they could manage to buy it. They had one hundred roubles laid by. They sold a colt, and one half of their bees; hired out one of their sons as a labourer, and took his wages in advance; borrowed the rest from a brother-in-law, and so scraped together half the purchase money. Having done this, Pahom chose out a farm of forty acres, some of it wooded, and went to the lady to bargain for it. They came to an agreement, and he shook hands with her upon it, and paid her a deposit in advance. Then they went to town and signed the deeds; he paying half the price down, and undertaking to pay the remainder within two years. So now Pahom had land of his own. He borrowed seed, and sowed it on the land he had bought. The harvest was a good one, and within a year he had managed to pay off his debts both to the lady and to his brother-in-law. So he became a landowner, ploughing and sowing his own land, making hay on his own land, cutting his own trees, and feeding his cattle on his own pasture. When he went out to plough his fields, or to look at his growing corn, or at his grass-meadows, his heart would fill with joy. The grass that grew and the flowers that bloomed there, seemed to him unlike any that grew elsewhere. Formerly, when he had passed by that land it had appeared the same as any other land, but now it seemed quite different. III 24 So Pahom was well-contented, and everything would have been right if the neighbouring peasants would only not have trespassed on his corn-fields and meadows. He appealed to them most civilly, but they still went on: now the Communal herdsmen would let the village cows stray into his meadows; then horses from the night pasture would get among his corn. Pahom turned them out again and again, and forgave their owners, and for a long time he forbore from prosecuting any one. But at last he lost patience and complained to the District Court. He knew it was the peasants' want of land, and no evil intent on their part, that caused the trouble; but he thought: 'I cannot go on overlooking it, or they will destroy all I have. They must be taught a lesson.' So he had them up, gave them one lesson, and then another, and two or three of the peasants were fined. After a time Pahom's neighbours began to bear him a grudge for this, and would now and then let their cattle on to his land on purpose. One peasant even got into Pahom's wood at night and cut down five young lime trees for their bark. Pahom passing through the wood one day noticed something white. He came nearer, and saw the stripped trunks lying on the ground, and close by stood the stumps, where the trees had been. Pahom was furious. 'If he had only cut one here and there it would have been bad enough,' thought Pahom, 'but the rascal has actually cut down a whole clump. If I could only find out who did this, I would pay him out.' He racked his brains as to who it could be. Finally he decided: 'It must be Simon -- no one else could have done it.' So he went to Simon's homestead to have a look round, but he found nothing, and only had an angry scene. However, he now felt more certain than ever that Simon had done it, and he lodged a complaint. Simon was summoned. The case was tried, and re-tried, and at the end of it all Simon was acquitted, there being no evidence against him. Pahom felt still more aggrieved, and let his anger loose upon the Elder and the Judges. 'You let thieves grease your palms,' said he. 'If you were honest folk yourselves, you would not let a thief go free.' So Pahom quarrelled with the Judges and with his neighbours. Threats to burn his building began to be uttered. So though Pahom had more land, his place in the Commune was much worse than before. 25 About this time a rumour got about that many people were moving to new parts. 'There's no need for me to leave my land,' thought Pahom. 'But some of the others might leave our village and then there would be more room for us. I would take over their land myself, and make my estate a bit bigger. I could then live more at ease. As it is, I am still too cramped to be comfortable. One day Pahom was sitting at home, when a peasant, passing through the village, happened to call in. He was allowed to stay the night, and supper was given him. Pahom had a talk with this peasant and asked him where he came from. The stranger answered that he came from beyond the Volga, where he had been working. One word led to another, and the man went on to say that many people were settling in those parts. He told how some people from his village had settled there. They had joined the Commune, and had had twenty-five acres per man granted them. The land was so good, he said, that the rye sown on it grew as high as a horse, and so thick that five cuts of a sickle made a sheaf. One peasant, he said, had brought nothing with him but his bare hands, and now he had six horses and two cows of his own. Pahom's heart kindled with desire. He thought: 'Why should I suffer in this narrow hole, if one can live so well elsewhere? I will sell my land and my homestead here, and with the money I will start afresh over there and get everything new. In this crowded place one is always having trouble. But I must first go and find out all about it myself. Towards summer he got ready and started. He went down the Volga on a steamer to Samara, then walked another three hundred miles on foot, and at last reached the place. It was just as the stranger had said. The peasants had plenty of land: every man had twenty-five acres of Communal land given him for his use, and any one who had money could buy, besides, at two 2shillings an acre as much good freehold land as he wanted. Having found out all he wished to know, Pahom returned home as autumn came on, and began selling off his belongings. He sold his land at a profit, sold his homestead and all his cattle, and withdrew from membership of the Commune. He only waited till the spring, and then started with his family for the new settlement. IV 26 As soon as Pahom and his family arrived at their new abode, he applied for admission into the Commune of a large village. He stood treat to the Elders, and obtained the necessary documents. Five shares of Communal land were given him for his own and his sons' use: that is to say -- 125 acres (not all together but in different fields) besides the use of the Communal pasture. Pahom put up the buildings he needed, and bought cattle. Of the Communal land alone he had three times as much as at his former home, and the land was good corn-land. He was ten times better off than he had been. He had plenty of arable land and pasturage, and could keep as many head of cattle as he liked. At first, in the bustle of building and settling down, Pahom was pleased with it all, but when he got used to it he began to think that even here he had not enough land. The first year, he sowed wheat on his share of the Communal land, and had a good crop. He wanted to go on sowing wheat, but had not enough Communal land for the purpose, and what he had already used was not available; for in those parts wheat is only sown on virgin soil or on fallow land. It is sown for one or two years, and then the land lies fallow till it is again overgrown with prairie grass. There were many who wanted such land, and there was not enough for all; so that people quarrelled about it. Those who were better off, wanted it for growing wheat, and those who were poor, wanted it to let to dealers, so that they might raise money to pay their taxes. Pahom wanted to sow more wheat; so he rented land from a dealer for a year. He sowed much wheat and had a fine crop, but the land was too far from the village -- the wheat had to be carted more than ten miles. After a time Pahom noticed that some peasant-dealers were living on separate farms, and were growing wealthy; and he thought: 'If I were to buy some freehold land, and have a homestead on it, it would be a different thing altogether. Then it would all be nice and compact.' The question of buying freehold land recurred to him again and again. He went on in the same way for three years: renting land and sowing wheat. The seasons turned out well and the crops were good, so that he began to lay money by. He might have gone on living contentedly, but he grew tired of having to rent other people's land every year, and having to scramble for it. Wherever there was good land to be had, the peasants would rush for it and it was taken up at once, so that unless you were sharp about it you got none. It happened in the third year that he and a dealer together rented a piece of pasture land from some peasants; and they had already ploughed it up, when there was some dispute, and the peasants went to law about it, and things fell out so that the labour was all lost. 27 'If it were my own land,' thought Pahom, 'I should be independent, and there would not be all this unpleasantness.' So Pahom began looking out for land which he could buy; and he came across a peasant who had bought thirteen hundred acres, but having got into difficulties was willing to sell again cheap. Pahom bargained and haggled with him, and at last they settled the price at 1,500 roubles, part in cash and part to be paid later. They had all but clinched the matter, when a passing dealer happened to stop at Pahom's one day to get a feed for his horses. He drank tea with Pahom, and they had a talk. The dealer said that he was just returning from the land of the Bashkirs, far away, where he had bought thirteen thousand acres of land, all for 1,000 roubles. Pahom questioned him further, and the tradesman said: 'All one need do is to make friends with the chiefs. I gave away about one hundred roubles, worth of dressing-gowns and carpets, besides a case of tea, and I gave wine to those who would drink it; and I got the land 3for less than twopence an acre. And he showed Pahom the title-deeds, saying: 'The land lies near a river, and the whole prairie is virgin soil.' Pahom plied him with questions, and the tradesman said: is more land there than you could cover if you walked a year, and 'There it all belongs to the Bashkirs. They are as simple as sheep, and land can be got almost for nothing.' 'There now,' thought Pahom, 'with my one thousand roubles, why should I get only thirteen hundred acres, and saddle myself with a debt besides. If I take it out there, I can get more than ten times as much for the money.' Pahom inquired how to get to the place, and as soon as the tradesman had left him, he prepared to go there himself. He left his wife to look after the homestead, and started on his journey taking his man with him. They stopped at a town on their way, and bought a case of tea, some wine, and other presents, as the tradesman had advised. On and on they went until they had gone more than three hundred miles, and on the seventh day they came to a place where the Bashkirs had pitched their tents. It was all 28 just as the tradesman had said. The people lived on the steppes, by a river, 4in felt-covered tents. They neither tilled the ground, nor ate bread. Their cattle and horses grazed in herds on the steppe. The colts were tethered behind the tents, and the mares were driven to them twice a day. The mares were milked, and from the milk kumiss was made. It was the women who prepared kumiss, and they also made cheese. As far as the men were concerned, drinking kumiss and tea, eating mutton, and playing on their pipes, was all they cared about. They were all stout and merry, and all the summer long they never thought of doing any work. They were quite ignorant, and knew no Russian, but were good-natured enough. As soon as they saw Pahom, they came out of their tents and gathered round their visitor. An interpreter was found, and Pahom told them he had come about some land. The Bashkirs seemed very glad they took Pahom and led him into one of the best tents, where they made him sit on some down cushions placed on a carpet, while they sat round him. They gave him tea and kumiss, and had a sheep killed, and gave him mutton to eat. Pahom took presents out of his cart and distributed them among the Bashkirs, and divided amongst them the tea. The Bashkirs were delighted. They talked a great deal among themselves, and then told the interpreter to translate. 'They wish to tell you,' said the interpreter, 'that they like you, and that it is our custom to do all we can to please a guest and to repay him for his gifts. You have given us presents, now tell us which of the things we possess please you best, that we may present them to you.' 'What pleases me best here,' answered Pahom 'is your land. Our land is crowded, and the soil is exhausted; but you have plenty of land and it is good land. I never saw the like of it.' The interpreter translated. The Bashkirs talked among themselves for a while. Pahom could not understand what they were saying, but saw that they were much amused, and that they shouted and laughed. Then they were silent and looked at Pahom while the interpreter said: 'They wish me to tell you that in return for your presents they will gladly give you as much land as you want. You have only to point it out with your hand and it is yours.' The Bashkirs talked again for a while and began to dispute. Paho m asked what they were disputing about, and the interpreter told him that some of them thought they ought to ask their Chief about the land and not act in his absence, while others thought there was no need to wait for his return. 29 VI While the Bashkirs were disputing, a man in a large fox-fur cap appeared on the scene. They all became silent and rose to their feet. The interpreter said, 'This is our Chief himself.' Pahom immediately fetched the best dressing-gown and five pounds of tea, and offered these to the Chief. The Chief accepted them, and seated himself in the place of honour. The Bashkirs at once began telling him something. The Chief listened for a while, then made a sign with his head for them to be silent, and addressing himself to Pahom, said in Russian: 'Well, let it be so. Choose whatever piece of land you like; we have plenty of it.' 'How can I take as much as I like?' thought Pahom. 'I must get a deed to make it secure, or else they may say, "It is yours," and afterwards may take it away again.' 'Thank you for your kind words,' he said aloud. 'You have much land, and I only want a little. But I should like to be sure which bit is mine. Could it not be measured and made over to me? Life and death are in God's hands. You good people give it to me, but your children might wish to take it away again.' 'You are quite right,' said the Chief. 'We will make it over to you.' 'I heard that a dealer had been here,' continued Pahom, 'and that you gave him a little land, too, and signed title-deeds to that effect. I should like to have it done in the same way.' The Chief understood. 'Yes,' replied he, 'that can be done quite easily. We have a scribe, and we will go to town with you and have the deed properly sealed.' 'And what will be the price?' asked Pahom. 'Our price is always the same: one thousand roubles a day.' Pahom did not understand. 30 'A day? What measure is that? How many acres would that be?' 'We do not know how to reckon it out,' said the Chief. 'We sell it by the day. As much as you can go round on your feet in a day is yours, and the price is one thousand roubles a day.' Pahom was surprised. 'But in a day you can get round a large tract of land,' he said. The Chief laughed. 'It will all be yours!' said he. 'But there is one condition: If you don't return on the same day to the spot whence you started, your money is lost.' 'But how am I to mark the way that I have gone?' 'Why, we shall go to any spot you like, and stay there. You must start from that spot and make your round, taking a spade with you. Wherever you think necessary, make a mark. At every turning, dig a hole and pile up the turf; then afterwards we will go round with a plough from hole to hole. You may make as large a circuit as you please, but before the sun sets you must return to the place you started from. All the land you cover will be yours.' Pahom was delighted. It was decided to start early next morning. They talked a while, and after drinking some more kumiss and eating some more mutton, they had tea again, and then the night came on. They gave Pahom a feather-bed to sleep on, and the Bashkirs dispersed for the night, promising to assemble the next morning at daybreak and ride out before sunrise to the appointed spot. VII Pahom lay on the feather-bed, but could not sleep. He kept thinking about the land. 'What a large tract I will mark off!' thought he. 'I can easily do thirty-five miles in a day. The days are long now, and within a circuit of thirty-five miles what a lot of land there will be! I will sell the poorer land, or let it to peasants, but I'll pick out the best and farm it. I will buy two ox-teams, and hire two more labourers. About a hundred 31 and fifty acres shall be plough-land, and I will pasture cattle on the rest.' Pahom lay awake all night, and dozed off only just before dawn. Hardly were his eyes closed when he had a dream. He thought he was lying in that same tent, and heard somebody chuckling outside. He wondered who it could be, and rose and went out and he saw the Bashkirs Chief sitting in front of the tent holding his sides and rolling about with laughter. Going nearer to the Chief, Pahom asked: 'What are you laughing at?' But he saw that it was no longer the Chief, but the dealer who had recently stopped at his house and had told him about the land. Just as Pahom was going to ask, 'Have you been here long?' he saw that it was not the dealer, but the peasant who had come up from the Volga, long ago, to Pahom's old home. Then he saw that it was not the peasant either, but the Devil himself with hoofs and horns sitting there and chuckling, and before him lay a man barefoot, prostrate on the ground, with only trousers and a shirt on. And Pahom dreamt that he looked more attentively to see what sort of a man it was that was lying there, and he saw that the man was dead and that it was himself! He awoke horror-struck. 'What things one does dream,' thought he. Looking round he saw through the open door that the dawn was breaking. 'It's time to wake them up,' thought he. 'We ought to be starting.' He got up, roused his man (who was sleeping in his cart), bade him harness; and went to call the Bashkirs. 'It's time to go to the steppe to measure the land,' he said. The Bashkirs rose and assembled, and the Chief came too. Then they began drinking kumiss again, and offered Pahom some tea, but he would not wait. 'If we are to go, let us go. It is high time,' said he. VIII The Bashkirs got ready and they all started: some mounted on horses, and some in carts. Pahom drove in his own small cart with his servant, and took a spade with him. When they reached the steppe, the morning red was 32 beginning to kindle. They ascended a hillock (called by the Bashkirs a shikhan) and dismounting from their carts and their horses, gathered in one spot. The Chief came up to Pahom and stretching out his arm towards the plain: 'See,' said he, 'all this, as far as your eye can reach, is ours. You may have any part of it you like.' Pahom's eyes glistened: it was all virgin soil, as flat as the palm of your hand, as black as the seed of a poppy, and in the hollows different kinds of grasses grew breast high. The Chief took off his fox-fur cap, placed it on the ground and said: 'This will be the mark. Start from here, and return here again. All the land you go round shall be yours.' Pahom took out his money and put it on the cap. Then he took off his outer coat, remaining in his sleeveless under-coat. He unfastened his girdle and tied it tight below his stomach, put a little bag of bread into the breast of his coat, and tying a flask of water to his girdle, he drew up the tops of his boots, took the spade from his man, and stood ready to start. He considered for some moments which way he had better go -- it was tempting everywhere. 'No matter,' he concluded, 'I will go towards the rising sun.' He turned his face to the east, stretched himself and waited for the sun to appear above the rim. 'I must lose no time,' he thought, 'and it is easier walking while it is still cool.' The sun's rays had hardly flashed above the horizon, before Pahom, carrying the spade over his shoulder went down into the steppe. Pahom started walking neither slowly nor quickly. After having gone a thousand yards he stopped, dug a hole, and placed pieces of turf one on another to make it more visible. Then he went on; and now that he had walked off his stiffness he quickened his pace. After a while he dug another hole. Pahom looked back. The hillock could be distinctly seen in the sunlight, with the people on it, and the glittering tyres of the cart-wheels. At a rough guess Pahom concluded that he had walked three miles. It was growing warmer; he took off his under-coat, flung it across his shoulder, 33 and went on again. It had grown quite warm now; he looked at the sun, it was time to think of breakfast. 'The first shift is done, but there are four in a day, and it is too soon yet to turn. But I will just take off my boots,' said he to himself. He sat down, took off his boots, stuck them into his girdle, and went on. It was easy walking now. 'I will go on for another three miles,' thought he, 'and then turn to the left. This spot is so fine, that it would be a pity to lose it. The further one goes, the better the land seems.' He went straight on for a while, and when he looked round, the hillock was scarcely visible and the people on it looked like black ants, and he could just see something glistening there in the sun. 'Ah,' thought Pahom, 'I have gone far enough in this direction, it is time to turn. Besides I am in a regular sweat, and very thirsty.' He stopped, dug a large hole, and heaped up pieces of turf. Next he untied his flask, had a drink, and then turned sharply to the left. He went on and on; the grass was high, and it was very hot. Pahom began to grow tired: he looked at the sun and saw that it was noon. 'Well,' he thought, 'I must have a rest.' He sat down, and ate some bread and drank some water; but he did not lie down, thinking that if he did he might fall asleep. After sitting a little while, he went on again. At first he walked easily: the food had strengthened him; but it had become terribly hot, and he felt sleepy; still he went on, thinking: 'An hour to suffer, a life-time to live.' He went a long way in this direction also, and was about to turn to the left again, when he perceived a damp hollow: 'It would be a pity to leave that out,' he thought. 'Flax would do well there.' So he went on past the hollow, and dug a hole on the other side of it before he turned the corner. Pahom looked towards the hillock. The heat made the air hazy: it seemed to be quivering, and through the haze the people on the hillock could scarcely be seen. 'Ah!' thought Pahom, 'I have made the sides too long; I must make this one shorter.' And he went along the third side stepping faster. He looked at the sun: it was nearly half way to the horizon, and he had not yet done 34 two miles of the third side of the square. He was still ten miles from the goal. 'No,' he thought, 'though it will make my land lop-sided, I must hurry back in a straight line now. I might go too far, and as it is I have a great deal of land.' So Pahom hurriedly dug a hole, and turned straight towards the hillock. IX Pahom went straight towards the hillock, but he now walked with difficulty. He was done up with the heat, his bare feet were cut and bruised, and his legs began to fail. He longed to rest, but it was impossible if he meant to get back before sunset. The sun waits for no man, and it was sinking lower and lower. 'Oh dear,' he thought, 'if only I have not blundered trying for too much! What if I am too late?' He looked towards the hillock and at the sun. He was still far from his goal, and the sun was already near the rim Pahom walked on and on; it was very hard walking, but he went quicker and quicker. He pressed on, but was still far from the place. He began running, threw away his coat, his boots, his flask, and his cap, and kept only the spade which he used as a support. 'What shall I do,' he thought again, 'I have grasped too much, and ruined the whole affair. I can't get there before the sun sets.' And this fear made him still more breathless. Pahom went on running, his soaking shirt and trousers stuck to him, and his mouth was parched. His breast was working like a blacksmith's bellows, his heart was beating like a hammer, and his legs were giving way as if they did not belong to him. Pahom was seized with terror lest he should die of the strain. Though afraid of death, he could not stop. 'After having run all that way they will call me a fool if I stop now,' thought he. And he ran on and on, and drew near and heard the Bashkirs yelling and shouting to him, and 35 their cries inflamed his heart still more. He gathered his last strength and ran on. The sun was close to the rim, and cloaked in mist looked large, and red as blood. Now, yes now, it was about to set! The sun was quite low, but he was also quite near his aim. Pahom could already see the people on the hillock waving their arms to hurry him up. He could see the fox-fur cap on the ground, and the money on it, and the Chief sitting on the ground holding his sides. And Pahom remembered his dream. 'There is plenty of land,' thought he, 'but will God let me live on it? I have lost my life, I have lost my life! I shall never reach that spot!' Pahom looked at the sun, which had reached the earth: one side of it had already disappeared. With all his remaining strength he rushed on, bending his body forward so that his legs could hardly follow fast enough to keep him from falling. Just as he reached the hillock it suddenly grew dark. He looked up -- the sun had already set! He gave a cry: 'All my labour has been in vain,' thought he, and was about to stop, but he heard the Bashkirs still shouting, and remembered that though to him, from below, the sun seemed to have set, they on the hillock could still see it. He took a long breath and ran up the hillock. It was still light there. He reached the top and saw the cap. Before it sat the Chief laughing and holding his sides. Again Pahom remembered his dream, and he uttered a cry: his legs gave way beneath him, he fell forward and reached the cap with his hands. 'Ah, that's a fine fellow!' exclaimed the Chief 'He has gained much land!' Pahom’s servant came running up and tried to raise him, but he saw that blood was flogging from his mouth. Pahom was dead! The Bashkirs clicked their tongues to show their pity. His servant picked up the spade and dug a grave long enough for Pahom to he in, and buried him in it. Six feet from his head to his heels was all he needed. 1886. 36