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汉语访谈节目中的批评性隐喻分析―基于传媒语言语料库研究

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汉语访谈节目中的批评性隐喻分析―基于传媒语言语料库研究汉语访谈节目中的批评性隐喻分析―基于传媒语言语料库研究 分类号: HO 密 级: 公 开 U D C : 单位代码: 10424 学 位 论 文 Critical Metaphor Analysis in the Chinese TV Talk Shows: A Media-Language-Corpus-Based Study 汉语访谈节目中的批评性隐喻分析 ―基于传媒语言语料库的研究 牛文慧 专业名称: 外国语言学及 申请学位级别: 硕士学位 应用语言学 职 称: 教 授 指导教师姓名:...

汉语访谈节目中的批评性隐喻分析―基于传媒语言语料库研究
汉语访谈节目中的批评性隐喻分析―基于传媒语言语料库研究 分类号: HO 密 级: 公 开 U D C : 单位代码: 10424 学 位 论 文 Critical Metaphor Analysis in the Chinese TV Talk Shows: A Media-Language-Corpus-Based Study 汉语访谈节目中的批评性隐喻分析 ―基于传媒语言语料库的研究 牛文慧 专业名称: 外国语言学及 申请学位级别: 硕士学位 应用语言学 职 称: 教 授 指导教师姓名: 彭 建 武 山 东 科 技 大 学 二零零九年四月 论文 政研论文下载论文大学下载论文大学下载关于长拳的论文浙大论文封面下载 题目: 汉语访谈节目中的批评性隐喻分析 ―基于传媒语言语料库的研究 作者姓名: 牛 文 慧 入学时间: 2006 年 9 月 专业名称: 外国语言学及应用语言学研究方向: 认知 语 言 学 指导教师: 称: 彭 建 武 职 教 授 论文提交日期:2009 年 04 月 论文 答辩 答辩ppt下载中国建筑转正答辩ppt下载民事答辩状范文下载毕业答辩毕业答辩模板 日期:2009 年 06 月 授予学位日期: Critical Metaphor Analysis in the Chinese TV Talk Shows: ?A Media-Language-Corpus-Based Study A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF ARTS from Shandong University of Science and Technology by Niu Wenhui Supervisor: Professor Peng Jianwu College of Foreign Languages April 2009 声 明 本人呈交给山东科技大学的这篇硕士学位论文,除了所列参考文献和其他 公认的文献外,全部是本人在导师指导下的研究成果。该论文资料尚没有呈交 于其它任何学术机关作鉴定。 硕士生签名: 日 期: AFFIRMATION I declare that this dissertation, submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master of Arts in Shandong University of Science and Technology, is wholly my own work unless referenced of acknowledge. The document has not been submitted for qualification at any other academic institute. Signature: Date: 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Abstract ABSTRACT hor studies have been carried out for a long time from different perspectives, Metap ranging from rhetoric, functional-structuralism to pragmatics. In recent years, the study of metaphors in English from a critical point of view has arisen, but rarely has attention been paid to explore critical metaphors in Chinese TV programs. This will form the main issue of this study. The proliferation of TV talk shows has become an integral part of modern day living. This paper aims to identify, interpret and explain metaphors used in typical Chinese TV talk shows so as to explore the functions of metaphors within the framework of cognitive linguistic theory. For example, the author categorizes the main metaphors into journey metaphors, construction metaphors, plant metaphors, military metaphors, human body metaphors, machine metaphors as well as family metaphors. Meanwhile, some unique metaphors with Chinese characteristics are discussed, for instance, food metaphors, game metaphors, horse- racing metaphors, hunting metaphors, fishing metaphors, sexual metaphors and circle metaphors. Moreover, to investigate how people in Chinese culture perceive the metaphorical expressions in the shows in Chinese culture. Critical Metaphor Analysis shows that these frequently used metaphors convey positive evaluations. In this study, Chinese TV talk shows are chosen from Media Language Corpus in Communication University of China, covering such typical programs as Topics in Focus, Dialogue, Face to Face, To Tell it As it is, A Date to Lu yu and so on. In order to satisfy the requirement, the analysis tool—Wconcord is used in the thesis. The original corpus is first segmented with Ictclas10 (Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Lexical Analysis System, version10). Thereafter, the analysis procedure is carried out according to the three stages of Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) introduced by Charteris-Black (2004) —metaphor identification, interpretation, and explanation. In this analyzing process, both quantitative and qualitative approaches are involved, the latter being more prominent. I 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Abstract According to the quantitative research, the number of major metaphors shows that journey metaphors (4683) are the largest constituent followed by construction metaphors (3354), plant metaphors (1595), military metaphors (1466), human body metaphors (1461), machine metaphors (478) and, finally, family metaphors (374). CMA shows that a great many of metaphors convey positive evaluations, which thus increases the public participation and finally assists the development of the viewers? career or the country. It is hoped that this study will expand Critical Metaphor Analysis into Chinese talk shows. The most important aim is to help people further understand the role of the metaphor from the angle of social context, ideology and cultural background. Key words: Critical Metaphor Analysis; Metaphor Keywords; Cultural Models; Talk Show; Positive Evaluations II 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 摘要 摘 要 长期以来,人们从不同的角度对隐喻展开了研究:分别是修辞的视角,功能结构主 义视角和语用的视角。近年来兴起了从批评的角度来研究英语中的隐喻,但是很少有人 从批评的角度探讨汉语谈话节目中的隐喻现象,这便是本文的主旨所在。 电视谈话节目已成为现代生活中不可缺少的一部分。本文旨在识别,理解并解释汉 语电视谈话节目中的隐喻,为的是应用认知语言学来探讨隐喻的功能。例如,作者将主 要的隐喻划分为旅途隐喻,结构隐喻,植物隐喻,军事隐喻,机器隐喻还有家庭隐喻。 与此同时,作者对一些有中国特色的新奇隐喻在文中也进行了探讨,比如,食品隐喻, 游戏隐喻,赛马隐喻,狩猎隐喻,垂钓隐喻,性别隐喻和圆圈隐喻。此外,本文还研究 人们在中国文化的背景下如何理解电视节目中的隐喻表达。批评性隐喻分析得出的结论 是出现频率高的隐喻折射出积极的意义。 本文的语料来源于中国传媒大学传媒语言学语料库中的汉语电视谈话节目,包括《特 别关注》,《对话》,《面对面》,《实话实说》,《鲁豫有约》等等。为了满足研究 concord。首先,用 Ictclas10(一种计算机技术研究 需要,作者用到了分词检索软件 W 机构中的汉语词汇分析系统,版本 10)对初始的语料进行处理。然后根据 Charteris- Black (2004)提出的批评性隐喻分析的三个阶段进行分析,这三个阶段分别是隐喻识别, 隐喻理解和隐喻解释。在分析过程中,用到了定性和定量两种研究 方法 快递客服问题件处理详细方法山木方法pdf计算方法pdf华与华方法下载八字理论方法下载 ,但是以后者为 主。根据定量分析结果,主要隐喻的数目分别是:旅行隐喻(4683)位居第一位,然后是 建筑隐喻(3354),第三位是植物隐喻(1595),第四是军事隐喻(1466),第五则是人体隐 喻(1461),第五是机器隐喻,最后是家庭隐喻(374)。批评性隐喻分析反映出许多隐喻具 有正面价值,这种正面意义有利于公众参与并最终实现事业上的发展或国家的发展。 作者希望本文能够将隐喻的批评性研究扩展到汉语访谈节目当中。而最关键目的是 为了从社会语境,意识形态及文化背景的角度帮助人们进一步理解隐喻的角色。 关键词:批评隐喻分析;隐喻关键词;文化模型;访谈节目;积极的意义 III 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Contents Contents Chapter 1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Metaphor and TV Talk Show............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Rationale of This Study........................................................................................................................ 2 1.3 Organization of This Thesis..................................................................................................................2 Chapter 2 Literature Review.................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Traditional Approaches to Metaphor abroad........................................................................................4 2.1.1 Semantic Approach to Metaphor...............................................................................................4 2.1.2 Pragmatic Approach to Metaphor............................................................................................. 5 2.1.3 Cognitive Approach to Metaphor.............................................................................................. 6 2.2 Traditional Approaches to Metaphor at home......................................................................................9 2.3 A Brief Introduction of Critical Discourse Analysis............................................................................9 2.3.1 Previous Studies on CDA at Home and Abroad....................................................................... 9 2.3.2 Limitations in CDA................................................................................................................. 12 Chapter 3 Theoretical Background........................................................................................13 3.1 Critical Approaches to Metaphor: A New Perspective...................................................................... 13 3.2 Language, Power and Ideology.......................................................................................................... 16 3.3 Metaphor, Culture and Cultural Models.............................................................................................18 3.3.1 Culture and Cultural Models................................................................................................... 18 3.3.2 The Role of Culture in Metaphor............................................................................................ 19 3.3.3 Metaphors of Cultural Universality.........................................................................................20 3.3.4 Metaphors of Cultural Variations............................................................................................ 21 Chapter 4 Research Methodologies........................................................................................22 4.1 Research Procedures of this Study..................................................................................................... 22 I 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Contents 4.1.1 Data Collection........................................................................................................................ 22 4.1.2 Research Problems...................................................................................................................22 4.2 Procedures of Critical Approaches to Metaphor................................................................................ 23 4.2.1 Metaphor Identification........................................................................................................... 23 4.2.2 Metaphor Interpretation........................................................................................................... 23 4.2.3 Metaphor Explanation............................................................................................................. 24 Chapter 5 Data Analysis..........................................................................................................25 5.1 Quantitative Research of Metaphors in Collected Chinese Data....................................................... 25 5.1.1 Military Metaphors.................................................................................................................. 25 5.1.2 Journey Metaphors...................................................................................................................28 5.1.3 Construction Metaphors.......................................................................................................... 31 5.1.4 Machine Metaphors................................................................................................................. 32 5.1.5 Family Metaphors................................................................................................................... 35 5.1.6 Plant Metaphors....................................................................................................................... 37 5.2 Unique Conceptual Metaphors in China............................................................................................ 41 5.2.1 Food Metaphors....................................................................................................................... 42 5.2.2 Game Metaphors......................................................................................................................43 5.2.3 Horse-racing Metaphors.......................................................................................................... 46 5.2.4 Hunting Metaphors.................................................................................................................. 48 5.2.5 Fishing Metaphors................................................................................................................... 48 5.2.6 Sexual Metaphors.................................................................................................................... 49 5.2.7 Circle Metaphors..................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter 6 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 52 6.1 Summary............................................................................................................................................. 52 6.2 Limitations of the Thesis and Suggestions for Further Studies......................................................... 52 6.2.1 Corpus Limitations.................................................................................................................. 52 6.2.2 Metaphor Key Words Limitations...........................................................................................53 II 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Contents 6.2.3 Conceptual Metaphor Limitations........................................................................................... 53 6.3 Suggestions for further studies........................................................................................................... 53 Bibliography............................................................................................................................. 55 endix................................................................................................................................... 59 App Acknowledgements.................................................................................................................. 62 Main Work Achievement of the Author during Working on Master Thesis..................... 63 III 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Introduction Chapter 1 Introduction Traditionally,metaphorsarepervasiveindailylife,soweeasilytakethem forgrantedsuchthattheyhavebecomeanintegralpartofthelanguage itself.Infact,itismetaphorsthatcanpresentuswithagreaterunderstanding oftheworld. Metaphorshavebeenregardedasfiguresofspeech,i.e.asmoreorless ornamentaldevicesusedinrhetoricalstyle.Moreover,philosophersand cognitivelinguistshaveshownthatmetaphorsarepowerfulcognitivetoolsfor ourconceptualizationofabstractcategories.(F.UngererandSchmid, 2005:114). Incontemporarysociety,theproliferationofmassmediahaspresented peoplewithavarietyoflanguageforms,eitherfromvisualoraudio perspective.Amajorpartthatisrepresentedbylanguageexpressionsusedin TVtalkshows.Inparticular,peopleinChinaliketowatchTalkShowprograms, suchasTopicsinFocus,Dialogue,FacetoFace,ToTellitAsitis,ADatetoLu yuandsoon. Thepopularityofbothmetaphoricexpressionsandtalkshowlanguagein dailylifeindicatestheneedtocombinethetwoperspectives.Thispaperwill focusontheallianceofmetaphorusageinTVtalkshowprograms. 1.1MetaphorandTVTalkShow Thestudyofmetaphorusagehasdevelopedgreatlysincethepublication ofMetaphorsWeLiveBy(LakoffandJohnson:1980),thus,movingawayfrom thestylisticfunctionofmetaphortothecognitivefunctionofmetaphor.The mainconcernofthiscognitivetheoryofmetaphorrefersto“metaphorsbeing 1 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Introduction pervasiveineverydaylife,notjustinlanguagebutalsointhoughtandaction”, and“ourordinaryconceptualsystem,intermsofbothwhatwethinkandalso act,fundamentallymetaphoricalinnature,”(LakoffandJohnson:1980:3) 1.2 Rationale of This Study Although there is already abundant research on the topic of metaphors, in actual fact there is little based on the content of entertainment shows. Little research has been made into the field of talk show programs, especially from the perspective of Critical Metaphor Analysis. With the proliferation of mass media, people can easily obtain information from TV programs. However, metaphors in entertaining programs are not easy to comprehend. While enjoying the program, some seemingly unrelated words may appear before the viewers? eyes. Most of these words are metaphorical expressions. In order to fill in the gap, this paper adopts the approach of Critical Metaphor Analysis to explore the ideology that prevails from some typical metaphors and how it shapes people?s mode of thinking. Secondly, the analysis of metaphors in TV Talk Shows can help us to figure out the roles that metaphor plays from the perspective of Chinese Talk Shows. This thesis, thus, sets out to present a clue of the close link between language and thought. Thirdly, analysis of this issue can reinforce the viewpoint that the metaphor is a pervasive force in Talk Shows. Finally, this study will expand the linguistic field of metaphors into Chinese Talk Shows. The most important aim is to help people further understand the role of the metaphor from the angle of social context, ideology and cultural background. 1.3 Organization of This Thesis Thisthesisshallbedividedintosixchaptersbeginningwiththeintroduction. Theintroductionpresentstheobjectiveandtheorganizationofthethesis.It explainsthereasonforchoosingthistopic,thepurposeoftheresearch,andit 2 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Introduction alsoofferssomebackgroundinformation.ChapterTwopresentsthehistoryof metaphorstudyandthenmainlyfocusesondifferentapproachesto metaphorstudy.Afteradiscussionofmeritsanddemeritsofeachapproach, theresearchergivesthereasonsforchoosingtheapproachofCritical MetaphorAnalysiswithinthecontextofmetaphorusageinChineseTV programs.ChapterThreealsoprovidestheoreticalbackgroundresearchof metaphor.ItillustratestheCriticalMetaphorAnalysisviewonmetaphorand aboutitschallengesonthetraditionalviews.Moreover,thischapteralso emphasizestheculturalfactorsandtherelationshipbetweenlanguage, power,andideology.Thereafter,ChapterFourintroducesthemethodology usedinthispaper,whichistheCriticalMetaphorAnalysis(CMA),andputs forwardaclearresearchprocedure,fromdatacollection,preliminarydata processingtodataanalysis.ChapterFiveisanimportantchapterwhich describesandexplainsthemajormetaphorswithplentyofdatasoughtout throughMedia-Language-CorpusinCommunicationUniversityofChina. Finally,theconcludingchaptersummarizesthewholestudyandprovidesits significancesandimplications.Limitationsoftheresearchareinvestigatedin suchaspectsascorpusandidentificationsofmetaphorkeywordsthus enablingtheresearchertoproposesuggestionsforfuturestudies. 3 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review Chapter 2 Literature Review Thischapterfirstreviewstraditionalapproachestoidentifymetaphor usageathomeandabroad,fromsemantic,pragmaticandcognitivepoints ofviewrespectively,andthengivesabriefintroductionofcriticaldiscourse analysis.Finally,itplaceshighsignificanceonanewapproachtoanalyze metaphor,calledcriticalmetaphoranalysis. 2.1TraditionalApproachestoMetaphorabroad 2.1.1SemanticApproachtoMetaphor Themetaphorisoneofthemostwidelyusedfiguresofspeechinthe Englishlanguage,buttherearemanyuniversaltheoriesrelatedtoitsuchas thatproposedbyAristotle(1954).Aristotlesurmisesthatthemetaphorisa figureofspeechthatusesthenameofonethingtorefertoanother. Thesemanticapproachtometaphorusageaddressestheeffectofa metaphorintermsofresemblancebetweenthereferentsoftheexpressionsit contains.ThemainexponentsofthistheoryareAristotleandQuintillian. Aristotle(1954)definesmetaphorusageastransferenceofmeaningand considerssimileasasubcategoryofmetaphor,bothofwhichadopt comparisonasthemaindevice.Aristotlemainlyconsidersmetaphorusageas anornamentaldevice.Quintillian(1976)putsforwardtheTheoryof Substitution,whichregardsmetaphorusageasarhetoricalsubstitutionof literalexpression.Hearguesthatthemetaphorisonlyarhetoricaldecoration. Thesetraditionaltheoristsofferthefollowingformula,whichisamethodof interpretationofmetaphorusage.AisB,itcanbeunderstoodasAislikeBin regardtoC. 4 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review Generallyspeaking,semanticapproachsharesthreefeaturesthatare relevanttothepresentstudy.First,itstressesaclosecorrespondencebetween metaphorandsimileorthecomparisonthereof.Secondly,metaphorusage hasakindofdoublemeaning:theliteralmeaningservingasthebasisandthe figurativeaspectsderivedfromit. However,therearesomeinherentshortcomingswithinthesetheories. Firstly,thenotionofcomparisonorsimilaritydoesnotexplainthefigurative aspectofmetaphor.Secondly,findingasemanticequivalencebetweena metaphorandacomparisonisnotaneasytask.Thus,inatleastsomecases,it isnotthereferentsandtheirproperties,buttheculturallygivenstereotypes thatgiverisetothemetaphoricalexpressions. Sincethen,anewtheory,theinteractivetheory,emergedinthe1920s, whichdeniesthecoreofAristotle’stheory.Richard,whoadvocatesthe interactivetheory,isconsideredasthefirstresearchertostudythecognitive functionsofmetaphor.InhisbookPhilosophyofRhetoric(1936),hepointsout thatmetaphorusageisnotstudiedatawordleveltotheextentthatAristotle does,butratheratthesentencelevel.Theroleofmetaphorhasshiftedfroma matterofrhetoricaldevicetoamatteroflanguageandamatterofideato someextent. 2.1.2PragmaticApproachtoMetaphor Thepragmaticapproachmainlyfocusesonthefunctionofcontextand nonlinguisticorworldknowledge. Sincethedecadeofthe1960’s,thedevelopmentofpragmatictheory hasprovidedadifferingperspectiveonmetaphorinterpretation.Themain researchintothepragmaticapproachisthatproposedbyGriceandSearle. Theytakeutterancesratherthansentencesorpropositionsasthestarting pointoftheiranalysis.Grice(1989)takesmetaphorusage,togetherwithirony, meiosis,andhyperbole,asaparticularizedconversationalimplicative,which 5 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review arisesfromthefloutingofMaximofQuality. ThoughGricegivesanaccountintermsofapragmaticpointofview,he doesnotgiveanaccountofhowtherecipientinterpretswhatthespeakeris tryingtogetacross,buthedoesgiveaclearformulatointerpretmetaphor. Intheaftermathofthistheory,Searle(1979:113)regardsmetaphorusage asamatterofspeaker'sutterancemeaningratherthanawordorsentence meaning.ButunlikeGrice,hegivesusaclearwaytointerpretmetaphorfrom theviewofpragmatics.Hesetsoutsixprinciplesofmetaphorical interpretation.Healsopointsoutthattheincongruitybetweentheliteral meaningthatthespeakerwantstoexpressisthefoundationforthe emergenceofmetaphors. Searle(1979)emphasizesthatitoftenrequiresthecontexttodecide whetheranutteranceshouldbeinterpretedmetaphoricallyornot.Hissix principlesmentionedshowametaphor'smechanismandinterpretationin termsofhiscooperativeprinciplesontheonehandandindistinguishing metaphor,ironyandindirectspeechactsontheotherhand. Itisthusclearthatbothsemanticapproachandpragmaticapproach facethesameproblems.Theyalltakefalsityoranomalyasacriterionforthe recognition of metaphor, and they all believe that metaphorical interpretationissecondary.Moreover,bothapproachesareguidedbythe assumptionthatmetaphorusageisessentiallydeviant.Soitisnecessaryto lookforamoresatisfactoryaccountofmetaphor. 2.1.3CognitiveApproachtoMetaphor Sincethe1980s,cognitivesemanticists,suchasLakoffandJohnson(1980, 1987),FauconnierandTurner(1994,1998,2002),contributealottothe cognitiveapproachtothemetaphor.Infact,itisRichardswhofirstchallenges thetraditionalviewonmetaphorusage.Richards(1936:92)claimsthat: “Metaphorusageistheomnipresentprincipleoflanguageandcanbe 6 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review shownbymereobservation.”Wefrequentlycannotevenexpressthree sentencesofordinaryfluiddiscoursewithoutusingmetaphors.Evenin specializedfieldssuchassciencewehavegreatdifficultyeliminatingor preventingmetaphorusage. Initssimplestform,whenweuseametaphorwecombinethethoughtsof twoobjectstogetherandsupportedthembyasinglewordorphrase.The meaningisaresultantoftheirinteraction.(ibid) Richardsalsointroducestwotechnicaltermstenorandvehicle,whichto refertotheoriginalobjectandmetaphoricalobjectrespectively.Meanwhile, heputsforwardaviewpointthatthemetaphorisanessentialpartofhuman cognitiveability(1936).Richardsopensanewhorizonforthestudy Richards, ofmetaphor.Oftheabovementionedresearchers,Lakoffstandsoutwithhis morecompletecognitiveperspectiveonmetaphorstudy. LakoffandJohnson(1980),MetaphorWeLiveBygivesanewhorizonto understandmetaphorusagefromacognitivepointofview.Inthistext,Lakoff andJohnsonintroduceanewwayofunderstandingmetaphorusage,that beingtheconceptualmetaphor.LakoffandJohnsonhypothesizethat metaphorisnotjustapoeticorrhetoricaldevice,neitherisitjustamatterof language,butthewaywethink.Fromthisperspective,metaphorisdefinedas understandingoneconceptualdomainintermsofanotherconceptual domain.Therearemanyexamplesrelatedtothistheory. For example, the metaphor “LIFE IS A JOURNEY” has the following cross-domain correspondences (Winter 1995: 235): JOURNEY LIFE (source) (target) traveler person obstacles external difficulties point of departure birth 7 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review luggage personal problems distance duration initial conditions personal endowments destination life purpose termination death Figure 2.1: metaphorical mapping process of LIFE IS A JOURNEY Insummary,wetalkaboutlifeasajourney,knowledgeisapower,ideas arefood,andsoon.Anaccessiblewayofunderstandingthisviewof metaphorisasfollows:ConceptualdomainAisconceptualdomainB,which iswhatiscalledaconceptualmetaphor.Aconceptualmetaphorcomprises twoconceptualdomains,inwhichonedomainisunderstoodintermsof another.Inordertounderstandtheconceptualmetaphorandmetaphorical linguisticwhichcanalsobecalledlinguisticmetaphor;theauthorprovidesthe followingexamples. Anargumentiswar. Yourclaimsareindefensible. Heattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument. Hiscriticismswererightintarget. Loveisjourney. It'sbeenalong,bumpyroad. We'vegottenoffthetrack. Thisrelationshipisfoundering. (Lakoff,1980:50) Oftheabovelistedexamples,“anargumentiswar”and“loveisjourney” 8 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review areconceptualmetaphorswhiletheothersarelinguisticmetaphors. Thetwoconcepts,conceptAandB,havebeendiscussedina conceptualandthemetaphoricalprocess.However,toexplainexactlyhow theAisunderstoodintermsofB,theconceptmappingsshouldbeintroduced. Mappingsrefertoasetofsystematiccorrespondencesbetweenthesource domainandthetargetinthesensethatconstituentconceptualelementsofB correspondtothoseofA. Inordertohaveabetterunderstandingofmetaphoricalmapping,the followingcasesshouldbeanalyzed.Theconceptualmetaphor“weareata crossroads”literallymeansatravelerhasmethodofchoosingwhichroadto goifaspecificcontextisnotprovided.However,ifthesentenceisutteredby loverswhohavesometroubleintheirlovejourney,itcanbeseenthatthey havetomakeachoiceofwhethertheirrelationshipshouldbecontinuedor not.Inthisexample,themappingprocessshouldbeasfollows,thesource domainisthedecisionaboutwhichwaytogowhilethetargetdomainisthe choiceaboutwhattodoforloverswhomayseparatefromeachother. Thereisnodoubtthatthecognitiveapproachisveryusefulinidentifying metaphors.However,Black(2004)arguesthatthisapproachneedstobe complementedwithananalysisofpragmaticfactors.Therefore,amore comprehensiveapproachtometaphor,CriticalMetaphorAnalysisbyBlack (2004),cameintobeing. 2.2TraditionalApproachestoMetaphorathome Influencedbymetaphorstudiesinwesterncountries,inthe1990s,some scholarsinChinahavealsotakengreatinterestinmetaphorusage.LinShuwu (1993,1994,1995,1996),HuZhuanglin(1993,1995,2004),ZhaoYanfang(1995), ShuDingfang(1996,2000),YanShiqing(2000),allhadmanytheoriesrelatedto metaphorusagepublished.Theearlyarticlesaremainlyfocusedon 9 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review introducingsomewesternlinguists’viewsonmetaphor,whilerecently publishedbookstendtodealwithmetaphorintheirownviews.Thereafter, somelinguistshaveprogressedrapidlyinmetaphorstudyespeciallyinthe domainofpolitics,news,entertainmentprograms,andcultureetc.YaoXueli (2007)andLiuWenzhen(2007)studymetaphorincontemporaryEnglishand Chinesepoliticallanguagerespectively,andHeYinghuan(2007)makesa contrastivestudyofconceptualmetaphorsintheChineseandAmericantalk shows.Moreover,ZhangJing(2004)makesatentativestudyontheanalysisof culturalmetaphortakenfrominternetnewsprovidedbytheUSAToday website.Duringtheinterimtimeperiod,otherresearchershavefocusedonTV programs.(2005)exploresthepragmaticfunctionsofdiscourse SuXiaojuan markersusedbyChineseTalkShowhostsfromacognitiveperspective.Guo Xiaoliang(2006)alsoundertakesadiscourseanalysisintalkshowprograms.In summary,researchershavecontributedalottometaphorstudiesofvarious topicsincludingTVtalkshowseitherfromapragmaticpointofviewor cognitivepointofview.However,littleefforthasbeenmadetostudymedia languageespeciallyfromacriticalpointofview. 2.3ABriefIntroductionofCriticalDiscourseAnalysis 2.3.1 Previous Studies on CDA at Home and Abroad 2.3.1.1 A Review of Previous Studies on CDA Abroad The term “Critical Metaphor Analysis” (CDA for short) was first proposed by Fairclough (1989a) in his book Language and Power. Fairclough defines CDA as “discourse analysis” and aims to systematically explore the frequently opaque relationship between causality and determination. Furthermore, Fairclough analyzes the relationship between (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b) wider social and cultural structures, relations and processes. Thus investigating how much practices, events and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations of power and struggles over power; and to explore how the opacity of 10 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review these relationships between discourse and society is itself a factor securing power and hegemony. The term “Critical” is used in a special sense, seeking to show up connections that may be hidden from people, especially the connections between language, power and ideology. “Critical approaches differ from non-critical approaches in not only describing discursive practices, but also showing how discourse is shaped by relations of power and ideologies. Subsequently analyzing the constructive efforts discourse has in relation to social identities, social relations and systems of knowledge and belief, none of which is normally apparent to discourse participant” (Fairclough,1992a:13) The following principles of CDA have been proposed by Van Dijk(1993): 1. Language is a social practice through which the world is represented. 2. Discourse/language, as a form of social practice in itself, not only represents and signifies other social practices but also constitutes other social practices such as the exercise of power, domination, prejudice, resistance and so forth. 3. Texts acquire their meanings by the dialectical relationship between texts and the social subjects: writers and the readers, who always operate with various degrees of choice and access to texts and means of interpretation. 4. Linguistic features and structures are not arbitrary. They are purposeful whether or not the choices are conscious or unconscious. 5. Power relations are produced, exercised, and reproduced through discourse. 6. All speakers and writers operate from specific discursive practices originating in special interests and aims, which involve inclusions and exclusions. 7. Discourse is historical in the sense that texts acquire their meanings by being situated in specific social, cultural and ideological context, and time and space. 8. CDA does not solely interpret texts, but also explains them. In recent years, Professor John Flowerdew has delivered a lecture entitled „The Discursive of Formation of Patriotism: the case of Hong Kong's constitutional reform debate? during a Contemporary Chinese Novel Language Meeting. In his lecture, he considers the role of 11 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review metaphors in the discursive construction of the notion of patriotism in postcolonial Hong Kong. The article examines reports and opinions arising articles published in two local newspapers between 1 October 2003 and 1 October 2004. Both articles focused on issue of patriotism. The findings and possible answers to these questions will not only assist in gaining a better understanding of the role of language in constructing the identity of a patriotic Chinese, but will also contribute to an understanding of the politics and tensions between the local and the national under the unprecedented “one country two systems” arrangement of postcolonial Hong Kong. 2.3.1.2 A Review of Previous Studies at Home Cheng Zhongzhu is the first researcher to introduce CDA to China. His article An Introduction and Evaluation to Critical Linguistics (1995) discusses the foundations and methodology of CDA; Another great figure, Xing Bing focuses on news discourse in China. In his book Intertextuality from a Critical Perspective (2000), he discusses birth, development and methods of CL and the relationship between language, power and ideology. In another publication Critical Linguistics: Theories and Applications (2005), Xing Bing makes an overall conclusion of his previous studies and gives a clear description of CDA methodology, including classification, nominalization, the use of the passive voice, tense, voice, modality, intertextuality and so on; Zhang Delu (2006) discusses Critical Discourse Analysis and Linguistic Studies by showing some cases of lexical and grammar in politics and law issues from a critical point of view. Zhang, firstly explores this issue from a macro angle, and then progresses deeper into lexical features, transitivity, mood and modality within language; Other researchers such as Tian Hailong (2006) have published articles related to „Language Choice and Group Interest: The Case with SARS Discourse?. Shi Xu does some research on the topic of Chinese Media Communication with the West: Towards an Equilibrium?. 2.3.2 Limitations in CDA 12 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Literature Review As far as those various approaches to CDA are concerned, there are also some limitations as Thompson (1990) identifies: first, by focusing on extended sequences of expression, most discourse analysts have tended to emphasize form and structure at the expense of context. The second limitation of those methods is that they are correctly concerned with the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic spheres as well as the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic activity. Van Dijk (1997:23) also offers his comment on critical analysts: “their work is more issue-oriented than theory oriented.” 13 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background Chapter 3 Theoretical Background 3.1 Critical Approaches to Metaphor: A New Perspective From the above discussions, it is obvious that each approach contributes to the identification of metaphor, but there are also some problems. After that, a new perspective to metaphor study comes into being. Corpus The first researcher to advocate CMA was Jonathan Charteris-Black. In his book Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis, he addresses the rhetorical and ideological role of metaphor in discourse. He proposes a discourse model called Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) to analyze metaphors in authentic data. It is an approach to metaphor analysis that aims to reveal the covert intentions of language users. It also incorporates the methods of critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis. Fowler (1991:89) states that “ Critical linguistics proposes that analysis using appropriate linguistic social context, can bring ideology, tools, and referring to relevant historical and normally hidden habitualization of In the field of social science, criticism is often used discourse, to the surface for inspection.” to refer to theoretical perspectives and methods that aim to alter the existing social and political order. Therefore, critical discourse analysis is concerned with increasing our awareness of the social relations that are forged, maintained and reinforced by language use in order to change them. What critical discourse analysis does is to place texts within a social context. Therefore, Critical Metaphor Analysis is a way of revealing underlying ideologies, attitudes and beliefs and thus constitutes a vital means of understanding more about the complex relationships between language, thought and social context. According to the theory of Critical Metaphor Analysis, metaphor is not an exclusively linguistic, pragmatic or cognitive phenomenon. Black (2004: 21-22) suggests that the following provides a set of criteria for the definition of metaphor. 13 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background Linguistic (semantic) criteria A metaphor is a word of phrase that causes semantic tension by: (1) Reification—referring to something that is abstract using a word or phrase that in other contexts refers to something that is concrete. (2) Personification—referring to something that is inanimate using a word or phrase that in other context refers to something that is animate. (3) Depersoniftcation—referring to something is animate using a word or phrase that in other contexts refers to something that is inanimate. Pragmatic criteria A metaphor is an incongruous linguistic representation that has the underlying purpose of influencing opinions and judgments by persuasion; this purpose is often covert and speaker intentions within particular contexts of use. Cognitive criteria A metaphor is caused by a shift in the conceptual system. The basis for the conceptual shift is the relevance of, or psychological association between, the attributes of the referent of a linguistic expression in its original source context and those of the referent in its novel target context. This relevance of association is usually based on some previously unperceived similarity between the referents in those contexts. He argues that “Metaphor can only be explained by considering the interdependency of its semantic, pragmatic and cognitive dimensions” (Black, 2004:2) and thus integrates in his approach the areas of cognitive semantics, pragmatics, and discourse analysis. Another researcher to have progressed the idea of CMA is Hart (2006:14-41), he puts forward that critical metaphor analysis is the critical application of Cognitive Linguistic theories of metaphor in discourse analysis. Cognitive Linguistics maintains that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a conceptual one. Applied in critical discourse analysis, the study of metaphor in social or political discourses reveals metaphorical modes of thinking, conceptualization, within such domains. Stable metaphorical conceptualizations can be thought of as ideologies (or social cognitions). The critical importance of metaphor rests with its inferential capacity which is a function of particular projections. 14 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background This critical viewpoint towards metaphor analysis presents us with a new method to study metaphor usage. Garcia (2008) in his book review “Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis” concludes that CMA advances metaphor studies. Since it serves as a research tool for the cognitive and pragmatic analysis of metaphors in real contextualized discourse, the most interesting aspect of the research lies in the extensive qualitative and quantitative evidence provided through the analysis of different types of texts (political, religious, and press). The research includes the analysis of rhetorical and ideological discourse strategies in metaphor use as well as the formulation of new conceptual metaphors and conceptual keys. Along with this perspective, it also explores the interdisciplinary nature of metaphor research. Moreover, Santa Ana (2002) analyzes the way that media language is taken into consideration, and the way in which metaphors in the media affect our understanding of different issues. By dissecting specific metaphorical linguistic expression such as: “the foreigners who have flooded into the country”, “the relentless flow of immigrants”, “the massive flow of illegal immigrants”, and “a sea of brown faces marching through”. Santa Ana demonstrates that the notion of an immigrant is associated with the malevolent concept of a dangerous body of water. Even though the negative associations might not be explicitly stated in the metaphors, their qualities are understood through our previous experience with and exposure to images of dangerous bodies of water. According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), the previous expressions can all be derived from the underlying metaphor “IMMIGRATION AS DANGEROUS WATERS”. In this example, the semantic source domain “DANGEROUS WATERS” is mapped onto the semantic target domain IMMIGRATION. In metaphor analyses, capital letters are used to represent underlying ontological metaphor from which the actual linguistic expressions in the rhetoric are derived. In most cases, media discourse is presented in an ostensibly benign format (versus outwardly vicious slurs and accusations). Some of the most harmful images are not necessarily the most blatant. Cognitive science has taught us that we think and communicate in terms of images created by metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Lakoff and Turner (1989), suggest that metaphors guide our subconscious thinking and reasoning. 15 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background Therefore, it can be concluded that metaphors (either positive or negative) construct a cognitive framework of social knowledge and worldview. While positive metaphors are used effortlessly to paint a pleasant picture of our life experiences (see Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff & Turner, 1989). When implemented strategically within the media, rhetoric imbued with negative metaphors can drastically sway public opinion (Santa Ana, 2002). 3.2 Language, Power and Ideology As the key concepts of ideology and power in CDA, language in discourse reflects different status, classes, races, religions, sexes and so on. It can also establish and sustain the relations of power which are systematically asymmetrical. Power concerns about relations of differences, and particularly about the effects of social structures. Power does not derive from language, but language reflects power, meanwhile it can challenge power. CDA focuses on social power, which allows the privileged classes to access socially valued resources, such as position, status, wealth, education, etc. “power involves control, namely by (members of) one group over (those of ) other groups” (Van Dijk, 1993:109). That is to say, a group with higher power may not only influence the actions of others, but also influence their minds. In fact, “managing the mind of others is essentially a function of text and talk, and such mind management is not always bluntly manipulative. On the contrary, dominance may be enacted and reproduced by subtle, routine, everyday forms of text and talk that appear „natural? and quite „acceptable?” (ibid: 110). Moreover, Van Dijk puts forward that “power is usually organized and institutionalized” (ibid: 110). It is not permanent, but relative and dynamic. As 辛斌(2005:29)argues that “power is always gained, exercised, sustained and lost in social struggles”. Therefore, it can be discovered that power relations are directly or indirectly sustained by ideology. Ideology is an important aspect of establishing and maintaining unequal power relations. Thompson (1990) points out that the concept of ideology appears for the first time in the late eighteenth-century France. The term has been given changing functions and meanings at different times. Flower (1991) provides a neutral kind of definition for ideology which relates 16 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background it to the ways we say, think and interact with the society, as “the sum of the way in which people both live and represent to themselves their relationship to the conditions of their existence”(Fowler,1991b:92). Thompson (1990) defines the concept of ideology in terms of its relation with power, “ideology, broadly speaking, is meaning in the service of power” (Thompson, 1990:7). 辛 斌 (2000) regards ideology as “an internally consistent system of beliefs and judgments which serves to describe, explain, interpret and justify the situation of a historical-social group, class or community and which, in so doing, serves to establish and sustain or to challenge and subvert the existing social order or relations of power in particular social contexts” (Xin,2000:51). Unlike Thompson (1990), Xin regards the followings as ideological: not only those meanings which are mobilized to establish and sustain existing relations of domination but also those meanings which are mobilized to challenge and subvert such relations. The relationship between language and ideology in the domain of CDA has been heavily influenced by Sapir-Whorf?s hypothesis. The main argument is that people perceive the outside world through language, a filtering structure which might distort the reality and further influence and control people?s thought. Therefore, language is “not merely a reproducing instrument of voicing ideas but rather is in itself the shaper of ideas” (Hudson, 2000:96). The ideology working mechanism should also be taken into consideration. As Fairclough argues that “ideology works through distinguishing its nature pretending to be what it isn?t” (Fairclough, 1989a:92). It performs as a “common sense”. While common sense can be defined as that “truth is proposed as obvious, natural, inevitable and unarguable” (Thornborrow, 1994:130). Through frequent use of language with obvious ideological meanings, people may be used to them and take the ideological meanings for granted. Thus, the previous ideological meanings pave into people? sub-consciousness and transfer into a part of common sense. This is called the “naturalization” of ideology (辛斌,2005:41). Through the process of naturalization, ideology embodied within discourses may become ideological common sense and a part of that society?s belief. Ideology functions by taking the form of common sense assumptions and it is most effective when its workings are least visible. That is to say it is easy to keep a negative view point when a particular ideology is clearly presented, 17 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background but not easy to identify it when a certain ideology is hidden. 3.3 Metaphor, Culture and Cultural Models Gibbs Jr. (1997) has made a clear statement about the relationship between conceptual metaphor and culture. He suggests that“ cognitive linguists and cognitive psychologists should think about metaphor and its relation to thought as cognitive webs that extend beyond individual minds and are spread out into the world”. In relation to this theory, there are two key points. Firstly, our understanding of metaphor usage is related to the significance of cultural need and not a rigid distinction between cultural and conceptual metaphor. Secondly, “important parts of metaphoric thought and language are as much part of the cultural world as they are internalized mental entities in our heads.” This discussion indicates the necessity of taking culture into account in researching conceptual metaphors. In summary, the claim that conceptual metaphors are essentially cultural has several implications for empirical research on metaphor in language. First, it can force scholars to examine not only people's individual physical conception of a particular behavior, but also look extensively at people's social/cultural experience of that behavior, such as the cause, the movement, and the result in interpersonal relationships. Second, by systematically assessing people's intuitions of their social/cultural experiences of a particular concept, one may discern more about the motivations metaphorical concepts. This is key to the reason that this research makes the effort to discuss the issues of culture and will explore the Chinese background of metaphors during the process of the research. 3.3.1 Culture and Cultural Models There are numerous definitions of culture provided by a number of people from various perspectives. Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1963) collected an astonishing number of definitions of culture from popular and academic sources. The New Encyclopedia Britannica (1985: 16, 925) has 164 definitions of culture that includes; “learned behavior”, “ideas in the mind”, “a logical construct”, “a statistical fiction” and “a psychic defense mechanism .”In recent years, 18 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background the definition of culture that is preferred by many anthropologists is that culture is “an abstraction from behavior” (ibid). Generally, culture consists of a variety of things, including language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques and works of art. Cultural models are a great variety of human institutions that are the projections of conventional understandings of reality set in time and space, or all to experience as artifacts of a community?s life (Shore, 1996). For example, public models may be created to describe entities, such as houses, pottery, tools, paintings, songs, dances and types of clothing which are all in the category of “material culture” in the world. On the other hand, some impalpable cultural models, like conventional styles of movement and speech, exist in the minds of people. In that case, culture can be defined as an extensive collection of different models that exist both as public artifacts in the world, and as cognitive constructs in the mind of members of a community (ibid). In respect to the field of metaphor, those cultural models in the minds of people need to be emphasized. According to conceptual metaphor theory, metaphor usage has a tight relationship with thought and the human conceptual system. Consider conventional models, they are stocked in our minds and shared with members in the same community. For example, the custom of removing a hat when say hello in western countries. These models exist in a certain social environment, as opposed to personal models, which is named “idiosyncratic models” (ibid). As an important part of culture, most conventional models are passed on over time through the generations. In addition, image schemas that relate to culture are used widely in conceptual metaphor. Image schemas are schematic images, such as trajectories or long, thin shapes, or containers (Lakoff, 1987). Johnson (1987) considers them as “structures for organizing our experience and comprehension”. 3.3.2 The Role of Culture in Metaphor Many researchers hold the opinion that culture plays a major role in metaphor. As Lakoff and Johnson (1980) claim, most metaphors are grounded in systematic correlations within our daily experience. Human experience consists of a large range of conventional models. These models are essential elements, which construct a conceptual system in the human minds. 19 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background According to conceptual theory, metaphors are able to reflect the ideas in a human conceptual system; so various cultural models are shown in a great number of metaphors. 3.3.3 Metaphors of Cultural Universality Harry Hoijer (1974), suggests that words stem from the fact that all cultures built around biological,psychological,and social characteristics common to all mankind. In other words, as human beings,we all share and experience basically the same physical world,and we are all driven by the genetically determined cognitive faculties of eating, seeing and feeling, or doing things. That gives rise to the same manifestations of tenors and vehicles of metaphors in cultural models. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) maintain, each conceptual metaphor has what they call an “experiential” basis. In other words, metaphors are not randomly assigned; they are rooted in experience. Although experience can be termed as physical experience and cultural experience, every experience still takes place within a vast background of cultural presuppositions. In fact, all experience is cultural because we experience our “world” in such a way that our culture is already present in the very experience itself. Besides, it is really hard to distinguish the physical from the cultural basis of a metaphor, since the choice of one physical basis from many possible choices has to do with cultural coherence. Thus it comes as no surprise that metaphor taking experience as its basis tallies with specific culture. The most fundamental values in a culture will be coherent with the metaphorical structure of the most fundamental concepts in the culture (Lakoff & Johnson 1980: 22). That is to say, the cultural values of a society are, to a large extent, expressed through metaphorical concepts. For instance, both Chinese and English have the metaphorical concept TIME IS MONEY as the value “Time is precious” is deeply rooted in both Chinese culture and English culture. This metaphorical concept is further demonstrated by many metaphorical expressions in everyday life. For instance: “You are wasting my time”. “How do you spend your time these days?” “That flat tire cost me an hour”. “This gadget will save you hours”. “一寸光阴一寸金”. “一刻千金”. “浪费时间”. “节约时间”. Although time is viewed as money in both countries, it is looked at from different angles. British citizens seldom emphasize the value of 20 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Theoretical Background time greater than money, while the Chinese think that time is more important than money, besides regarding time as money. As a result, there are many common sayings related to time in Chinese such as “一寸光阴一寸金”, “寸金难买寸光阴”, etc. This value of time shows the wisdom of Chinese people through long-term living. It has become an integral part of Chinese culture and is handed down from generation to generation. Therefore, we can say metaphorical conceptual system is one part of culture. In all, as conceptual metaphor is grounded on a variety of human experiences which are universal at the generic level across different cultures, metaphor acquires its universality across different cultures. However, as a means of structuring our conceptual system, metaphor is also in agreement with specific culture. 3.3.4 Metaphors of Cultural Variations Ning yu (1998) points out that, since bodily experience always interacts with specific physical,social,and cultural environments,it is also expected that there should be cognitive variations across cultures and languages. Ning yu (1998:82) stated that “culture plays a role in shaping metaphor and in return,the metaphor plays a role in constituting and creating culture”. Listed below are examples to illustrate this theory; the dragon and phoenix are two royal animals which symbolize a king and queen. The images of dragons and phoenixes are deeply rooted in many aspects of Chinese culture, although these two types of animals do not exist in the real world. Even in contemporary Chinese society, many parents hope that their daughters will become a phoenix in the future, and their sons will become a dragon. The equivalent common metaphorical expression is "Wang zi cheng long, wang nv cheng feng". However, in western culture, a dragon is an image of a monster. In traditional western culture, a dragon is a large fierce fire breathing animal with wings and a long tail. A phoenix is also an imaginary bird that spontaneously ignites every 500 years and is then born again, rising from its ashes. Thus, such Chinese metaphorical expressions about dragons and phoenixes would be unacceptable to western culture. This difference reflects the different value systems in Chinese culture and western culture. 21 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis Chapter 4 Research Methodologies 4.1 Research Procedures of this Study 4.1.1 Data Collection Inthisstudy,theresearchingcorpuscomesfromtheChineseTVTalk ShowschosenfromMediaLanguageCorpusinCommunicationUniversityof China,coveringtheprogramsofTopicsinFocus,Dialogue,FacetoFace,To TellitAsitis,ADatetoLuyuandsoon. In order to satisfy the requirement of the analysis tool—Wconcord and SPSS, the original corpus is first segmented with Ictclas10 (Institute of Computing Technology, Chinese Lexical Analysis System, version10). Then the analysis procedure is carried out according to the three stages of Critical Metaphor Analysis (CMA) introduced by Charteris-Black (2004)— metaphor identification, interpretation, and explanation. In this analyzing process, both quantitative and qualitative approaches are involved, the latter dominant. To ensure the accuracy and reliability of the research findings, a basic principle must be set beforehand, that is, the corpus should cover a wide range of social fields in a balanced way. Thus the results of the research may possibly present to us a clear picture of the metaphorical language in Media language. The following gives the details of the specific principles: First of all, the topics chosen from Media Language Corpuses should be comprised of as many fields as possible, such as policies, officials, economics, finance, industry, population, citizen life, medical treatment and health, science and technology, ideology, art, sports, education, environment, military affairs, territory integrity, and diplomacy. Secondly, the numbers of the texts in the database for each field should be balanced to some extent. For instance, texts from different aspects should be consistent in quantity. 4.1.2 Research Problems 22 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis One problem of the present thesis is that it is impossible to list every metaphorical word in a different genre. Besides which, media languages are heavily metaphorical. Therefore, we just limit our scope to key conceptual metaphors, particularly, to how these conceptual metaphors work. 4.2 Procedures of Critical Approaches to Metaphor 4.2.1 Metaphor Identification For the Critical Metaphor Analysis, there are two stages to set up metaphor identification: the first requires a close reading of the sample of texts with the aim of identifying candidate metaphors. Basically, the first is to work manually through the inaugural speeches to identify metaphor keywords, such as path, step, milestone etc. which could be found in metaphors related to a conceptual key “Life is a journey”. Qualified words are then labeled as metaphor keywords and it is possible to measure the presence of such potential keywords quantitatively in the corpus. The second stage is a further qualitative phase in which corpus contexts are examined to determine whether each use of a keyword is metaphorical or literal. To measure the number of source domains, the concept resonance should be understood. Black (2004: 89), suggested that the resonance (of source domains) is an indication of the extent to which metaphor source domains are found in some particular samples and therefore is a measure of their productivity. A simple statistical measure of resonance is that it is the sum of the tokens multiplied by the sum of the types of the metaphors that are from the same source domain. Types are separate linguistics forms while tokens are the number of times each form occurs. For example, supposing path, step, destination are the only metaphor types from the source domain of "journey", if there are ten metaphorical uses (or tokens) of path, five of step and three of destination. By using the formula resonance=sum of types X sum of tokens, the resonance of journey metaphor would be 18 (10+5+3) X 3(1+1+1) =54. The value of this measure is that it provides empirical evidence for the resonance of different source domains. 4.2.2 Metaphor Interpretation 23 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis This step is concerned with interpersonal meaning—that is,identifying the type of social relationships that are constructed through them,This involves the identification of metaphors, evidences for a particular metaphor. At this stage, it is possible to consider how metaphor choices construct a socially important representation,or in other word,what cognitive and cultural factors are working behind. 4.2.3 Metaphor Explanation Metaphor explanation is concerned with textual meaning: that is,the way that metaphors are interrelated and become coherent with reference to the situation in which they occur. In other words, it identifies the discourse functional metaphors, which is a kind of pragmatic research. The formation of conceptual metaphors and conceptual keys and the typical evaluation of metaphors will assist in explaining why they can be persuasive. In sum, CMA is an integration of corpus linguistics with cognitive linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis. It is a way of revealing ideologies, attitudes and beliefs and constitutes a vital means of understanding more about the complex relationships between language, thought, culture, and social context. The three stages of metaphor analysis will provide a strong background in corpus-based researches. 24 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis Chapter 5 Data Analysis 5.1 Quantitative Research of Metaphors in Collected Chinese Data Specifically,candidate metaphors are identified by closely reading the texts of the corpus. In this stage, by working manually through the discourses, metaphor keywords are first identified as many as possible according to the metaphor criteria (Chapter 2) combined with language characterizations of the talk show programs. The word search tool of Wconcord is used to assist in searching all the occurrences of each keyword in the whole corpus. Finally, the metaphoric qualification of each occurrence is checked so that unqualified occurrences can be excluded and the analyzing result could maintain its accuracy and reliability. The numbers of valid occurrences are then automatically calculated after deletion and noted down for further research. 5.1.1 Military Metaphors Military metaphors also play a key role in metaphorical language used in Chinese TV talk shows. The conceptual metaphor can be described as “DEVELOPING IS A WAR” . [1]…没有目标”的容祖儿,开始了一场减肥拉锯【战】 。 容祖儿:减肥那个时候其实真的好 难… (名人面对面 容祖儿:我是后天属于舞台的人) [2]…关于他的种种评论也接踵而至。思想保守、【战术】单调、用人偏颇以及临场指挥不利都 成为… (名人面对面 徐根宝:中国足球的出路在何方) [3]…也是派了二十六个人出去,这样一个强势的【阵营】去出征,人家可能认为你南汽是孤注 一掷了… 25 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis (对话 收购百年车厂之谜) [4]…的十七大召开前夕、2008 年奥运会筹办工作【决战】之年、召开的一次重要会议,将总结、 市第… (特别关注 股民资料,惊现网上) [5] 靠着小小的咖啡豆,打赢了一场看起来不太可能赢的【战争】 。他就是美国… (对话 星巴克:创新之路) [6] 可最终考上的却寥寥无几,有些普通高中甚至是【全军】覆没。… (特别关注 业主委托出租,中介私自砌墙) [7] 红楼梦中人今晚【决战】沈阳 。昨晚,江中亮嗓红楼梦中人深圳… (特别关注 首个排队日,市民很配合) [8] 一回才知道股市是怎么回事。那么别一时的【胜利】,就把你冲昏了头脑了… (实话实说 抄股进行时) [9] 增长率下降了,他在农业科学上的成就,【击败】了饥饿的威胁,袁隆平引导着人们,走向… (实话实说 超级农民超级梦) [10] 现在就让我们去看一看:在球场上【英姿飒爽】的杨硕在岩壁上会是什么样呢,… (特别关注 手机大世界,假冒名牌多) [11] 昂首挺胸,在妈妈的带领如同凯旋而归的【战士】;而那边,已经上岸的小家伙正在仔细 梳… (特别关注 流浪小鸟,定居集体宿舍) [12]…病魔无情党有情,弘扬八荣抒真情,【白衣战士】受人敬,救死扶伤献赤诚。… [13]…结伴登山被困民警成功【解救】… (特别关注 门口树木挡路,居民驾车钻杆) [14]…这很艰难。一直到 2007 年,我们全是【整装待发】,一声号令,我们都可以… (面对面 从月亮到月亮) [15]…侃侃而谈的发言,紧张的推理,高手的【对决】,让这样的警匪较量更显紧张激烈。… (特别关注 毕业在即,高校出现急婚族) [16]…鲁豫有约:大妈 Vs 大爷 十二乐坊大【PK】 … (鲁豫有约 两个问题测试明星的抑郁程度) 26 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis Table 5.1 Overview of metaphors in the military area Metaphors Key words with variations Total tokens % of total 战略 strategy 399 28 大军,后备军,生力军,主 army 199 13(5 力军,领军,异军突起,队 伍,先锋,先锋队… victory 胜利,战胜,打赢… 189 13 宣战,打响,突击,突破, Fight/attack 175 12 斗争,作战,奋战,打击, 冲线 Enemy/threat/challenge 敌人,威胁,挑战,挑衅… 153 9(7 部署 designation 119 9 旗帜 flag 89 5 defend 抵御,抗击,抗… 51 3(5 arm 武器,武装… 48 3(3 Works/position/line 堡垒,阵地,战线… 26 1(7 仗,硬仗,战斗,战役,持 battle 18 1(3 久战,攻坚战… TotTotalal 1466 100 Source domain Target domain From the military metaphor domain, it can be deduced that strategy (战略) represents the Traveler Guests interviewed largest proportion. This suggests that strategies of battle play a vital role in winning a war. Path experience Similarly, strategies are vital to achieving goals for our country?s development. Aside from Destination succeed strategy, another important domain is the army itself which also comprises of a significant Compass Creed, guideline, thought proportion. The majority of such metaphors (e.g. 胜利,战胜,打赢,突破,etc.) are positive, Obstacles difficulties, disasters, Wars, etc Advancing Achieving goals 27 Immobility No achievements Metaphors Key words with variations Total tokens % of total 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis implying that people are trying to create optimistic atmospheres for the public. In the domain of military metaphors, the enemies and threats refer mostly to diseases environmental pollution, poverty, and wars that menace people's health and life. These negative metaphors highlight the need for struggles and fights with united efforts. Guests in talk shows use military metaphors as a call to action in which allies are summoned. The conceptual metaphor “DEVELOPING IS A WAR” can be modified to “DEVELOPING IS A STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL”. Wars are usually started for survival. This metaphor is motivated by two other conceptual metaphors: “LIFE IS A STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL” and “SOCIETY IS A PERSON”. An analogy is created between a society and that of individuals within it. They both need to struggle for survival. We can understand society when the issues are framed as individualistic thus making them more familiar. 5.1.2 Journey Metaphors In the domain of journey metaphors, a journey is taken as a prototype purposeful activity involving movement in physical space from a starting point to an end point or destination. Lakoff (1993) has formulated the journey metaphor as “PURPOSEFUL ACTIVITY IS TRAVELING ALONG A PATH TOWARD A DESTINATION”. In a journey, the purpose of the traveler is to reach the destination. Similarly, the purposes of guests in Chinese talk shows can be conceptualized as the destinations of travelers. Since talk shows are concerned with goal-oriented social activity, the journey metaphor in talk show language can be represented by this conceptual metaphor: “PURPOSEFUL SOCIAL ACTIVITY IS TRAVELING ALONG A PATH TOWARD A DESTINATION” (Charteris-Black, 2004). The specific "purposeful social activity" in the metaphor varies with different particular contexts. In Chinese context, the ultimate purpose of the Party is to achieve mutual understanding between guests interviewed and hosts, the conceptual journey metaphor can be described as: “TO TALK PURPOSELY FOR THE REALIZATION OF MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING ALONG A PATH TOWARD A DESTINATION”. See the following examples: 28 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis [17]…陈鲁豫:所以这【一路】良全走过来 ,真的是不容易,到非洲碰到非洲丛林很… (鲁豫有约 游遍世界 最值得艳遇的五个国家) [18]…对,阿牛这【一路】其实走得很远,从农村到了城市,然后他… (鲁豫有约 分享阿牛的音乐旅程) [19]…通过海选、集训、复赛,层层【关卡】,最终 9 名宝、黛、钗、两名刘姥姥和两名… (特别关注 首个排队日,市民很配合) [20]…已经周游了非洲的陈良全,并没有打算就此【止步】,他环游世界的梦想还并未实现, 此前他曾… (鲁豫有约 游遍世界 最值得艳遇的五个国家) [21]…人的努力把这个轨道精细的加以确定,当然【中途】要修正,让它别走歪了,别走斜了, 这样… [22]…你的宣传应该到达哪些消费群体,我们如何【到达】这些消费者。今天有些人上网,他 在那里可… (面对面 从月亮到月亮) [23]…徐慧远:主要是感动, 激发我宣传奥运的【动力】… (特别关注 奥运情缘:我绣福娃送吉祥) In order to describe and explain these examples clearly, first the author would prefer to provide a mapping structure between the source domain (journey) and the target domain (social activity). See Figure 5.2 Metaphors Key words with variations Total tokens % of total 战略 strategy 399 28 大军,后备军,生力军,主 army 199 13(5 力军,领军,异军突起,队 伍,先锋,先锋队… victory 胜利,战胜,打赢… 189 13 宣战,打响,突击,突破, Fight/attack 175 12 斗争,作战,奋战,打击, 冲线 Enemy/threat/challenge 敌人,威胁,挑战,挑衅… 153 9(7 The contest is a journey for these contestants, so is their future career. The guests 部署 designation 119 9 29 旗帜 flag 89 5 defend 抵御,抗击,抗… 51 3(5 arm 武器,武装… 48 3(3 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis interviewed are walking on the way to success, on the journey to realize their dreams, during which they may encounter many difficulties, but their destinations would never change. In addition, the contestants cannot move forward on their future journey unless they are pushed by a driving force. According to the Chinese data, such power is different kinds of support from the audiences, fans, relatives and friends, which can generate tremendous power to push the contestants forward on their future journey. The following table gives us a picture of journey metaphors. Table 5.2 Overview of metaphors in the journey area Metaphors Key words with variations Total tokens % of total 战略 strategy 399 28 大军,后备军,生力军,主 army 199 13(5 力军,领军,异军突起,队 伍,先锋,先锋队… victory 胜利,战胜,打赢… 189 13 宣战,打响,突击,突破, Fight/attack 175 12 斗争,作战,奋战,打击, 冲线 Enemy/threat/challenge 敌人,威胁,挑战,挑衅… 153 9(7 部署 designation 119 9 旗帜 flag 89 5 defend 抵御,抗击,抗… 51 3(5 arm 武器,武装… 48 3(3 Works/position/line 堡垒,阵地,战线… 26 1(7 仗,硬仗,战斗,战役,持 battle 18 1(3 久战,攻坚战… TotTotalal 1466 100 Source domain Target domain Traveler Guests interviewed Path experience 30 Destination succeed Compass Creed, guideline, thought Obstacles difficulties, disasters, Wars, etc 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis Metaphors Key words with variations Total tokens % of total 战略 strategy 399 28 大军,后备军,生力军,主 army 199 13(5 力军,领军,异军突起,队 伍,先锋,先锋队… victory 胜利,战胜,打赢… 189 13 宣战,打响,突击,突破, Fight/attack 175 12 斗争,作战,奋战,打击, 冲线 Enemy/threat/challenge 敌人,威胁,挑战,挑衅… 153 9(7 部署 designation 119 9 旗帜 flag 89 5 defend 抵御,抗击,抗… 51 3(5 It can be seen clearly that the three major metaphors from the journey domain are path, step, and advancing, which take up more than 60 percent. They are traditional manners of arm 武器,武装… 48 3(3 expressing progress toward a goal. It implies that journey metaphors have a positive Works/position/line 堡垒,阵地,战线… 26 1(7 orientation. Though there may be obstacles along the journey, or the traveler may have 仗,硬仗,战斗,战役,持 battle 18 1(3 burdens to bear. The direction is toward the certain destination, not the starting point. 久战,攻坚战… Interviewees conceptualize that career-development as a journey toward a destination so TotTotalal 1466 100 that they can create a sense of equality of status-working and fighting against difficulties Source domain Target domain together with the mass, and thus establish a close relationship with the public. Positive Traveler Guests interviewed metaphors can encourage people to make more efforts in order to achieve greater success; Path experience while negative ones can spur them to fight against difficulties and for a brighter future. Both Destination succeed evaluations play an important role in increasing public participation. Compass Creed, guideline, thought Obstacles difficulties, disasters, Wars, etc 5.1.3 Construction Metaphors Advancing Achieving goals Goatly(1997) proposes a metaphor structure of “SOCIETY IS A BUILDING”. The top- Immobility No achievements level conceptual metaphor in the construction domain is that “DEVELOPING A COUNTRY Metaphors Key words with variations Total tokens % of total OR A COMMUNITY IS CONSTRUCTING A BUILDING” .This is similar with a core key 前进,前行,奋进,推进,前列, advancing 1204 26 revealing this metaphor is the word“建”(construct or build). Apart from different activities of 开辟 31 开拓,拓宽,探索,赴… 步,步伐,步子,稳步,起步,初 step 1009 21 步, 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis building, such as “夯实”and“加固(reinforce)”, “打基础(ground)”and “拓宽(widen or broaden)”, these metaphors can be divided into two types. First, there are those that refer to the parts of a building, like “地基(foundation)”and “槛(threshold)” ,“门(door)”and “支柱(pillar)”,“栋梁(ridgepole)”etc. and others that refer to types of building such a s“堤 ((dyke)”and “桥梁(bridge)”,“渠道(channel)” an d“闸门(sluice gate)”.The most frequent metaphors in the corpus that refer to a part of a building a r“基(foundations)”which means the e groundwork for a building or a construction in the source domain. This is illustrated by the following table: Table 5.3 Overview of metaphors in the construction area Metaphors Key words with variations Total tokens % of total 战略 strategy 399 28 大军,后备军,生力军,主 army 199 13(5 力军,领军,异军突起,队 伍,先锋,先锋队… victory 胜利,战胜,打赢… 189 13 宣战,打响,突击,突破, Fight/attack 175 12 斗争,作战,奋战,打击, 冲线 Enemy/threat/challenge 敌人,威胁,挑战,挑衅… 153 9(7 部署 designation 119 9 旗帜 flag 89 5 defend 抵御,抗击,抗… 51 3(5 arm 武器,武装… 48 3(3 Works/position/line 堡垒,阵地,战线… 26 1(7 仗,硬仗,战斗,战役,持 battle 18 1(3 久战,攻坚战… These construction metaphors convey a positive evaluation of an activity because they TotTotalal 1466 100 relate to a valuable outcome. Since constructing a building is not an easy job which requires Source domain Target domain Traveler Guests interviewed 32 Path experience Destination succeed Compass Creed, guideline, thought 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis materials and labor, takes time and effort, and cannot be done single-handedly, construction metaphors imply patience and social co-operation, and the outcome could not be expected instantly. 5.1.4 Machine Metaphors Machine metaphors are unique to Chinese data. Simply, this conceptual metaphor can be stated as "state is a machine". Under this top-level metaphor, the social, administrative, legal, and financial systems of the state are conceptualized as the mechanism of a machine. The operation of each separate system has an inevitable impact on the functioning of the whole machine. Since China?s policy makers place great effort on building a harmonious society, the machine metaphor highlights the importance of harmony. Table 5.4 Overview of metaphors in the machine area metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 机制 mechanism 314 65 运行,运转 operating 58 12 动力 power 71 14 功能… functions 35 9 Total 478 100 Metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total 运行 variations [24]到年底,还将有相当数量的新增考点,已经 【运行】 的考点也会有容量上的增加。 同胞,侨胞 Brother/sister/compatriot 128 34 [25]内部员调整,暂时停业,其他店还在正常 【运行】 。据悉,近年来,生活水平的提 伙伴,朋友 companion 72 20 [26]目前我国经济 【运行】 面临的一个重大问题是生产成本较低 邻居 neighbor 64 17 [27]但就是这样一个问题多多的医疗机构却 【运行】 了多年。目前三河市药品监督部门已经 当家作主,主人 host 43 11 立案 儿女 Son/daughter 28 7 [28]委员杨:这叫社区为循环系统,只在社区 【运行】 一些单位给办了手续。 家,家庭,家园 home 25 6 (北京电视台《特别关注》) 血脉 Genetic tie 6 2 亲情 kinship 4 1 33 祖先,祖辈,祖宗 ancestor 2 0(6 传家宝 heirloom 2 0(4 Total 374 100 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis 启动 [29]主持人:在这次会上,还特别提到今年我国要 【启动】 实施《重点中医院建设和发展规 划》 (中央人民广播电台《今日论坛?中医药的创新发展之路》) [30]比如说不少地方提前 【启动】 春运,铁路专门开设了民工还有学生专列, (中央人民广播电台《今日论坛?和记者同行 与春运同步》 ) [31]想创业找不到合适项目怎么办,有项目没有 【启动】 资金怎么办,市民 2:我最关心就业 的 (中央人民广播电台《今日论坛?罗志军:坚持科学发展 构建和谐南京》) [32]全建成;城市旧城、旧村改造在今年大规模 【启动】 的基础上,“十一五”期间基本解 决 (中央人民广播电台《今日论坛?青岛市市长夏耕:强化政府的“民生责任”》) 摩擦 [33]俄美之间的关系,一方面是矛盾和 【摩擦】 不断地上升,另一方面是对话和合作也在进 (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]恢复战机巡逻 俄强硬回应美英》) [34]就是凝聚力方面有利,但是在军事上的 【摩擦】 我觉得不太会发生。 (中央电视台《今日关注?俄美角力:新“冷战”即将到来,》) [35]今天钢材产品在一定意义上可以说当前贸易【摩擦】 的重点对象,所以是非常受到美方关 注的。 (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]美国贸易保护主义死灰复燃》) [36]鉴于司法体系经常和行政部门发生一些对抗 【摩擦】 ,不利于局势的发展 (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]悬念重重巴基斯坦政局》) 推动 [37]随后经过媒体 【推动】 ,一场商业选秀在河北省会石家庄轰轰烈烈 (中央电视台《共同关注?河北第一人造美女状告整容医院(上)》) [38]“圆梦行动”圆莘莘学子的求学之梦,并【推动】 共建社会和谐。主持人:今年湖南圆 (中央电视台《共同关注?[共同关注]湖南培养寒门学子自强品质》) [39]我国实施绕月探测工程迈出了重要一步,对【推动】 我国航天事业在空间领域的发展,提 升自主 34 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis (中央电视台《共同关注?[共同关注]飞向深空》) 运转 [40]我们信息化现在也都开始推进了,信息化的【运转】 、水电费,还有一个很重要的,就是 老师还 [41]第三个部分就是要保证平常学校的正常【运转】 ,这笔钱、专款专用 (中央电视台《对话?北大对话北卡》) [42]三百万的投入已经完了,现在就没有【运转】 了,结果演不下去。在这个时候政府拿出…… (中央电视台《对话?对话文化体制改革》) Based on our daily experience, a machine needs to be started-up(启动),operated(运行), up-dated(升级),reassembled(重组),and adjusted(调整)when having problems like“摩擦”.In China, any system such as legal, financial and educational system can be conceptualized as the“ 机制 ”of a machine. Or cooperation among countries might have frictions in areas like economy, trade, military etc. An illustration of this concept employs “推动” to emphasize the great importance of the harmonious development of the whole society as is shown by example [38]. 5.1.5 Family Metaphors [43]…刚才农民 姐妹 兄弟给政府部门给社会方方面面特别是支农… (对话 春天的约会(二)) [44]…和我有共同命运的众多兄弟姐妹,愿我们 兄弟 姐妹的情谊,像长江的流水,源远流长… (共同关注 面孔 心会跟爱一起走) [45]…感谢同台的姐妹们,我们手握着手一起成长…… (湖南卫视 超级女声) [46]参观者,都可以在这里找到自己的 【家园】 是否受到了毒品污染。 (北京电视台《特别关注》) [47]被老人称为他们的“精神家园”。在这个 【家园】 里,年龄最小的也有 50 多岁,最大的 今年已 (北京电视台《特别关注》) 35 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis [48]如此看来,为了保护我们的生态 【家园】 ,抵制一次性筷子已经迫在眉睫了。 (北京电视台《特别关注》) [49]变英说,这两段话是他们家的 【传家宝】 。妻子去世后,亲戚们给谢延信介绍…… (中央电视台《共同关注?[共同关注]大孝至爱—谢 延 信 》) [50]很多业主认为自己找到了当家做 【主人】 的感觉。金锦萍:我觉得你刚才讲主 [51]这不体现咱们当家作主人,咱们是 【主人】 翁啦,就有点责任感了。记者串场: (中央电视台《新闻调查?朗琴园物业变局》) [52]他求医两年,最终来到了北京。兄弟俩的 【血脉】 深情感动了很多人。如今,在人们的 帮助下 (北京电视台《特别关注》) [53]攻略三:祖孙三代同游京城 【台湾同胞】 落叶归根 (凤凰卫视《鲁豫有约?鲁豫有约:3000 块钱穷游神州》) [54]主持人:那另外是不是也有这个特点, 【香港同胞】 是不是善于规划啊, (上海东方电视台《头脑风暴?职业规划:一场员工与老板的赌博》) In relation to the family domain, the top-level metaphor is “THE PEOPLE IN SOCIETY ARE A FAMILY” .This conceptual metaphor is a very important ideology in Chinese traditional culture. The most expressive example being“国家 (state family)” . The Chinese people value their families very much within the context of culture. “Family” is quite prominent in the Chinese language. The word“ 国 家 ”is composed of two individual elements:“国”(meaning state) and“家”(meaning family). It is thus clear that, in Chinese society, a country is regarded as a“state-family”. The word“国家”is a unique metaphor used only within the Chinese language. From Table 4.3, it can be seen that metaphors of compatriot take the largest part of family. The reason has something to do with the political situation of China. It is known that Hong Kong and Macau have returned to China on the basis of the“One Country Two systems” policy, and that Taiwan is also an integral part of China despite some problematic issues. All Mainland Chinese citizens and those of the three special administrative regions (SAR) are the descendants of Yandi and Huangdi, legendary forefathers of the Chinese nation. That is to say, 36 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis they are“同胞 (compatriots) .”As the topic of national reunification is always prominent in current political ideology, reports and speeches related to it take up a relatively large proportion of political language. The frequent appearance of family metaphors indicates the “one-family” ideology. It emphasizes the kinship that exists amongst people and encourages them to love their country as is shown by the willingness of Taiwan citizens to accept reunification. The following is a table to show metaphors in family domain Table 5.5 Overview of metaphors in the family area metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 机制 mechanism 314 65 运行,运转 operating 58 12 动力 power 71 14 功能… functions 35 9 Total 478 100 Metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 同胞,侨胞 Brother/sister/compatriot 128 34 伙伴,朋友 companion 72 20 邻居 neighbor 64 17 当家作主,主人 host 43 11 儿女 Son/daughter 28 7 家,家庭,家园 home 25 6 5.1.6 Plant Metaphors 血脉 The conceptual metaphor used in the plant domain is “A COUNTRY IS A PLANT”. Genetic tie 6 2 For example, the essential policy of modern China is centered on the mass known as“以民 亲情 kinship 4 1 为本” in Chinese. For thousands of years in China people have been considered to be the 祖先,祖辈,祖宗 ancestor 2 0(6 root of a country(民惟邦本).The relationship between people and a country is similar to that 传家宝 heirloom 2 0(4 between the root and a plant, the former being the means by which the latter can support Total 374 100 metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total 37 variations 根,根本,根基,根 root 959 60 治,根源,根据, 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis itself. Only when people lead a steady and happy life, can the country be at peace and develop further, that is to say grow, flourish, bloom, and fructify. There are many other entities that are conceptualized within a plant, for instance, thought and social system characterized by the contents of the following table: Table 5.6 Overview of metaphors in the plant area metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 机制 mechanism 314 65 运行,运转 operating 58 12 动力 power 71 14 功能… functions 35 9 Total 478 100 Metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 同胞,侨胞 Brother/sister/compatriot 128 34 伙伴,朋友 companion 72 20 邻居 neighbor 64 17 当家作主,主人 host 43 11 儿女 Son/daughter 28 7 家,家庭,家园 home 25 6 血脉 Genetic tie 6 2 亲情 kinship 4 1 38 祖先,祖辈,祖宗 ancestor 2 0(6 传家宝 heirloom 2 0(4 Total 374 100 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis The most frequently used metaphors are root metaphors. Fruit and flourish metaphors also feature prominently. The conceptual metaphor can be represented by: “SUCCESS OR GREAT DEVELOPMENT IS FRUIT OR FLOURISH”. This can be illustrated using the following examples: 根源 [55]记者:那么根源在哪,徐根宝:【根源】就在搞俱乐部的急功近利,造成的就是要成 (凤凰卫视《名人面对面?徐根宝:中国足球的出路在何方,》) 植根 [56]一批上海市非物质文化遗产名录。民间艺术【植根】于农村乡里,流行在田间地头,切实 利用好 (上海电视台《新闻透视?金山农民画:在机遇与困惑间前行》) 繁荣 [57]……和粗口等元素历来包容,因此三级电影开始【繁荣】,受 97 金融风暴和盗版的冲击, 香港电影陷…… (凤凰卫视《名人面对面?蜕变李丽珍 从“脱星”到影后》) 硕果 [58]改革历程的中国来说,同样也是收获了累累【硕果】。在党的十七大召开的这个金色的秋 天 (中央电视台《对话?对话新社会阶层》) 苦果 [59]将是行政权力如脱缰野马般践踏法律的【苦果】…… (中央电视台《第一时间?马 斌读 报》) [60]奥地利的一名新娘就自尝了乱开玩笑的【苦果】 。原来当时这名新娘和爱人正要注册结婚 (中央电视台《第一时间》) 荣 ”and“ 硕 果 have a strong positive evaluation for a We can see that both “ 繁 positive kind of results like success, development, or achievement. Both of them imply efforts made by social agency—every minority is represented in the above examples. But“果”is a 39 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis neutral word, meaning the result of an action in social activities whether positive or not, for instance,“ 结 果 .”If the outcome has a destructive impact, “ 后 果 ”and “ 苦 果 ” are frequently used as illustrated by the examples listed above. 5.1.7 Human Body Metaphors The main conceptual metaphor from this domain is “A COUNTRY, OR A COMMUNITY, OR A SYSTEM IS HUMAN BODY”. This metaphor has a number of sub- metaphors, e.g. “FAST AND OVERALL DEVELOPMENT IS HEALTH”, and “WORKING FOCUSEDLY ON A PROBLEM IS GRABBING A THING”. Metaphor keywords such as strength(力量,力气),energy(精力),life(生命),health(健 康 ) have a positive connotation, because only in a healthy state can a social organization function and develop well. Table 5.7 Overview of metaphors in the human body area metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 机制 mechanism 314 65 运行,运转 operating 58 12 动力 power 71 14 功能… functions 35 9 Total 478 100 Metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 同胞,侨胞 Brother/sister/compatriot 128 34 伙伴,朋友 companion 72 20 邻居 neighbor 64 17 当家作主,主人 host 43 11 儿女 Son/daughter 28 7 家,家庭,家园 home 25 6 40 血脉 Genetic tie 6 2 亲情 kinship 4 1 祖先,祖辈,祖宗 ancestor 2 0(6 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 机制 mechanism 314 65 运行,运转 operating 58 12 动力 power 71 14 功能… functions 35 9 Total 478 100 Metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total variations 同胞,侨胞 Brother/sister/compatriot 128 34 As for human interaction, the word “grab” can have several differing connotations. 伙伴,朋友 companion 72 20 Originally, in Chinese, grab meant scratch. Due to the nimbleness of human fingers, the action 邻居 neighbor 64 17 of 抓 can relieve the body from itch, thus giving comfort back to the body. The sound structure 当家作主,主人 of the human hand makes it easy to grab or collect food using a tool thus human beings can host 43 11 survive hunger. Moreover, in primeval society, the human hand could grasp weapons quickly 儿女 Son/daughter 28 7 in order to stave off an animals' attack. All of these factors play a key role in human survival. 家,家庭,家园 home 25 6 It is thus clear that the importance of human hand and its action of grabbing objects has a 血脉 Genetic tie 6 2 remarkable metaphorical manifestation in everyday life, especially when used in political 亲情 kinship 4 1 rhetoric, for example, 祖先,祖辈,祖宗 ancestor 2 0(6 传家宝 heirloom 2 0(4 [61]…谁都没当成兵,我做到了。这机会我要 【抓住】 。王志:光是这样吗,军人大家都知… Total 374 100 (中央电视台《面对面?方永刚:无悔青春》) metaphors Key words with Total tokens % of the total [62]…大家就很容易走神,那语言什么最能 【抓住】 你呢,就是有闭合式的情节有悬念,而 variations 且这… 根,根本,根基,根 root 959 60 (中央电视台《面对面?于丹希望少露面》) 治,根源,根据, [63]…这是加强企业所得税监管所面临的一个非常 【棘手】 的问题,在企业所得税,在核定 扎根(于),根植 企业收入里… (于),植根(于), (中央电视台《今日关注?个税申报 富人缺席的背后》) (以… [64]…我觉得农民工应该是一个充满 【活力】 的充满期待的一个待嫁的姑娘… 为)本,本着.基本, (中央电视台《对话?春天的约会:关注农民工》) 治本… 41 果实,硕果,结果, fruit 222 14 成果,苦果… 树,树立… tree 179 11 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis [65]并最后一次以英国首相身份参加八国集团 【首脑】 会议和欧盟首脑会议,完成其世界告 别之旅 (中央电视台《第一时间》) During the process of development, a country may appear to have many serious problems; however, we can grab them in our hand, control them, and even solve them. Because the action of grabbing is powerful (like saving human life), it seems that any abstract concept of politics can be grabbed in the hand. The word grab used in political language can give people the impression that the government are not only doing their best but also have the ability to do their work well in achieving the goals of country development. 5.2 Unique Conceptual Metaphors in China Metaphors are deep rooted in life experience, just as Lakoff and Johnson believe that conceptual metaphor has an experiential basis. A commonly used expression is “the world is a small place” thus emphasizing the closely knit relationship of many countries and cultures. Therefore, some of our conceptual metaphors are universal, but some are culture-specific. 5.2.1 Food Metaphors [66]…《对话》节目当中摆开一桌中国经济的豪门【盛宴】… ` (对话 寻找山西的蓝海) [67]…水灵灵的,一双眼睛,眼角含情的那种【味道】,我心中的杜丽娘就是这种样子… (面对面 白先勇 青春念想) [68]…站在大红灯笼上,小姑娘【甜美】的声音震撼了全世界,并向全世界发出了… (特别关注 奥运情缘—奥运小姐妹) [69]…品尝地方美食,参观道教文化展,逛个【原汁原味】的乡村庙会… (特别关注 平谷丫鬟山,再现盛大庙会) [70]…归功于天赋,她说这就像上天赐予你的一种【能量】… (鲁豫有约 演员这一行很残酷) 42 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis [71]…小刚加入 ENERGY【粉丝】们强烈不满意… (康熙来了 他们也有粉丝) “盛宴 ”literally means the grand banquet which, in the Chinese cognition, is a meal that is well prepared. The programs of dialogue open an area for economy, and the discussions of economical topics are regarded as the delicious food well prepared by the talk show, thus the guests become an economical feast. Cognitively speaking, we tend to think that this linguistic phenomenon is governed by the conceptual metaphor "FANS ARE FOOD", that is, we conceptualize fans in terms of food during the interview. [72] 【“奶茶”】刘若英作为深受内地观众和歌迷喜爱的艺人热情开朗的奶茶待人很亲切,没 有距离感。 (《鲁豫有约》:“奶茶”刘若英忆似水年华) [73]…其实我每天都要在【“维生素”】那儿摄取养分,我觉得他们是我能量的来源 [74]…【“雪梨”】给我的感觉是甜甜的,所以就算我嗓子再疼,我也一定会为你们唱下去 (湖南卫视超级女生五进四) The famous singer and movie star Liu Ruoying is called “Milk Tea” intimately, other nick names that refer to the fans of different contestants l i k“栗子(Chestnut)” for the fans of e 刘力扬,“灵芝(Ganoderma Lucidum)” for the fans of 胡灵, “蜜糖(Sweet Candy)” for 唐笑, “柠檬” for 党宁, “荞麦(Buckwheat)” for 乔维怡,“汤圆(Glue Pudding)” for 赵媛媛,“冰棒(Popsicle)” for Reborn, “通心粉(Macaroni)”for 孙艺心,“竹笋(Bamboo Shoot)”for 孙闻雍,and etc. Clearly, each of the stage names has a close relationship to the name of a particular person. Additionally, “玉米(corn)”,“凉粉((bean-starch noodles)”and “盒饭 ((box lunch)” , used respectively for the fans of the contestants Li Yunchun, Zhang Liangying and He Jie. In this food metaphor structure, the food is referred to as the source domain and the fans of famous singers or movie stars are constructed as the target domain. 5.2.2 Game Metaphors 5.2.2.1 The Chess Metaphors in Chinese Data 43 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis Chess playing is familiar to us, and many of us know the term like“布局”,“全局”, “ 开 局 ”very well. Like playing chess, a good beginning is very important to the development of a whole process. To be victorious over the opponent, chess players need to have a good“布局”. When confronted with difficulties in the process, this metaphor can make people take the whole situation into consideration and make sacrifices when necessary. For example: 大局 [75]…他肯定是少数的,这是第一个,得明确【大局】。第二个,法制国家为人民当家作主, 那么. [76]…去说服他,怎么去告诉他说你要配合我们的【大局】,好,这个时候可能各人都会各出 奇招. [77]…拆迁是全市人民的一种迫切的愿望,应该从【大局】 考虑,应该你也是唐山的市民,唐 山城市的. (中央电视台《对话》金秋的约会:城市考场》) 布局 [78]…首先,在飞机的总体【布局】上,这个二十几年来,世界上没有大的变化… [79]…这个意思,但是可以继承的特别是他的总体【布局】这部分,要用它,不用它的话,你 重搞一套… (中央电视台《面对面?程不时:揭秘中国飞机》) 局面 [80]…这个时候其实就有一个,特别特别复杂的【局面】出现了,你这边老婆也来了,警察也在弄 呢… (中央电视台《实话实说?[实话实说]“的哥”遭 遇抢 劫》) [81]你觉得现在这个【局面】 ,她妈妈这个心能安下来吗, (中央电视台《实话实说?我们的精神家园——忏 悔 》) Within the domain of chess metaphors, “a game of chess” is used to refer to a complex situation, in which people try to surpass one?s rivals in a skillful manner. The whole unity is conceptualized as a chessboard and each member plays a part in the game or strategy. 44 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis 小卒(pawn) In a chess game, the pawn plays the most insignificant role. So a pawn may be metaphorically used to refer to a person of little importance. [82]内务部没有命令【一兵一卒】向首都行动,谁命令了部队,谁就要对自己 (中央电视台《今日关注?紧张局势下伊朗是否会妥协?》) [83]有悖于构成环境违法案件的基本事实,有【丢卒保车】之嫌~ (中央电视台《第一时间?马 斌读 报》) 和棋(stalemate) [84]“有人说,夫妻之间像弈棋,但始终下的是一盘【和棋】。 前人说,苍天如圆盖,陆地似棋局。夫妻生活如对弈,但不争高低盘盘都应下【和棋】。 僵局(deadlock) [85]…80 米高的烟囱上解救下来呢,救援再次陷入【僵局】... (中央电视台《共同关注?施工烟囱失火两工人被困 直升机抛索援救》) [86]…就在事情陷入【僵局】的时候,白晓敏和楼时伟两位记者都分别有… (中央电视台《共同关注?“自燃”之 谜 》) [82]…另一方面对伊朗核问题陷入【僵局】的核危机,能不能提供一个打破这种核危机… (中央电视台《今日关注?俄欧暗战:到底谁动了谁的奶酪?》) [87]…王志强:目前两派还处于【僵局】当中,暂时法塔赫方面也表示不会与阿巴斯… (中央电视台《今日关注?兄弟阋墙 巴勒斯坦要分裂,》) There is an outcome when playing chess in which neither player move a chess piece within the realms of the game. Therefore neither of the players can ultimately be victorious. This is referred to as “stalemate”. Stalemate is used metaphorically to refer to a situation in which two parties involved in a conflict or a quarrel cannot come to a satisfactory conclusion or outcome. That is to say, there can be no further advancement. (checkmate) 将死 In a chess game, checkmate occurs when a player has no other choice but allow his King to be captured. This results in the loss of the game. In a metaphorical sense, a person uses intellect and strategy to overcome a rival. 45 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis 5.2.2.2 Card Metaphors 牌(trump)or “打出某人的王牌”(play one?s best cards)means to make use of one?s 王 unique talents to engineer a favorable outcome. [88]…主持人:这张牌是很重要一张牌,一张【王牌】。朴键一:对。解决朝核…… [89]…宁边核设施关不关的问题是朝鲜手中的一张【王牌】,现在随着考察团抵达朝鲜,马上就 要实施… (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]强硬出击 普京对美欧再说“不”》) [90]…15 张活人【王牌】伊朗笑打心理战。主持人:但是现在看… (中央电视台《今日关注?被扣英国水兵 悬念 48 小时?》) 打出最后一张牌(play one?s last card)refers to use an unexpected trick or stratagem as a last resort [91]…与西方担心零利率将使欧美央行【打完最后一张牌】相比, 中国离零利率还… (星空凤凰时事开讲 美国零利率 经济泡沫最终会回到美国) [92]…毕竟有那么多的观众是奔着赵本山才去的,赵本山无疑已成为春晚【最后一张底牌】… [93]…学员如何从对手肢体语言方面去侦测对方的【底牌】。原来乔纳瓦罗做特工时是专门从事 非语言… (中央电视台《第一时间》) [94]…或者说作为通过英国来试探美国的【底牌】。或者在一定程度上,通过扣押 15 名英国士… (中央电视台《今日关注?被扣英国水兵 悬念 48 小时?》) [95]…俄罗斯的调子都叫得很高,基本上开出的【底牌】也要价很高,结果往往最后通过各种各 样的… (中央电视台《今日关注?美俄为何战略碰撞频频》) 摊牌(put or lay one?s card on the table) When a card game comes to the end,“摊牌”is used to determine the victorious party. In metaphorical usage it conveys the idea of making thoughts or opinions public or expose one?s secrets. [96]…再次的失落,让她觉得该向丈夫【摊牌】了。回到家的那天,孙继雪详细说出了 27… 46 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis (中央电视台《讲述?27 年之痛》) [97]…外交活动空间还很大,时间还很长,离最后【摊牌】的时间还很长。刚才盖茨的讲话也好 ,… (中央电视台《今日关注?一个伊朗核科学家的离奇死亡》) [98]…危局大家都能看到,但是目前还没有到最后【摊牌】的时候,因为如果美国打伊朗的话… (中央电视台《今日关注?周 末 版 》) [99]白宫与民主党控制的国会即将进入【摊牌】阶段。 (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]布什突访伊拉克 暗 藏玄 机》) Laying the cards on the table is the most influential stage of the game, so its metaphorical meaning expresses this viewpoint. The final victor is the person who holds all of the most influential cards “the best hand”. That is to say, it refers to the player who has the greatest advantage in any given situation. 5.2.3 Horse-racing Metaphors 并驾齐驱(neck to neck) At the conclusion of a race, two horses are in advance of the others, but the distance between the two is so narrow that it is hard to decide which will ultimately be victorious. Metaphorically speaking,“并驾齐驱”refers to both of the two candidates have overwhelming advantages but are so close to each other in terms of strength or ability that it is very difficult to decide who can emerge with victory. For example, 并驾齐驱 [100]…刘翔和罗伯斯几乎同时冲出了起跑线,此后两人【并驾齐驱】,在前三个栏架罗伯斯还 稍稍领先,到了… (中央电视台《第一时间》) [101]…〈孔子〉心得》这本书出来之后 也会同样【并驾齐驱】。于丹论语心得的走红,也使重 读… (中央电视台《第一时间》) 47 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis 黑马(dark horse) A“dark horse” is a person who unexpectedly emerges with strength or victory in any given situation (often a little known candidate in an election). More recently, Barack Obama and Bill Clinton have been described as dark horses, after they overcame a crowded field of Democratic hopefuls to win the 2008 presidential election and 1992 presidential election, respectively. The same has been said about Jimmy Carter during the 1976 presidential election. The term dark horse is also used outside the political context. Surprising or unlikely nominations for such prizes as the Academy Award are referred to as dark horses. It is also used in sport beyond horse racing, in connection with competitors or teams that—despite not being initial favorites—have done well and may win. There are also some examples in the areas of finance, economy, big enterprises or politics just like the followings, the “financial dark horse”, share-holder dark horse, automobile dark horse and politician dark horse etc. [102]…去年有一个严介和一下子一个财富的【黑马】,我今年再怎么来吸引大家的关注呢,… (上海东方电视台《财富人生?功略 2006》) [103]…对外宣称自己的内幕消息很准,能够提供【黑马】股票信息,但张新斌自己也不相信有 股神的… (中央电视台《共同关注?[共同关注] 带头大哥的陨落》) [104]…大家觉得是一个奇迹,或者说奇瑞是一个【黑马】。什么原因呢,我们在投放市场的第 二年就… (中央电视台《新闻调查?奇 瑞之 路》) [105]…但是这次贝鲁很聪明,人家说,他是一匹【黑马】,他以非左非右这样一个面目出现的 话,… (中央电视台《今日关注?法国大选 悬念仍在继续》) [106]…得自民党内 9 支派阀里 8 支的支持。这只“老【黑马】”的出现,令之前呼声最高却出 身小派阀的… (中央电视台《今日关注?安倍之后 谁将成为日本首相》) 48 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis 5.2.4 Hunting Metaphors Hunting normally means to use dogs (hounds) to chase the animal (usually a fox) while riding a horse (Longman Dictionary: 860). It metaphorical usage expresses to find out somebody or something that is considerably significant. 涉猎 [107]…周星驰一共参演了 40 余部影片,题材涉【猎】广泛,扮演的人物也是三教九流。 (中央电视台《面对面?周星驰演绎反面教材》) 狩猎 [108]…缠满这秘密的角落 / 就这样不用狩【猎】爱情却早已登上了爱情的巅峰… (凤凰卫视《鲁豫有约?鲁豫有约:一万块钱畅游外国 (上)》) 猎物 [109]这个肯定取名叫猎物嘛,【猎】物越多对我们就更好,我们给他取名叫猎物 (中央电视台《共同关注?[共同关注]田棒棒的艺术生涯》) 5.2.5 Fishing Metaphors Fishing literally means that the sport or job of catching fish (Longman Dictionary: 644). It is metaphorically used to fish somewhere, for example in the bag or in the pocket. The target domain of the word “钓 ”refers to explore or find out something or somebody by skills or techniques. For example, [110]孙大虹:我们就放长线【钓】大鱼,先不惊动他们。暗地里派人,主要是 (中央电视台《面对面?孙大虹:禁毒主战场》) [111]…老牛是为了迅速扩大自己的资助成就,沽名【钓】誉,只挑成绩好的高中生来资助。牛 志远说… (中央电视台《共同关注?贫儿高考夺魁 回报好心人牛爷爷》) [112]…广泛动员亲戚朋友,以及利用炒股来放长线【钓】大鱼,天马公司的花样不可谓不多, 但其实… (中央电视台《共同关注?原始股之“惑”》) [113]…难道当初克劳斯不要高薪是为了放长线【钓】大鱼,又或者他根本就是另有所图,要把 自… 49 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis (中央电视台《财富故事会?无敌赛艇》) In the first example, “dangling” metaphorically refers to hunting down the drug smuggler; the second “dangling” refers to attain reputation; while the third and fourth “dangling” expresses not to take actions immediately in order to achieve more. 5.2.6 Sexual Metaphors Sexual propriety is one of the human basic instincts. People metaphorically project the human sexual cognition on the animate and inanimate world. In contemporary Chinese linguistics, “female” is defined as the ability or function of producing other things. In our daily life, family relationships and ethical relationships are unique among human beings. Human beings take the self-centered view to look at the animal world, the offspring of animals are called “雄” and“雌” respectively. In animal world, the so-called “母系家庭”, “婚 配 制度 关于办公室下班关闭电源制度矿山事故隐患举报和奖励制度制度下载人事管理制度doc盘点制度下载 ” and “家庭群” are all imitated human beings. While genetic relationship among mothers or fathers and their children is projected into the inanimate areas just like the sayings: “母公司”, “母法”, “母机”, “母语”, “母版”, “母舰”and“母树”etc. In traditional society, male refers to the strong model which implying power, responsibility and career-centered on the one hand, female refers to the weak model which implying pure, honest and family-centered on the other hand. Usually, people are equivalent sex to big and small or strong and weak. The big and strong one always refer to male, for instance, 大胖小子,大老 爷们、男子汉大丈夫 and 大老头子; while small and weak refer to female, for instance, 小 丫头片子、小妞儿、小媳妇、小寡妇 and 小老太太 etc. “雄” represents strong and excellent, for example, 雄才滩心、雄文、雄姿、雄风、雄图、雄辩 and 雄赳赳; while “雌” represents soft, regression and evil like :雌字(阴文)、雌劣(懦弱)、雌伏(屈居人下)、雌风(邪恶之 风)、雌 节( 退 藏 自 守 )、霓(副虹)and 雌懦(柔弱无男子气概)。Personal pronoun “she”(她) sometimes replaces the image of motherland, the sea, the earth and nature. So we call the earth and the sea “mother” and Yellow River the “mother river”. On the contrary, personal pronoun for the sun is he or him ( 他). Meanwhile, the personal pronoun for female sometimes has derogatory sense, for instance, “母老虎”and “母夜叉” etc. 50 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis 5.2.7 Circle Metaphors “Circle(圆)”is deeply rooted in Chinese ancient culture, which means sky, the sun, the earth, the unity, etc. And it symbolizes good things. When we refer to the success of some activities, we always say“圆满成功”. For example: 周围 [114]…我要说的不光是布什不满意,布什【周围】的主要顾问,民主党、共和党的议员,美国… (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]布什突访伊拉克 暗 藏玄 机》) [115]…朝鲜来说,也失去很多改革开放的时间,对【周围】的外交环境也受到了影响,整个朝 鲜核问题… (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]强硬出击 普京对美欧再说“不”》) [116]…基本上俄罗斯西部也失守了,他【周围】的战略空间没有了,现在为什么在北冰洋这… (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]俄美角力 新一轮军备竞赛已经开始,》) 辐射 [117]…长三角和珠三角这些地区本来也是经济的【辐射】区,主要的一些区域。 (中央电视台《今日关注?铁路提速究竟改变了什么?》) [118]…战略力量的膨胀力已经足够,而且可以向外【辐射】。这个时候它最重要的,可以跟周 边国家做… (中央电视台《今日关注?俄美角力:新“冷战”即将到来,》) [119]…淄博的鲁中蔬菜批发市场进行检查。作为【辐射】周遍多个区县的大型蔬菜批发市场… (中央电视台《今日关注?[今日关注]“中国制造”将更值得信任》) The metaphorical language in this example has the power of image, which looks like the sun. The "circle" metaphor can motivate people to hold together under the leadership. Chinese civilization system is accurately called “Chinese cultural circle”, people call it “circle” means that it stays in an obdurate and self-sufficiency status for lengthy millennium because of the geographical factors and profound influence of Confucian thought. In the inward-looking “circle”, the Chinese people came into being a respected family-centered culture system. Looking back over history, their homes are “四合院 ”; the board is “cubic city”, and has the great wall. It fashions a family-style country, it advocates “reunification”, 51 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Data Analysis pursuing “cooperation”, like living together. The strong family concept is very dim. There is also a common expressions say: “East, west, home is best”. What this expression attempts to establish is that of a “maritime civilization” or a nomadic lifestyle that encompasses outward expansion and lateral extension. In other words, going to the outer world is the only way for their survival and development. 52 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Conclusion Chapter 6 Conclusion 6.1 Summary The outcome of this research successfully identifies key metaphorical expression within Chinese TV talk shows by applying the methodology and theory surrounding CMA. Many conceptual metaphors have been identified by means of gathering substantial quantities of keywords from the scripts. According to the quantitative research as illustrated with Section 5.1, the quantity of each major metaphor was derived as follows; journey metaphors (4683) are the largest contributor followed by construction metaphors (3354). The third subcategory was plant metaphors (1595), No 4 was military metaphors (1466), human body metaphors (1461), machine metaphors (478) and, finally, the family metaphors (374). CMA shows that a great many of metaphors convey positive evaluations, which thus increases the level of public participation and finally the development of the viewers? career or their country. The analysis should be attributed to the corpus in Communication University of China which provides us a complete raw corpus covering various dialogue programs, and the statistical results can be easily analyzed with the assistance of software Wconcord. Previously, no quantitative research has been conducted within the scope of metaphor usage in Chinese TV programs. To this end, the thesis has addressed the key factors influencing conversational metaphor usage in the field of Chinese media by means of statistical result evaluation. The present research also makes a contribution to metaphor analysis from a critical point of view. 6.2 Limitations of the Thesis and Suggestions for Further Studies 6.2.1 Corpus Limitations The corpus may not be large enough for a precisely quantitative research. Due to the limitation of time, the author didn't include all the dialogues in Chinese talk shows, restricting the scope between the years 2007 to 2008. As a result, some keywords of unknown conceptual 52 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Conclusion metaphors or the metaphors that have been identified may be left out. For instance, religious metaphors in western countries are wide enough to cover their Islamic or Christian religion beliefs. However, religion metaphors in China also deserve mention, for example Buddhism and others. 6.2.2 Metaphor Key Words Limitations Some metaphor key words may not be identified because of being overlooked, through subjectivity and due to limited knowledge. Some qualified words slip away from the analysis process, while some unqualified words may jump into the already identified cluster. Moreover, unique metaphors in Chinese data has not been studied deeply, such as food metaphors, game metaphors, and horse-racing metaphors, hunting metaphor, fishing metaphor, sexual metaphors and circle metaphors. The research is just based on the basic level of collecting materials, a further research towards such innovative data with Chinese characteristics should be more deeply researched later. 6.2.3 Conceptual Metaphor Limitations Different analysts may get different concepts from certain keywords in the same source domain. They may disagree on identifying and describing a particular concept. This may be based on the analysts? different understanding of the language. To sum up, the present study only allows for a qualitative and tentative research process. A thorough analysis needs extremely careful work, which takes time and requires expertise. For deeper understanding of conceptual metaphors in Chinese dialogue programs, further research needs to be done. 6.3 Suggestions for further studies Initially, some conceptual metaphors with Chinese features should be further explored and the chronological span should be much wider. Secondly, metaphorical identification work 53 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Conclusion should be done carefully. Finally, the tools for research could be further improved through the joint effort by both linguists and computer experts. 54 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Bibliography Bibliography 1. Aristotle, S. Retoric and Poetics [M].New York: The Modern Library, 1954 2. Black, M. Models and Metaphors [M].New York: Cornell University Press, 1962 3. 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New York: Columbia University Press, 1990 41. 冯晓虎. 隐喻—思维的基础,篇章的框架[M]. 北京:对外经济贸易大学出版社, 2004 42. 胡壮麟. 认知隐喻学[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004 43. 蓝纯. 认知语言学与隐喻研究[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2005 44. 马敏. 政治语言:作为话语霸权基础的结构—功能分析[M].中共浙江省委党校学报 2004a: 34-38 45. 马敏.政治道歉:言语政治中的话语权斗争[J], 学术论坛(理论月刊). 2004b: 54-57 46. 田海龙.政治语言研究:评述与思考[J], 外语教学,2002.23(1), 23-29 47. 田海龙 .语篇研究的批评视角 :从批评语言学到批评话语分析 [J], 山东外语教 57 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Bibliography 学,2006 (2) 48. 束定芳 . 语言的认知研究—认知语言学论文精选 [M].上海:上海外语教育出版 社,2004 49. 束定芳.隐喻学研究[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2002 50. 束定芳. 论隐喻的运作机制[J], 外语教学与研究, 2002 (2) 51. 潘文国,谭慧敏.对比语言学:历史与哲学思考[M].上海:上海教育出版社,2006 52. 彭建武.认知语言学研究[M]. 中国海洋大学出版社.2005 53. 唐雪凝,付宁.从认知角度看网络新闻的隐喻运用—以网络媒体对 2004 年美国总 统竞选的报道为例[J], 修辞学习,2005 (6) 54. 王文斌. 隐喻构建与解读的主体自恰[D], 上海:上海外国语大学, 2005 55. 项蕴华.政治语篇中权力不对称性的批评性分析[J], 外语学刊,129 (2), 25-28 辛斌.批评性语篇分析:问题与讨论[J], 外国语,2004(5) 56. 57. 苑春明,田海龙.英汉政治语篇的对比分析与批判分析[J], 天津商学院学报,21(5), 51-53, 60 58. 张红燕. 汉语政治话语中的隐喻研究[D]. 杭州:浙江大学,2005 59. 张蕾.用批评语篇分析解读布什的演讲[J], 西安外国语学院学报,2005.13(1),23-25 60. 赵艳芳.认知语言学概论[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2000 61. 赵敏. 中美商务语境中常用概念隐喻及其文化根源的比较研究 [D], 北京:对外经济 贸易大学, 2005 58 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Appendix Appendix (中国传媒大学语料库我的检索日志) Humanbodymetaphors 单位:中央电视台 栏目:第一时间 文章 内容 财务内部控制制度的内容财务内部控制制度的内容人员招聘与配置的内容项目成本控制的内容消防安全演练内容 包含字符串 “首脑” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:共同关注 文章内容包含字符串 “首脑” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:对话 文章内容包含字符串 “活力” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:今日关注 文章内容包含字符串 “棘手” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “抓住” Plant metaphors 单位:中央电视台 栏目:第一时间 文章内容包含字符串 “苦果” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:共同关注 文章内容包含字符串 “苦果” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:对话 文章内容包含字符串 “硕果” 单位:凤凰卫视 栏目:名人面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “繁荣” 单位:上海电视台 栏目:新闻透视 文章内容包含字符串 “植根” Circle metaphors 单位:中央电视台 栏目:对话 文章内容包含字符串 “周边” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:今日关注 文章内容包含字符串 “辐射” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:今日关注 文章内容包含字符串 “周围” Machine metaphors 单位:中央电视台 栏目:对话 文章内容包含字符串 “运转” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:共同关注 文章内容包含字符串 “推动” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:今日关注 文章内容包含字符串 “摩擦” 单位:中央人民广播电台 栏目:今日论坛 文章内容包含字符串 “启动” 单位:北京电视台 栏目:特别关注 文章内容包含字符串 “运行” 59 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Appendix Hunting metaphors 单位:中央电视台 栏目:共同关注 文章内容包含字符串 “猎” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:对话 文章内容包含字符串 “涉猎” Game metaphors 单位:中央电视台 栏目:财富故事会 文章内容包含字符串 “钓” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:今日关注 文章内容包含字符串 “黑马” 单位:凤凰卫视 栏目:鲁豫有约 文章内容包含字符串'并驾齐驱' Card metaphors 单位:中央电视台 栏目:讲述 文章内容包含字符串 “摊牌” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “底牌” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “最后一张牌” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:今日关注 文章内容包含字符串 “王牌” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:心理访谈 文章内容包含字符串 “玩你的牌” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “将你的军” 单位:上海东方电视台 栏目:东视广角 文章内容包含字符串 “将死” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “僵局” Family metaphors 单位:上海东方电视台 栏目:头脑风暴 文章内容包含字符串 “香港同胞” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:实话实说 文章内容包含字符串 “台湾同胞” 单位:凤凰卫视 栏目:鲁豫有约 文章内容包含字符串 “伙伴” 单位:上海电视台 语体:谈话 栏目:新闻透视 文章内容包含字符串 “邻” 单位:凤凰卫视 栏目:名人面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “邻居” 单位:北京电视台 栏目:特别关注 文章内容包含字符串 “血脉” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:财富故事会 文章内容包含字符串 “祖先” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:新闻调查 文章内容包含字符串 “主人” 60 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Appendix 单位:中央电视台 栏目:共同关注 文章内容包含字符串 “传家宝” 单位:北京电视台 栏目:特别关注 文章内容包含字符串 “家园” Food metaphors 单位:中央电视台 栏目:对话 文章内容包含字符串 “奶茶刘若英” Chess metaphors 单位:北京电视台 栏目:7 日 7 频道 文章内容包含字符串 “和棋” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:第一时间 文章内容包含字符串 “和棋” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:第一时间 文章内容包含字符串 “卒” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:第一时间 文章内容包含字符串 “小卒” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:实话实说 文章内容包含字符串 “局面” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “布局” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:对话 文章内容包含字符串 “大局” Military metaphors 单位:凤凰卫视 栏目:名人面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “战” 单位:中央电视台栏目:对话 文章内容包含字符串 “阵营” 单位:北京电视台 栏目:特别关注 文章内容包含字符串 “全军” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:实话实说 文章内容包含字符串 “胜利” 单位:北京电视台 栏目:特别关注 文章内容包含字符串 “战士” 单位:中央电视台 栏目:面对面 文章内容包含字符串 “整装待发” 61 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Appendix 62 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements Firstofall,Iwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetomysupervisor,Professor PengJianwu,forhisconsistenthelpinmygraduatestudy,forhisvaluable suggestionsandguidance,forhisgenerosityinspendinghisprecioustime discussing questions concerned in my thesis and for his constant encouragementaswell.Hisattitudetowardsacademicpursuitwillencourage meinmylifetime. IamalsoindebtedtotheteachingfacultyinForeignLanguageSchool, ProfessorChenShifa,ProfessorTangJianmin,toProfessorSongJianfu,Professor ZhaiHonghua,ProfessorCuiQian,ProfessorSongYanandProfessorZhao Luping,whotaughtmedifferentsubjectsduringmygraduatestudy.Their lecturesandrichknowledgeguidemeintothelinguisticfieldandcontribute muchtothecompletionofthisthesis.Specialthanksarealsotomyclassmates whogivememanysuggestionsandsupportwheneverIamintroublewiththis thesis. 62 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Acknowledgements 63 山东科技大学硕士学位论文 Main Achievement during Working on Master Paper Main Work Achievement of the Author during Working on Master Thesis 1. 2009 年 “语气情态新动态-新书述评”发表于期刊《时代教育》(可检索)第一作者 2. 2008 年 “从认知语境的角度分析央视谈话节目中话语标记语的语用功能”发表于 《山东外语教学》语言学与外语教学专刊 2009 年第一期 文章编号 5178 第一作者 3. 2008 年 “英汉演讲语篇的功能对比”发表于《山东外语教学》增刊,第二作者 4. 2008 年 “从元语用意识的视角分析谈话节目中话语标记语的语用功能”发表于 山东科技大学学报 2008 年第十二期增刊 ,第一作者 63
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