小说要素简介

小说要素简介 I. Theme Theme is the central idea or message of a story or it is the basic meaning or underlying idea of a story, often a perception about life or human nature. • Stated themes are directly presented in a story. • Implied themes must be inferred by considering all the elements of a story and asking what message about life is conveyed. You will need to infer what the theme is from the work’s title, key scenes, characters, symbols, and plot events. Theme can be found in any of these: --Direct statements by the authorial voice ------Theme may be stated by characters or transmitted through author’s narrative. – Direct statements by a first-person speaker – Dramatic statements by characters – Figurative language, characters who stand for ideas – The work itself – Theme Theme is the underlying meaning of the story, a universal truth, a significant statement the story is making about society, human nature, or the human condition. A book's theme must be described in universal terms, not in terms of the plot. The plot is the way the universal theme is carried out in that particular book. Themes can be applied to the reader's own life or to other literature. 胡明月整理 1 Although themes can convey important messages, they should never be overtly didactic. Didacticism is preaching and teaching so explicitly that children lose pleasure in the story and reject its message. The primary theme is most important theme in the story; children's books usually have one primary theme. There may be other secondary themes as well. Types of themes: , An explicit theme is one that is stated openly in the book. It is stated in universal terms in the book itself. , An implicit theme is one which is not directly stated, but which the reader can infer. Many times, readers will not notice that an explicit theme is directly stated, but they can often infer the theme anyway. Themes must be clearly stated; one word is not usually enough. To say that a book's theme is "friendship" is not clear. It may mean, "Friends are a person's most valuable possession." It may also mean, "Friends can never be trusted if their own interests are opposed to yours." An understanding of theme is dependent upon one's previous experience of life and literature. At the same time, theme in literature can enlarge one's understanding of life. Not every good book has a significant theme; some books' value lies in the pleasure they give, rather than the message they bring. Books of humor, for instance, may or may not have a significant theme. II. Setting: If you could talk about the where and when of a story, what you’re really talking about is the story’s setting, including everything that characters know and own (place, time, objects) Setting is a work’s natural, manufactured, political, cultural and temporal environment; Function:1. Understanding a story’s setting can give you a context for 胡明月整理 2 the events of the plot. It can also give you clues about the mood, or atmosphere, of a story Function:2.Setting may reinforce characters and theme, in order to establish expectations . , Setting as mood. , Setting as antagonist. , Setting as historical background. , Setting as symbolism. ADD Setting includes the place and the time period in which the story takes place. Setting may or may not have an important influence on the story: , An integral setting is essential to the plot; it influences action, character or theme. , A backdrop setting is relatively unimportant to the plot; it is like the featureless curtain or flat painted scenery of a theater. , Readers may interpret the importance of the setting differently; one may say that the setting is integral because the story must happen in a big city; another may say the same thing is backdrop because it may happen in any big city. (The former statement is probably more accurate, but either is acceptable if the meaning is clear.) Setting can clarify conflict, illuminate character, affect the mood, and act as a symbol. The setting itself can be an antagonist in a person-against-nature conflict. III. PLOT: Plot is the action of a story. It is the series of related events that the author describes from the beginning of the story to the end. Most plots follow a chronological order. In other words, they proceed in the order in which the events happen, which forms the structure of fiction 胡明月整理 3 , structure defines the layout of the work Plot is the literary element that describes the structure of a story. It shows arrangement of events and actions within a story. Other Elements of Plot • Exposition – the beginning of the story, which explains the characters and the situation • Rising Action – complications that cause building tension • Climax / Crisis – the peak or turning point • Falling Action – explanations that lead into the resolution • Resolution/ denouement ----Closed ending ----story is completed • Cliffhanger悬疑: an abrupt ending to keep the reader reading • Suspense – makes you want to keep reading Foreshadowing – planting hints about what will happen later in the story Conflict is the usual and the most important source of plot in literature. Conflict is the dramatic struggle between two forces in a story. Without conflict, there is no plot. • Person against person • Person against society • Person against nature • Person against self 1. Character vs Character: 胡明月整理 4 This type of conflict finds the main character in conflict with another character, human or not human. 2. Character vs Nature: This type of conflict finds the main character in conflict with the forces of nature, which serve as the antagonist. 3. Character vs Society: This type of conflict has the main character in conflict with a larger group: a community, society, culture, etc. 4. Character vs Self: In this type of conflict, the main character experiences some kind of inner conflict. Plot Plot is the literary element that describes the structure of a story. It shows arrangement of events and actions within a story. 胡明月整理 5 Plot Components Climax: the turning point, the most intense moment—either mentally or in action Rising Action:the series of Falling Action:all of the conflicts and crisis in the story that action which follows the lead to the climaxclimax Exposition:the start of the story, Resolution: the conclusion, the the situation before the action startstying together of all of the threads ADD Plot Plot is the sequence of events which involves the characters in conflict. The sequence of events is called the narrative order: , The most common type of narrative order in children's books is chronological. In this case, the events are told in the order they happen. , A flashback occurs when the author narrates an event that took place before the current time of the story. Flashbacks are uncommon in children's literature because the passage of time is difficult for children to understand. The opposite effect, a flash forward, is even rarer. , A time lapse occurs when the story skips a period of time that seems unusual compared to the rest of the plot. There is no standard amount of time that might constitute a time lapse; it depends upon the reader's sense that a longer than usual period of time has passed since the previous episode. Conflict is the struggle between the protagonist and an opposing force. There are several types of conflict: , Internal conflict, or person-against-self, occurs when the protagonist struggles within himself or herself. The protagonist is pulled by two courses of action or by differing emotions. This is often considered a characteristic of 胡明月整理 6 fine literature because it frequently leads to a dynamic change in the protagonist. , Interpersonal conflict, or person-against-person, pits the protagonist against someone else. , Conflict of person-against-society happens when the protagonist is in conflict with the values of his or her society. This is a difficult concept for small children to grasp. , Conflict of person-against-nature takes place when the protagonists is threatened by an element of nature. , Conflict of person-against-fate occurs when the protagonist must contend against a fact or life or death over which people have little control, such as death or disability. Some literary critics, however, see this conflict as a type of person-against-nature. , Several types of conflict may be present in any one story. , Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between two types of conflict. If a teenager is arrested by a policeman for breaking a law, the conflict is probably person-against-society. If, however, a personal animosity develops between the two, so that the boy taunts the policeman and the policeman harasses the boy because they dislike each other, the conflict becomes person-against-person. Likewise, if a character is attacked by a strange dog, the conflict is person-against-nature. But if the dog knows and dislikes the character, it could be considered person-against-person. If the protagonist is diagnosed with a fatal disease, he or she has a conflict with fate or nature, but also probably has an internal conflict in learning to accept his or her fate. Most plots have certain common elements: , A story commonly begins with exposition, an explanation of the situation and the condition of the characters. In children's books, the exposition is usually woven into the action. , A plot usually begins with a problem which the protagonist must meet or solve. During the story, tension is built through a series of complications, incidents which either help or hinder the protagonist in finding a solution. This is the rising action. , The climax is the peak or turning point of the action; at this point we know the outcome. , The denouement or falling action is the part after the climax. It gives any necessary explanation and ends with resolution, the sense of at the end of the story that it is complete. , The ending of the story may be either open or closed: o In a closed ending, the most usual one in children's books, readers feel that they know what will happen. The various parts of the plot are tied together satisfactorily, and the reader feels a sense of completion. o In an open ending, readers must draw their own conclusions; they do not know what will happen. 胡明月整理 7 o A cliffhanger is an abrupt ending at an exciting and often dangerous time in the plot. Its purpose is to keep the reader reading. It is usually found at the end of a chapter, but occasionally a book will end this way. (Not all open endings are suspenseful enough to be called cliffhangers.) Recently, books in some science fiction and fantasy series have ended in cliffhangers, which encourages the reading of the other books in the series. Other elements which may be found in plots include: , Suspense is a state of tension, a sense of uncertainty, an emotional pull which keeps the reader reading. All plots need some suspense to sustain interest. , Foreshadowing is the planting of hints about what will happen later in the story. It prepares children for the outcome and reassures them when the suspense is very high. Good foreshadowing is subtle and often contributes to high quality in a story. , Coincidence, the concurrence of events which happen by chance, is a fact in real life. However, real life is not a plot that moves from problem to climax to resolution. In fiction, coincidence seems contrived; it weakens the plot. Coincidence in a plot is acceptable if it is carefully but subtly foreshadowed. , Inevitability is the sense that the outcome is necessary and inescapable. It had to happen, given these characters and this situation; it is not contrived. It is a sign of high quality in writing. , Sensationalism is unrelieved suspense; it often includes violence and may produce fear in the reader. Readers often like it, as the popularity of horror books and films attest, but it is usually considered a sign of poor quality. Even the Disney Studio, known for wholesome entertainment, is guilty of sensationalism. Sixty years ago, many children were frightened by the witch in Snow White. More recently The Lion King was criticized for excessive violence. In films, suspense is often heightened by cutting quickly between scenes and by the adroit use of background music to create a mood. Sentimentality is the opposite of sensationalism; it is the overuse of sentiment (a natural concern for another person) that produces a tear-jerker. It is dwelling too much on the "cute" and the "precious." Like sensationalism, it is a sign of poor quality but is often popular. Movies such as Love Story and Terms of Endearment are examples of sentimentality. Many popular children's books are overly sentimental. Black Beauty, The Velveteen Rabbit, The Giving Tree, I'll Love You Forever, and the works of Joan Walsh Anglund have all been criticized for this. IV. Narrative Order • Chronological events 胡明月整理 8 • Flashback – an event that takes place before the current time of the story • Flash forward – opposite of flashback the story skips a period of time • Time Lapse – V. Characterization: A character is a person, an animal, or an imaginary creature that takes part in the action of a story. Sometimes the author will directly describe a character’s appearance, personality, or feelings. • Physical appearance and personality • Speech, behavior, and actions • Thoughts and feelings • Interactions with other characters Other times the author will leave clues and expect you to draw conclusions about what the person or animal is like. CHARACTERIZATION: An author can give information about a character by describing several aspects of the character: CHARACTER TYPES: Most stories have both main and minor characters. The main character, 胡明月整理 9 or protagonist, is the most important character. The action of the plot revolves around him or her. The antagonist, the person or thing working against the protagonist, is also a main character. Round Character A character is complex and has many sides or traits with unpredictable behavior and a fully developed personality. A round character is usually dynamic. Flat Character A character does not change or develop beyond the way in which she or he is first presented. A flat character is usually static. Characterization – The artistic representation of the appearance and personality of characters in a literary work. The methods to characterize: Characters are revealed through dialogue (what they say and what others say about them), their actions, their appearance, their interior feelings and motivations, and through explicit narrative description. ADD: Character Character can be revealed through the character's actions, speech, and appearance. It also can be revealed by the comments of other characters and of the author. 胡明月整理 10 Certain types of characters appear in many stories. Describe the following types if they appear in your book: , The protagonist is the central character (person, animal, or personified object) in the plot's conflict. , The antagonist is the force in conflict with the protagonist. It may be society, nature, or fate, as well as another person. It can also be the protagonist's own self, if he or she has an internal conflict. , A character foil is a character whose traits are in direct contrast to those of the principal character. The foil therefore highlights the traits of the protagonist. The foil is usually a minor character, although if there are two protagonists, they may be foils of each other. , A stereotype is a character who possesses expected traits of a group rather than being an individual. Using stereotypes is usually considered an indication of poor quality, especially in cases such as members of minority groups, people with disabilities, or women. However, stereotypes can be useful in furthering the story quickly and are acceptable in minor roles if they do not provide hurtful portraits of the groups in question. Character development is showing the multitude of traits and behaviors that give the literary character the complexity of a human being. The amount of character development affects the quality of the story: , A flat character is not fully developed; we know only one side of the character. , A round character is fully-developed, with many traits--bad and good--shown in the story. We feel that we know the character so well that he or she has become a real person. , Character development is a continuum with perfectly flat characters at one end and very round ones at the other. Every character lies somewhere on this continuum. Round characters are usually considered an indication of literary quality. However, characters in folktales are almost always flat, and flatness is appropriate for minor characters in modern literature for children. A character foil is often flat, even if the protagonist is round. The amount of change in a character over the course of the story also affects its quality: , A static character is one who does not experience a basic character change during the course of the story. , A dynamic character is one who experiences a basic change in character through the events of the story. This change is internal and may be sudden, but the events of the plot should make it seem inevitable. , There is also a continuum of character change in a story, with very static characters at one end, and very dynamic ones at the other. Every character lies 胡明月整理 11 somewhere on this continuum. Dynamism in the protagonist is usually considered an indication of quality, but many characters, especially in stories for younger children, have only the mild amount of change which can be expected from growing and maturing from day to day. , A character may thus be round and dynamic, round and static, or flat and static. A flat character cannot usually be dynamic, because you do not know enough about the flat character to notice a change. If a character seems flat and yet seems to change, it is usually because the characterization is not well written. The following table summarizes how the development and change in characters interact: Character Dynamic Static Development is considered Considered the best type of character well-done. Often found in Round development. Usually the protagonist. protagonists in books for younger children. Characters cannot be dynamic and flat, In very simple books, or in because in a flat character we do not know fairy tales, the protagonist may Flat enough about them for them to recognize a be flat and static. Also change. If a flat character seems to change, appropriate for minor it is usually due to poor writing. characters in other books. VI. Point of View: Point of View: Who is telling the story and how much the narrator will know about the thoughts of others. 1.First-person Point of View: in the first-person point of view, the story is told by one of the characters. The character uses pronouns such as I or we and usually participates in much of the action. First-person point of view – speaks through the ―I‖ of one of the characters and records his/her own thoughts and actions but cannot retell the thoughts of others unless those characters reveal themselves in conversation. 胡明月整理 12 2.Third-person Point of View: in the third-person point of view, the story is told by a narrator who is not a character in the story. (Pronouns such as she, he, and they are used when writing in third-person point of view) • Omniscient point of view – tells story in third person (they, he, or she) and is not limited in reporting details of the thoughts, actions and conversations of all characters. • Limited omniscient point of view – tells story in third person and is limited to reporting the thoughts and feelings of only one or a few characters. • Objective point of view – author does not reveal the thoughts of the characters, instead the reader’s interpretation results from presentation of action and conversation. ADD Point of View Point of view depends upon who the narrator is and how much he or she knows. Point of view may be: , First person - uses "I" - A character is telling the story. , Second person - uses "you" - The author speaks directly to the reader. Second person is seldom used; it is found most often in nonfiction today. , Third person - uses "he," "she," or "it" - The author is telling about the characters. There are three third person points of view: o Limited omniscient - We are told the thoughts and feelings of only one character (sometimes, but very seldom, of two or three characters). 胡明月整理 13 o Omniscient - We are told everything about the story, including the thoughts and feelings of all the characters, and even information in the author's mind which no character knows. Dramatic or objective - We are told only what happens and what is said; we do not know any thoughts or feelings of the characters. It is called "dramatic" because it includes the words and actions, just what you would see and hear if it were in a play or film. VII. Style Style is the way writers express their ideas. It’ s how they say something, not what they say. Style involves these three elements: Means: Style uses language to create plots, characters and settings and to express themes. •Word choice (Essential aspect of style is diction) • Sentence structure and length • Literary devices, such as figurative language, symbols, dialogue, and imagery • Formal = standard or elegant words • Neutral = everyday standard vocabulary • Informal = colloquial, substandard language, slang Devices of style include figurative language (e.g. similes and metaphors), symbols, allusions, wordplay, understatement, hyperbole, imagery, rhythm and repetition. Style Style is the language used in a book, the way the words are put together to create the story. 胡明月整理 14 , Most children's books use standard written style. This style sounds natural, but when carefully analyzed, it is clear that it is more formal than most speech. Sentences are complete; expressions like "um," "you know," and "like--," are avoided; contractions are used less often than in ordinary speech. Lots of conversation may included, but the style as a whole does not sound like speech. , In conversational style, the language is more informal, it sounds more like the way people really talk. The narration as well as the character's speeches sounds conversational. , Dialect is easiest for children to read if word order or a few unusual words and expressions are used to suggest a difference from normal speech. Other languages may be suggested in the same way through speech patterns and foreign words. Foreign and unusual words should be explained naturally in context. An eye dialect, in which words are spelled the way they sound, is sometimes very hard to read. , An ornate or unusual style is sometimes used, especially in some high fantasy and historical fiction. Older editions of traditional literature and older poetry may also have such styles. Writers use many devices of style to make stories interesting. , Imagery is the most frequently used device. It is an appeal to any of the senses--taste, touch, sight, sound, and smell. It paints pictures in our mind. , Figurative language uses words in a nonliteral way, giving them a meaning beyond their ordinary one. o Personification gives human traits to animals, nonhuman beings, or inanimate objects: "The trees bowed before the wind." o A simile compares two different things, using the words "as," "like," or "than": "The snowbank looked like a huge pile of marshmallow syrup." o A metaphor is an implied comparison stating the resemblance between two things: "Her presence was a ray of light in a dark world." , Devices of sound can increase pleasure and clarity. Books which use many such devices should be read aloud. Poetry is particularly rich in such devices. o Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like their meaning: a skirt "swishes," a bat "cracks," a hasty eater "gulps" his food. o Alliteration is repetition of initial consonants: "the soft surge of the sea." o Consonance is repetition of consonants sounds anywhere in the words: "The sight of the apple and maple trees pleased the people." o Rhyme is the repetition of a stressed sound, usually the final syllable: "His aim was to blame the dame." o Assonance is repetition of vowel sounds in a phrase: The owl swept out of the woods and circled the house." o Rhythm is the recurring flow of strong and weak beats in a phrase: "Chicka, chicka, boom, boom! Will there be enough room?" Meter is 胡明月整理 15 the regular rhythmic pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables found in a line of poetry. The less regular rhythm sometimes found in prose is often called cadence. , Puns and other plays on words add interest and humor: "By the time the milking was finished, the new farmhand was thoroughly cowed." Puns are said to be "the lowest form of wit," but people usually enjoy them even as they groan. , Hyperbole is exaggeration: "He was frightened out of his wits." Understatement is the opposite: "He was upset when he learned he had AIDS." , Allusion is an indirect reference to something outside the current literary work: "He was a veritable Hercules." The reference may be to something in literature, history, modern culture, or another area. Allusion is often difficult for children to recognize because they lack the necessary background knowledge. The proponents of "cultural literacy" believe that all children should acquire a common fund of knowledge in order to understand allusions. , A symbol is something--a person, object, situation, or action--which operates on two levels, the literal and the symbolic. For instance, an engagement ring is a real object, but it is also stands for the abiding love of the engaged couple. Symbols add depth and meaning to a story. Symbols may be universal (as the engagement ring) or specific to a particular story. Qualities which should be avoided in style include triteness (dull, stale, overused expressions), condescension (talking down to children, making them feel unintelligent or immature), didacticism, sensationalism, and sentimentality. In poetry, avoid a too regular meter which can become a sing-song rhythm. VIII: Symbol A symbol: is something concrete—such as a person, place, or object—that signifies something more than just itself, something abstract, such as a concept or an idea. And it is a mode that expands meaning Function: Symbol creates a direct, meaningful equation between a specific object, scene, character, or action and Ideas, values, persons or ways of life • Symbols may be divided into: 1. Cultural (universal) symbols : known by most literate people 胡明月整理 16 (e.g: white snow, red rose, snake, water) 2. Contextual (authorial) symbols = private, created by the author IX: Irony: The use of words to express something different from and often opposite to their literal meaning. A literary style employs such contrasts for humorous or rhetorical effect. Method: Irony can always be realized by satire: In satire, an author ridicules the subject through the use of techniques such as exaggeration, reversal, incongruity, and parody in order to make a comment or criticism about it. Techniques of Satire: 1.Exaggeration ( 夸张;夸大) To enlarge, increase, or represent something beyond normal bounds so that it becomes ridiculous and its faults can be seen. 2.Incongruity ( n.不调和, 不适宜): To present things that are out of place or are absurd in relation to their surroundings. 3.Reversal( n.颠倒, 反转, 逆转): To present the opposite of the normal order (e.g the order of events, 胡明月整理 17 hierarchical order). Classification: 1.Verbal Irony (Say one thing but mean the opposite) In verbal irony, a speaker says one thing but means the opposite. Verbal irony: is the simplest kind of irony and can become sarcasm( n.挖苦, 讽 刺) if taken to a harsh extreme EG: Shakespeare The Merchant of Venice Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice ―It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. 2. Situational Irony (What happens is the opposite of what is expected.) In situational irony, what actually happens is the opposite of what is expected or appropriate. Situational irony is often humorous or may mock human plans and intentions, which in real life often come to little result. 3. Dramatic Irony (We know something a character does not know.) Dramatic irony occurs when the reader or the audience knows something important that the character does not know. Dramatic irony adds greatly to the tension in stories, plays, and movies. It heightens the sense of humor in comedies and deepens meaning and the sense of dread in tragedies Eg. Fielding The Scandal School 胡明月整理 18 X. Tone • Tone is the methods by which writers and speakers reveal attitudes or feelings ADD Tone is the author's attitude toward what he or she writes, but it may be easier to understand if you think of it as the attitude that you (the reader) get from the author's words. It is the hardest literary element to discuss; often we can recognize it but not put it into words. The easiest tone to recognize is humor. In describing tone, use adjectives: humorous, mysterious, sarcastic, straight-forward, matter-of-fact, exciting, boring, etc. XI. Allusion: Allusion is the use of other culturally well known works from the Bible, Greek and Roman mythology, famous art,etc. XII. Allegory Allegory is a symbol to complete and self-sufficient and it is a mode that expands meaning 胡明月整理 19