英语语言发展史

英语语言发展史 英语语言的历史发展可以分为三个阶段，分别是:古英语(Old English)，中世纪英语(Middle English)和现代英语(Modern English)。 古英语(449--1100)。有记载的英语语言起始于449年，当时包括央格鲁,撒克逊人(Angles-Saxons)在内的德国部落入侵大不列颠。他们把原来的居民凯尔特人(the Celts)赶到不列颠的北部和西部角落。凯尔特人的领袖King Arthur带领部队勇敢作战，英勇抗击德国入侵者。这之后在不列颠岛上央格鲁人、撒克逊人和一些德国部落都说着各自的英语。尽管85,的古英语词汇现在已经不再使用，但一些常用词汇如:child, foot, house, man, sun 等等还是保留下来。和现代英语相比，古英语中的外来词很少，但派生词缀较多。古英语中还有较多描述性的复合词。如“音乐”是earsport;“世界”是age of man。在著名的英雄史诗《贝奥武甫》(Beowulf)中对此有详尽描述。 787年，来自丹麦及斯堪的纳维亚地区的北欧海盗(the Vikings)陆续进入英国。在之后的三百年里，他们袭击、侵占了大部分的英格兰。北欧海盗对英语语言的影响意义是深远的，是他们带来了代词they、their、them等;/g/ /k/的发音;甚至包括husband、window这样的词。古英语无论从发音还是拼写上都与现代英语大相径庭。 中世纪英语(1100――1500)。1066年的诺曼底征服事件在英语语言发展史上是一个标志性的转折点。在这年，威廉带领军队从法国诺曼底省出发，穿过英吉利海峡，想在英国称王并在伦敦成立一个法国法庭。之后的近三百年里，法语一直是英国的官方语言，成为统治阶级用语，而平民百姓说的英语被认为市低等语言。到1300年左右，法语的使用开始减少。到14世纪末期，英语又重新成为官方语言。乔叟写于14世纪末期的《坎特伯雷 故事 滥竽充数故事班主任管理故事5分钟二年级语文看图讲故事传统美德小故事50字120个国学经典故事ppt 集》(Canterbury Tales)反映了政治、经济、社会等方面的变化对英语语言的影响。 在近四百年时间里，诺曼人给英语带来了近一万的外来词，深深影响了英国人的社会和生活。英语语言在这一时期借用了较多法语中的派生词缀，如-able, -ess。当然也有一些拉丁语直接进入英语，而且多用于 书 关于书的成语关于读书的排比句社区图书漂流公约怎么写关于读书的小报汉书pdf 面语。由于贸易的发展，还有少量的荷兰词语在这时期融入英语中。 中世纪英语的语音变化较少，但句法上已经形成了固定的词序，并且扩展了情态动词、助词结构。不规则动词越来越少，很多不规则动词的过去式和过去分词也趋向规则化。到1000年，语言使用中已确定了-s作为名词复数的构成，而古英语中曾以-en结尾表示复数便渐渐不再被人们使用。 现代英语(1500――至今)。1476年，卡克斯顿(William Caxton)在英国开始引进印刷机的使用，标志着中世纪英语转入现代英语阶段。由于读物数量的增多，范围扩大，词汇拼写开始趋向 规范 编程规范下载gsp规范下载钢格栅规范下载警徽规范下载建设厅规范下载 化， 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 化，固定化。这样一来，读音和拼写之间的差距扩大。另外，随着探险、殖民、以及贸易等各方面走向世界化，给现代英语带来一定的冲击。超过50种语言的外来词涌入英语，如阿拉伯语，法语，德语，荷兰语，俄语，希伯来语，西班牙语，汉语，意大利语等。 为体现英语语言的威望，文艺复兴时期(Renaissance)有更多的拉丁和希腊词汇加入英语，象congratulate, democracy, education等来自拉丁语;catastrophe, encyclopedia, thermometer 来自希腊语。一些现代希腊语、拉丁语中的科技用语如aspirin, vaccinate也被当作英语使用。of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood. 另外，一些外来语(如criterion, focus)仍保留了原来词语的复数形式。还有一些更保留了当时的拼写和发音。 我们今天主要要讲的词类是现代英语中的又一发展阶段,即六十年代以来,在英、美等主要英语国家中,由于科技、军事、外交、文化等方面日新月异的发展,而在原有的词汇基础上又进行的一次改革与发展。接下来从几个方面举例说明。 ,1,创立性词 随着工业、农业、文化、军事和科学等方面的发展,英语为迎合其需要,创立 了不少新词,或把原一普通词发展为多义性的词: A. 美国人在路口相见时,经常用“Hi”,这是从Hello这个词发展创立出来的新词。甲说“Hi”,乙也说“Hi”。 B. instant是一个普通形容词,意为“紧迫的,立即的”。但在现代社会里一提到它,人们立即会想到instant coffee (速溶咖啡)。在现代工业社会里,吃饭如能节省时间,就节约了社合劳动,因此方便食品工业迅猛发展,instant这个词也随之流行,不再局限于instant coffee,如:instant (tea, soup, noodle) 等。在西方市场上陆续出现了一些与食品工业无关的instant商品或业务,表示“速成的,马上成功的”。instant camera照相机(即一分钟照相机)等。所以,instant现在已成为英语里的一个时髦的单词,已从词的原意延伸、扩大到各个领域。 C. some原是“一些、某些、几个”的意思。随着现代英语的进化发展,some甚至被作为“精彩的,了不起的,非同小可的”等表示具有强烈赞扬意思的新创立词。 of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood. (2)剪截性词 随着各方面生产的需要,英语国家的人民把大量的词进行剪截。去尾部或头部～或切除词的中间一部分,形成一种经剪截过的新词,这种词的产生是为了方便书写、记录和印刷。如:Monday-Mon., December-Dec., liberation-lib., photograph--photo, sister--sis.。这种剪截性词在学生中特别流行,如: exam-ex., professor--prof.等。这些都是剪截去原词的尾部。有些词尾部不 飞机)—plane, 英美人对有些词则能剪截,人们便剪辑它的首部。如:airplane( 去首去尾皆可,去首留尾可用～去尾留首 也可用。如:bicycle有两个缩略形式cycle和bike,两个都可用;还有一种是把单词或词组中各组成部分的第一个字母作为该词或该词组的剪截形式,这些字母通常全都大写。如:U.S.A. (United (3)派生性词 现代英语构成新词最常用的是派生,即在原词的词形上加上前缀或后缀,组 成一种派生性词。 A. 加后缀,成派生新词 加后缀er,组成派生性新词: teach-teacher, hunt-hunter等。 B.加前缀,成派生新词 a)加mini为前缀,组成新派生词有“非常短、小”等意思: minibus (小型公共汽车); minipark(小公园); minicoat (短大衣); miniskirt(超短裙)等。 of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood. b)加前缀anti,表示“否定,反对”之意: tremble(震动)-antitremble(防震)。这类派生性新词,目前用于科技界的专门名词方面极其普遍。 (4)简化性词 这类新词是把两个以上词的词组简化而成的。具体说,就是从词组的每个词各取一部分拼凑成一个新词。这是19世纪英国童话作家路易斯.卡罗尔(Lowis Carroll)首创发明的一种造词法。如:botel (boat hotel)汽艇游客旅馆; Oxbridge是Oxford University与Cambridge University简化而来,成为牛津剑桥大学。 (5)复合性词 这是一类为了引伸原词词义,扩展原词词义的实际用途,把二个或二个以上单词复合在一起,组成新词。如:teach-in (师生的集会、游行); sleep-in(一种抗议形式,抗议者占领工厂、机关在那里过夜); laugh-in (愉快的会见); make-up-face(经化了装的、上了油彩的脸); moon-walk(走到月球表面,月球散步—指宇航员)。 ,6,改用性词 近些年来,西方特别是美国盛行所谓的妇女解放(Women’s Lib)运动,即女权运动。这些妇女为争取“女权”、反对“男权”主义,对英语带来了一些影响。凡被认为有“男性主义”的词一概遭贬斥,改用同义或近义的词。如:chairman -chairperson,主席,,newsman-newsperson(新闻记者);mantime-persontime(人次);a man of men--a person of persons〈杰出人物〉等。另外对一些词进行性of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood. 别上的彻底改革,newsman—newswoman等,因为“新闻记者”中有女“记者”。“女权”运动给英语带来的影响冲击着社会,有人赞成,有人持不同看法,一时争论不休。也有一部分意见是“和稀派”,做到二者兼顾。例如一条新闻中讲:“Newsmen and newswomen were at the meeting that day.”这里用复数名词,男的、女的都照顾到了,句子可谓理想了吧?可是眼尖耳灵的女权主义者认为这样的句子先说男的,后说女的仍旧不妥,为此引起一场争执。最后以newsperson来代替newsman和newswoman了事,这也就是newsperson的来源。 ,7,代用性词 如: bear (熊—警察), mama bear ,母熊—警察,, bear cave (熊穴—警察所)～asphalt pilot,柏油路飞行员—卡车司机,～midnight shopper,夜半顾客—夜盗,, 2 wheeler (二轮车—摩托车)等。 在这类CB语的用词中,并非都是CB电台爱好者独创的,其中相当一部份来自 美国原有的俚语。例如:Big Apple代用“纽约市”,New York,, bread代用“钱”(money), tick,钟表的滴答声,代用“一分钟”(a minute)等。 2.语法(Grammar) 英语从古至今已经有了很大的变化,近四、五十年的变化则更为显著,除了词 汇方面外,语法也不是一成不变的。语法的一些变化可能有着深刻的意义。语法方面的变化标志着结构倾向于简短。特别是美国英语语法变化更为明显,英国英语相对地较为稳定,但也不断受到美国英语的影响。下面就现代英语语法谈几点变化。 ,l,时态方面的变化 of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood. A.助动词变化相当可观 a)shall与will,特别在美国,基本上只用will,口语上以’ll表示,因此概 念区别已模糊不清。至于过去式should与would,也同样用’d表示。 b)将来时态大有be going to代替will,shall之势。这儿的going已失去原有词义,实际上已成了一个新的助动词,与后面to连成一体,还出现了用gonna 代替going to,这个新词用法相当普遍。如:We’re going to clean this.已成 为 We’re gonna clean this. c)在完成时态中的have用法也在变化,由弱化而逐步消失。如: 由He has done his homework.变为He’s done his homework.再变到He done his homework. d)助动词do在疑问句中,特别是第二人称作主语时,常被省掉。如:What do you want?—What you want? B.进行时态的扩展 有些动词,如wish, want, hope, like, forget, remember, find等,原来不 能用于进行时态的,但目前在现代英语中,尤其在日常口语中使用这些动词于进 行时态日趋广泛,这样用是为了强调当时的具体情景。如:How are you liking Beijing? Aren’t you forgetting Jack? I was just wanting to thank him. 等。 (2)句型方面的变化 of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood. 英语中除了特殊疑问句、一般疑问句、选择疑问句与反意疑问句之外,近来随着英语的进一步现代化,又出现了一种新颖的疑问句—陈述疑问句(the statement question),而且使用日趋广泛、普及。如:He is your brother? They will go with us tomorrow? 使用这类陈述疑问句主要是表示“诚挚地提出问意”,根据推断预期可以得到肯定的回答,或用于表示怀疑、不相信的语句中。如:You don't believe that? You understand it better now? 另外还常用于快速地提出一连串问题,以节省时间。如:You understand how to use that word? You can use it in a sentence? You can say it in Chinese? You can spell it? 等。这类疑问句与我们的本族语言—汉语表示同类意思的句子词序是一致的,只要经常模仿它,是不难掌握的。 ,3,结构方面的变化 A.格的变化 目前代词whom正在被who所取代:Whom did you see yesterday?—Who did you see yesterday? I don't know whom I shall give it to?—I don't know who I shall give it to? 等。 另外在第一人称单数代词作表语时,用me代替I日趋稳定。原先总说,This is I.或It's I.许多语法家原也认为不能用This is me.但现代英语中用me替I越来越固定,可以说It's me. 形容词比较级、最高级中用B.-er, -est代替more, most of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood. -般语法书上规定,单音节的形容词及以y, ow结尾的双音节形容词,在比较级与最高级时,加后缀er, est。如: clean—cleaner—cleanest, happy—happier—happiest。其余的形容词在比较级、最高级时应加more, most。现在则用er, est代替more, most日趋见多,且日益稳定其用法。如: difficult— difficulter—difficultest。 C.结构的省略 用ain’t代替is not, are not, am not, have not, has not等。如:He ain’t at home. I ain’t an English newspaper.等。 (4)日常用语、习惯用语方面的变化 随着英语的进一步日新月异,在西方国家,特别在美国,人们日常生活中所接 触的用句、用语也是变化相当大,越来越自由化、灵活化。只求看得懂、能理解就行了,并不注重语法上的得失。 A.与美国人友好交谈分手时,美国人往往说“Nice meeting (或seeing)you.”,很高兴同你见面。,随后加上一句“Have a nice day.”,祝你今天过得愉快。, B.在餐馆、饭店里,Thank you.---You are welcome. (不用谢)。 C.在旅馆里结帐人多,用in the line来表示“排队”。 D.吃饭时,桌上人多,服务员忘了谁点的是什么菜,端来菜后,主人往往讲, This goes to him. That goes to her. This goes there. That goes here. E.美国人开车一般不按喇叭,街上有路标“No Horn”,意即“不准按喇叭”。 of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood. F.飞机上乘务员会问你“Smoking or non-smoking?”～smoking seat, non -smoking seat (吸烟座,无烟座)也就应运而生了。 二.现代英语的发展趋势 随着社会的发展,工农业、教育、科技等方面的飞速进步,给英语带来的变化、改革、进化已是确确实实了。因为它符合人们的交流需要。今后在英语的其他方面可能还会有更大的变化,这是必然趋势,不是我们所能估计到的,也不是墨守陈规的语法学家所能阻挡的。但是语言的变革、进化总要遵循社会发展的必然规律,总要得到大多数使用这种语言的人们的赞同与支持,没有这个基础,这种语言的变革与进化就不会长寿,也必然是短命的,被人们所淘汰的。因此在今后进一步发展中,对此所引起的激烈争论看来是不会少的。 of work enthusiasm and forward-looking. The difficulties and problems of individual cadres indifferent masses as the buck passing, long, make some simple complex problems. Some cadres general talk about pay, do not take the initiative to undertake for the bitter and tired of the work, the lack of courage to play a positive attitude." corrective measures: (LED Leadership: Luo Mingjun, rectification time: before September 25th, insist for a long time) 1, effectively solve the enterprise less, help is not enough. In order to "turn style, solve problems, and do practical things, heart to heart" as the core, in accordance with the provisions of division of Labor Bureau, by the Bureau of Party members and cadres room composition the working group , to help enterprises solve problems, promote the construction of major projects; close ties with the masses, to ask for the people, ask for people to know the people, public opinion, the people, improve people's livelihood.