计算机等级考试二级指导教程公共基础知识

计算机等级考试二级指导教程公共基础知识 全国计算机等级考试指导教程(二级) ——公共基础知识 编著 黄海军 2013年9月 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 目 录 前言 ........................................................ 3 二级考试中的公共基础知识的备考 ............................................................................ 3 历年公共基础知识考点统计与分析 ............................................................................ 4 第一章数据结构与算法 ......................................... 5 1.1算法 .................................................................................................................... 5 1.2数据结构的基本概念 ............................................................................................ 6 3线性表及其顺序存储结构 ..................................................................................... 8 1. 1.4栈和队列 ............................................................................................................. 9 1.5线性链表 ............................................................................................................11 1.6树与二叉树 ........................................................................................................ 13 1.7查找技术 ........................................................................................................... 18 8排序技术 ........................................................................................................... 19 1. 第二章 程序设计基础 ..........................................20 2.1程序设计设计方法和风格 ................................................................................... 20 2.2结构化程序设计(面向过程的程序设计方法) ................................................... 21 2.3面向对象的程序设计 .......................................................................................... 22 第三章 软件工程基础 ..........................................24 3.1 软件工程基本概念 ............................................................................................ 24 3.2 结构化分析方法 ................................................................................................ 28 3.3 结构化设计方法 ................................................................................................ 30 3.4 软件测试 .......................................................................................................... 34 3.5 程序的调试 ....................................................................................................... 37 第四章 数据库设计基础........................................38 4.1 数据库系统的基本概念 ..................................................................................... 38 4.2 数据模型 .......................................................................................................... 42 4.3关系代数 ........................................................................................................... 45 4.4 数据库设计与管理 ............................................................................................ 48 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 计算机等级考试二级指导教程 公共基础知识 前言 二级考试中的公共基础知识的备考 从2005年初开始，教育部对全国计算机等级考试进行了较大调整。二级考试的笔试包括基础知识和程序设计两部分，其中基础知识占30分。这次改革的思想就是将基础知识的内容由计算机常识(一级难度)调整为程序开发基础(三级难度)，如果这部分知识内容没有掌握好，难以在等级考试中取得好成绩。因此，必须引起我们足够的重视，这部分因涉及四门课程知识，要求面广。实际上只要掌握了一定的备考技巧过关也不难的。 大纲的二级基础知识分为数据结构与算法、程序设计基础、软件工基础、数据库设计基础四部分，下面分别说一下学习重点和方法: (1) 数据结构与算法 本章的知识用于提高程序的效率以及对较复杂的问题进行求解。本章内容在计算机专业基础课中也属于比较难的一门，学习本章的内容必须进行理解，死记硬背是无效的。对于等级考试，本章重点的考核点主要在二叉树，同时这也是本章的难点，考核形式主要为二叉树的遍历问题(如给图求遍历序列、给前序、中序遍历求后序遍历等)、二叉树的结点问题(如给出一些条件然后求叶子结点个数);还有排序和查找考试中也经常会涉及到，排序主要以计算时间复杂度的形式考核，查找主要以计算最佳/最坏比较次数的方式考核。其余的知识点主要以概念的形式考察，考生需要仔细看书并理解。 (2) 程序设计基础与软件工程基础 这两章以概述的形式简介了 规范 编程规范下载gsp规范下载钢格栅规范下载警徽规范下载建设厅规范下载 化开发软件的方法。与数据结构不同，这两章内容主要是记忆性的知识点。程序设计基础的内容与大纲改革前添加了面向对象程序设计的内容，考生可以对本章进行几次细读后了解即可;软件工程基础这章主要考核内容为结构化分析及结构化设计方法(即SA及SD，约占50%)，信息量较大，其次是软件测试(约占20%)，考生需要将相关的概念及规则背诵，在以后有机会进行程序开发时这些知识可以得到深刻理 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 3 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 解。 (3) 数据库设计基础 数据库是当前软件处理的信息核心，目前大部分软件都是基于数据库的，因此学习一下 数据库知识对程序开发也是很有帮助的。本章主要的考核点是关系模型、关系代数及数据库 系统的基本概念，其余的知识点了解即可，其中数据库的设计和管理可以结合着软件工程来 看，考生会发现这两者有很多相似之处。除了关系代数会考一些简单的计算问题外，其余的 都是以概念题的形式考核，考生需要仔细的阅读。 以上为复习二级公共基础的方法，顺便提及一点考生在选购教材的时候应当特别注意， 应当购买最近版的二级公共基础知识教程(指定教材由高等教育出版社出版)，还有考生在 备考时，除了应完成教材中的习题外还应当做一下近几年的真题，并且用其估计一下自己的 知识欠缺以便更好的进行查漏补缺。 历年公共基础知识考点统计与分析 2012 20122011 2011 2010 2010 2009 2009 2008 2008 2007 2007 2006 2006 20052005 章节 知识点 下 上 下 上 下 上 下 上 下 上 下 上 下 上 下 上 算法 2 2 0 0 2 0 4 2 0+2 2+2 数据结构的基本概念 0 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 2+2 2 线性表及顺序存储 0 0 0 2+2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 数据 结构 栈和队列 4 4 4 2+2 0 2 0 0+4 2 4 2 与 线性链表 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 算法 树与二叉树 2 0+2 2 2 0+2 2+2 4+2 2 0 4+2 0+2 查找技术 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 排序技术 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0+2 2 0 程序 程序设计方法与风格 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 设计 结构化程序设计 0 2 0+2 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 基础 面向对象程序设计 0 0 0 2 0 2 0+2 0 0+2 0 0+2 软件工程基本概念 4+2 2+2 2 2+2 6 0 2 4 0 4+2 2 软件 工程 结构化分析方法 2 0+2 0 2 0 0+4 0 0 0 0 0 基础 结构化设计方法 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 软件测试 0 0+2 2+2 0+2 0+2 0+2 2+2 0 0+2 0 2 程序调试 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0+2 2 2 0+2 数据库的基本概念 2 2+2 0+2 2 0+4 2 2+2 4+2 2+2 2+2 2 数据库 数据模型 2+2 2 2+2 2+2 2 2+2 2 0 4+2 0 2+2 设计 关系代数 2 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 2 0 基础 数据库设计与管理 2 0 2 0+2 0+2 0 0 2 0 2 0 第一章数据结构与算法 1.1算法 1、算法:是指解题 方案 气瓶 现场处置方案 .pdf气瓶 现场处置方案 .doc见习基地管理方案.doc关于群访事件的化解方案建筑工地扬尘治理专项方案下载 的准确而完整的描述。 , 算法不等于程序～也不等于计算机方法～程序的编制不可能优于算法的设计。 2、算法的基本特征 (1)可行性;针对实际问题而设计的算法，执行后能够得到满意的结果。 (2)确定性，算法中每一步骤都必须有明确定义，不允许有模棱两可的解释，不允许 有多义性; (3)有穷性，算法必须能在有限的时间内做完，取能在执行有限个步骤后终止，包括 合理的执行时间的含义; (4)拥有足够的情报。 , 综上所述～所谓算法就是一组严谨地定义运算顺序的规则～每一个规则都是有效的～ 是明确的～此顺序将在有限的次数下终止。 3、算法复杂度主要包括算法时间复杂度和算法空间复杂度。 (1)算法时间复杂度是指执行算法所需要的计算工作量。可以用执行算法的过程中所 需基本运算的执行次数来度量。 (2)算法空间复杂度是指执行这个算法所需要的内存空间。 【真题练习】 (2011年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A.算法就是程序 B.设计算法时只需要考虑数据结构的设 计 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 5 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional C.设计算法时只需要考虑结果的可靠性 D.以上三种说法都不对 (2010年3月)算法的时间复杂度是指( )。 A)算法的执行时间 B)算法所处理的数据量 C)算法程序中的语句或指令条数 D)算法在执行过程中所需要的基本运算次数 (2009年9月)算法的空间复杂度是指( )。 A)算法在执行过程中所需要的计算机存储空间 B)算法所处理的数据量 C)算法程序中的语句或指令条数 D)算法在执行过程中所需要的临时工作单元数 (2007年4月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)算法的效率只与问题的规模有关，而与数据的存储结构无关 B)算法的时间复杂度是指执行算法所需要的计算工作量 C)数据的逻辑结构与存储结构是一一对应的 D)算法的时间复杂度与空间复杂度一定相关 (2008年3月)算法的有穷性是指( )。 A)算法程序的运行时间是有限的 B)算法程序所处理的数据量是有限的 C)算法程序的长度是有限的 D)算法只能被有限的用户使用 (2007年4月)在算法中，对需要执行的每一步操作，必须给出清楚、严格的规定。 这属于算法的( )。A)正当性 B)可行性 C)确定性 D)有穷性 (2006年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)一个算法的空间复杂度大，则其时间复杂度也必定大 B)一个算法的空间复杂度大，则其时间复杂度必定小 C)一个算法的时间复杂度大，则其空间复杂度必定小 D)上述三种说法都不对 (2005年9月)算法复杂度主要包括时间复杂度和【2】复杂度。 (2005年4月)算法具有5 个特性，下列选项中不属于算法特性的是( )。 A)有穷性 B)简洁性 C)可行性 D)确定性 (2005年4月)问题处理方案正确而完整的描述称为【5】。 1.2数据结构的基本概念 1、数据结构是指相互有关联的数据元素的集合。 2、数据结构研究的三个方面:数据的逻辑结构、存储结构、运算。 (1)数据集合中和数元素之间所固有的逻辑关系，即数据的逻辑结构; 数据的逻辑结构包含:1)表示数据元素的信息;2)表示各数据元素之间的前后件关系。 (2)在对数据进行处理时，各数据元素在计算机中的存储关系，即数据的存储结构; 数据的存储结构有顺序、链接、索引等。 1)顺序存储。它是把逻辑上相邻的结点存储在物理位置相邻的存储单元里，结点间的 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 逻辑关系由存储单元的邻接关系来体现。由此得到的存储表示称为顺序存储结构。 2)链接存储。它不要求逻辑上相邻的结点在物理位置上亦相邻，结点间的逻辑关系是 由附加的指针字段表示的。由此得到的存储表示称为链式存储结构。 3)索引存储:除建立存储结点信息外，还建立附加的索引表来标识结点的地址。 3)对各种数据结构进行的运算。 ( , 数据的逻辑结构反映数据元素之间的逻辑关系～数据的存储结构,也称数据的物理 结构,是数据的逻辑结构在计算机存储空间中的存放形式。同一种逻辑结构的数据 可以采用不同的存储结构～但影响数据处理效率。 3、数据结构的图形表示 一个数据结构除了用二元关系表示外，还可以直观地用图形表示。在数据结构的图形表示中，对于数据集合D中的每一个数据元素用中间标有元素值的方框表示，一般称之为数据结点，并简称为结点;为了进一步表示各数据元素之间的前后件关系，对于关系R中的每一个二元组，用一条有向线段从前件结点指向后件结点。 、数据结构分为两大类型:线性结构和非线性结构。 4 (1)线性结构(非空的数据结构)条件:1)有且只有一个根结点;2)每一个结点最多有一个前件，也最多有一个后件。 , 常见的线性结构有线性表、栈、队列和线性链表等。 (2)非线性结构:不满足线性结构条件的数据结构。 , 常见的非线性结构有树、二叉树和图等。 【真题练习】 (2011年9月)数据结构分为线性结构与非线性结构，带链的栈属于 【1】 (2009年9月)下列数据结构中，属于非线性结构的是( )。 A)循环队列 B) 带链队列 C) 二叉树 D)带链栈 (2007年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)程序执行的效率与数据的存储结构密切相关 B)程序执行的效率只取决于程序的控制结构 C)程序执行的效率只取决于所处理的数据量 D)以上三种说法都不对 (2007年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)数据的逻辑结构与存储结构必定是一一对应的 B)由于计算机存储空间是向量式的存储结构，因此，数据的存储结构一定是线性结构 C)程序设计语言中的数组一般是顺序存储结构，因此，利用数组只能处理线线结构 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 7 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional D)以上三种说法都不对 (2005年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)一个逻辑数据结构只能有一种存储结构 B)数据的逻辑结构属于线性结构，存储结构属于非线性结构 C)一个逻辑数据结构可以有多种存储结构，且各种存储结构不影响数据处理的效率 D)一个逻辑数据结构可以有多种存储结构，且各种存储结构影响数据处理的效率 (2005年9月)数据结构分为逻辑结构和存储结构，循环队列属于【5】结构。 (2005年4月)数据的存储结构是指( )。 A)存储在外存中的数据 B)数据所占的存储空间量 C)数据在计算机中的顺序存储方式 D)数据的逻辑结构在计算机中的表示 1.3线性表及其顺序存储结构 1、线性表由一组数据元素构成，数据元素的位置只取决于自己的序号，元素之间的相对位置是线性的。线性表是由n(n?0)个数据元素组成的一个有限序列。 在复杂线性表中，由若干数据元素组成的数据元素称为记录，而由多个记录构成的线性表又称为文件。 非空线性表的结构特征: (1)且只有一个根结点a ，它无前件; (2)有且只有一个终端点a ，它无后件; (3)除根结点与终端结点外，其他所有结点有且只有一个前件，也有且只有一个后件。结点个数n称为线性表的长度，当n=0时，称为空表。 2、线性表的顺序储结构具有以下两个基本特点: (1)线性表中所有元素的所占的存储空间是连续的; (2)线性表中各数元素在存储空间中是按逻辑顺序依次存放的。 a 的存储地址为:ADR(a )=ADR(a )+(i-1)k，ADR(a )为第一个元素的地址，k代表每个元素占的字节数。 , 由此可以看出～在线性表的顺序存储结构中～其前后件两个元素在存储空间中是紧 邻的～且前件元素一定存储在后件元素的前面～可以通过计算机直接确定第i个结 点的存储地址。 3、顺序表的运算:插入、删除。 (1)顺序表的插入运算:在一般情况下，要在第i(1?i?n)个元素之前插入一个新元素时，首先要从最后一个(即第n个)元素开始，直到第i个元素之间共n-i+1个元素依personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 次向后移动一个位置，移动结束后，第i个位置就被空出，然后将新元素插入到第i项。插入结束后，线性表的长度就增加了1。 , 顺性表的插入运算时需要移动元素～在等概率情况下～平均需要移动n/2个元素。 (2)顺序表的删除运算:在一般情况下，要删除第i(1?i?n)个元素时，则要从第 -i个元素依次向前移动一个位置。删除结束后，i+1个元素开始，直到第n个元素之间共n 线性表的长度就减小了1。 , 进行顺性表的删除运算时也需要移动元素～在等概率情况下～平均需要移动,n-1, /2个元素。插入、删除运算不方便。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)将长度为n的顺序存储在线性表中删除一个元素，最坏情况下需要移动表中的元素个数为( )。 (2011年9月)在长度为n的顺序存储的线性表中插入一个元素，最坏情况下需要移动表中 【2】 . (2008年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)顺序存储结构的存储一定是连续的，链式存储结构的存储空间不一定是连续的 B)顺序存储结构只针对线性结构，链式存储结构只针对非线性结构 C)顺序存储结构能存储有序表，链式存储结构不能存储有序表 D)链式存储结构比顺序存储结构节省存储空间 (2008年9月)线性表的存储结构主要分为顺序存储结构和链式存储结构.队列是一种特殊的线性表,循环队列是队列的[3]存储结构 1.4栈和队列 1、栈及其基本运算 (1)栈是限定在一端进行插入与删除的线性表，允许插入与删除的一端称为栈顶，不允许插入与删除的另一端称为栈底。 栈按照“先进后出”(FILO)或“后进先出”(LIFO)组织数据，栈具有记忆作用。用top表示栈顶位置，用bottom表示栈底。 (2)栈的基本运算:1)插入元素称为入栈运算;2)删除元素称为退栈运算;3)读栈顶元素是将栈顶元素给一个指定的变量，此时指针无变化。 栈的存储方式和线性表类似，也有两种，即顺序栈和链式栈。 2、队列及其基本运算 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 9 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (1)队列是指允许在一端(队尾)进入插入，而在另一端(队头)进行删除的线性表。Rear指针指向队尾，front指针指向队头。 队列是“先进先出”(FIFO)或“后进后出”(LILO)的线性表。 (2)队列运算包括1)入队运算:从队尾插入一个元素;2)退队运算:从队头删除一个元素。 (3) 循环队列及其运算:所谓循环队列，就是将队列存储空间的最后一个位置绕到第一个位置，形成逻辑上的环状空间，供队列循环使用。在循环队列中，用队尾指针rear指向队列中的队尾元素，用排头指针front指向排头元素的前一个位置，因此，从头指针front指向的后一个位置直到队尾指针rear指向的位置之间，所有的元素均为队列中的元素。 , 循环队列是队列的链式存储结构～循环队列中元素的个数=rear-front。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)下列叙述中正确的是: A、循环队列是队列的一种顺序存储结构 B、循环队列是队列的一种链式存储结构 C、循环队列是非线性结构 D、循环队列是一直逻辑结构 (2012年3月)下列叙述中正确的是 A、栈是一种先进先出的线性表 B、队列是一种后进先出的线性表 C、栈和队列都是非线性结构 D、以上三种说法都不对 (2012年3月)设循环队列的存储空间为Q(1:3),初始状态为front=rear=30。现经过一系列入队与退队运算后，front=16，rear=15，则循环队列中有( )个元素。 (2010年3月)一个队列的初始状态为空。现将元素A，B，C，D，E，F，5，4，3，2，1依次入队，然后再依次退队，则元素退队的顺序为【,】。 (2010年3月)设某循环队列的容量为50，如果头指针front,45(指向队头元素的前一位置)，尾指针rear,10(指向队尾元素)，则该循环队列中共有【,】个元素。 (2009年9月)下列数据结果中，能够按照“先进后出”原则存取数据的是( )。 A) 循环队列 B) 栈 C)队列 D)二叉树 (2009年9月)对于循环队列，下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)队头指针是固定不变的 B)队头指针一定大于队尾指针 C)队头指针一定小于队尾指针 D)队头指针可以大于队尾指针，也可以小于队尾指针 (2009年3月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)栈是“先进先出”的线性表 B)队列是“先进先出”的线性表 C)循环队列是非线性结构 D)有序性表既可以采用顺序存储结构，也可以采用链式存储结构 (2009年3月)支持子程序调用的数据结构是( )。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional A)栈 B)树 C)队列 D)二叉树 (2009年3月)假设一个长度为50的数组(数组元素的下标从0到49)作为栈的存储空间，栈底指针bottom指向栈底元素，栈顶指针top指向栈顶元素，如果bottom=49，top=30(数组下标)，则栈中具有【1】个元素。 (2008年9月)一个栈的初始状态为空。现将元素1、2、3、4、5、A、B、C、D、E 依次入栈，然后再依次出栈，则元素出栈的顺序是( )。 A)12345ABCDE B)EDCBA54321 C)ABCDE12345 D)54321EDCBA (2008年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)循环队列有队头和队尾两个指针，因此，循环队列是非线性结构 B)在循环队列中，只需要队头指针就能反映队列中元素的动态变化情况 C)在循环队列中，只需要队尾指针就能反映队列中元素的动态变化情况 D)循环队列中元素的个数是由队头指针和队尾指针共同决定 (2008年3月)下列关于栈的叙述正确的是( )。 A)栈按“先进先出”组织数据 B)栈按“先进后出”组织数据 C)只能在栈底插入数据 D)不能删除数据 (2008年3月)设某循环队列的容量为50，头指针front=5(指向队头元素的前一位置)，尾指针rear=29(指向队尾元素)，则该循环队列中共有【3】个元素。 (2007年4月)下列对队列的叙述正确的是( )。 A)队列属于非线性表 B)队列按“先进后出”原则组织数据 C)队列在队尾删除数据 D)队列按“先进先出”原则组织数据 (2006年9月)按“后进后出”原则组织数据的数据结构是 [4]。 (2006年9月)数据结构分为线性结构和非线性结构，带链的队列属于 [5] 。 (2006年4月)按照“后进先出”原则组织数据的数据结构是( )。 A)队列 B)栈 C)双向链表 D)二叉树 (2005年9月)下列数据结构中，能用二分法进行查找的是( )。 A)顺序存储的有序线性表 B)线性链表 C)二叉链表 D)有序线性链表 (2005年9月)下列关于栈的描述正确的是( )。 A)在栈中只能插入元素而不能删除元素 B)在栈中只能删除元素而不能插入元素 C)栈是特殊的线性表，只能在一端插入或删除元素 D)栈是特殊的线性表，只能在一端插入元素，而在另一端删除元素 (2005年4月)下列关于栈的描述中错误的是( )。 A)栈是先进后出的线性表 B)栈只能顺序存储 C)栈具有记忆作用 D)对栈的插入与删除操作中，不需要改变栈底指针 1.5线性链表 1、线性表顺序存储的缺点:(1)插入或删除的运算效率很低。在顺序存储的线性表中，插入或删除数据元素时需要移动大量的数据元素;(2)线性表的顺序存储结构下，线性表的 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 11 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 存储空间不便于扩充;(3)线性表的顺序存储结构不便于对存储空间的动态分配。 2、线性链表:线性表的链式存储结构称为线性链表，是一种物理存储单元上非连续、非顺序的存储结构，数据元素的逻辑顺序是通过链表中的指针链接来实现的。 数据结构中的每一个结点对应于一个存储单元，这种存储单元称为存储结点，简称结点。 结点由两部分组成:(1)用于存储据元素值，称为数据域;(2)用于存放指针，称为指针域，用于指向前一个或后一个结点。 在链式存储结构中，存储数据结构的存储空间可以不连续，各数据结点的存储顺序与数据元素之间的逻辑关系可以不一致，而数据元素之间的逻辑关系是由指针域来确定的。 链式存储方式即可用于表示线性结构，也可用于表示非线性结构。 线性链表分为单链表、双向链表和循环链表三种类型。 在单链表中，每一个结点只有一个指针域，由这个指针只能找到其后件结点，而不能找到其前件结点。因此，在某些应用中，对于线性链表中的每个结点设置两个指针，一个称为左指针，指向其前件结点;另一个称为右指针，指向其后件结点，这种链表称为双向链表。 线性链表，HEAD称为头指针，HEAD=NULL(或0)称为空表，如果是两指针:左指针(Llink)指向前件结点，右指针(Rlink)指向后件结点。 3、线性链表的基本运算:查找、插入、删除。 (1)在线性链表中包含指定元素的结点之前插入一个新元素。 , 在线性链表中插入元素时～不需要移动数据元素～只需要修改相关结点指针即可～ 也不会出现“上溢”现象。 (2)在线性链表中删除包含指定元素的结点。 , 在线性链表中删除元素时～也不需要移动数据元素～只需要修改相关结点指针即可。 (3)将两个线性链表按要求合并成一个线性链表。 (4)将一个线性链表按要求进行分解。 (5)逆转线性链表。 (6)复制线性链表。 (7)线性链表的排序。 (8)线性链表的查找。 , 线性链表不能随机存取。 4、循环链表及其基本运算: 在线性链表中，其插入与删除的运算虽然比较方便，但还存在一个问题，在运算过程中personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 对于空表和对第一个结点的处理必须单独考虑，使空表与非空表的运算不统一。为了克服线性链表的这个缺点，可以采用另一种链接方式，即循环链表。 与前面所讨论的线性链表相比，循环链表具有以下两个特点:1)在链表中增加了一个表头结点，其数据域为任意或者根据需要来设置，指针域指向线性表的第一个元素的结点，而循环链表的头指针指向表头结点;2)循环链表中最后一个结点的指针域不是空，而是指向表头结点。即在循环链表中，所有结点的指针构成了一个环状链。 循环链表的优点主要体现在两个方面:一是在循环链表中，只要指出表中任何一个结点的位置，就可以从它出发访问到表中其他所有的结点，而线性单链表做不到这一点;二是由于在循环链表中设置了一个表头结点，在任何情况下，循环链表中至少有一个结点存在，从而使空表与非空表的运算统一。 , 循环链表是在单链表的基础上增加了一个表头结点～其插入和删除运算与单链表相 同。但它可以从任一结点出发来访问表中其他所有结点～并实现空表与非空表的运 算的统一。 【真题练习】 (2011年9月)下列关于线性链表的叙述中，正确的是( )。 A)各数据结点的存储空间可以不连续，但它们的存储顺序与逻辑顺序必须一致 B)各数据结点的存储顺序与逻辑顺序可以不一致，但它们的存储空间必须连续 C)进行插入与删除时，不需要移动表中的元素 D)以上三种说法都不对 (2006年4月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)线性链表是线性表的链式存储结构 B)栈与队列是非线性结构 C)双向链表是非线性结构 D)只有根结点的二叉树是线性结构 (2005年4月)下列对于线性链表的描述中正确的是( )。 A)存储空间不一定是连续，且各元素的存储顺序是任意的 B)存储空间不一定是连续，且前件元素一定存储在后件元素的前面 C)存储空间必须连续，且前件元素一定存储在后件元素的前面 D)存储空间必须连续，且各元素的存储顺序是任意的 1.6树与二叉树 1、树的基本概念 树是一种简单的非线性结构，所有元素之间具有明显的层次特性。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 13 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 在树结构中，每一个结点只有一个前件，称为父结点，没有前件的结点只有一个，称为树的根结点，简称树的根。每一个结点可以有多个后件，称为该结点的子结点。没有后件的结点称为叶子结点。 在树结构中，一个结点所拥有的后件的个数称为该结点的度，所有结点中最大的度称为树的度。树的最大层次称为树的深度。(二叉树的层数) 2、二叉树及其基本性质 (1)什么是二叉树 二叉树是一种很有用的非线性结构，它具有以下两个特点:1)非空二叉树只有一个根结点;2)每一个结点最多有两棵子树，且分别称为该结点的左子树与右子树。 , 根据二叉树的概念可知～二叉树的度可以为0,叶结点,、1,只有一棵子树,或2 ,有2棵子树,。 (2)二叉树的基本性质: k-1性质1 在二叉树的第k层上，最多有2个结点; m性质2 深度为m的二叉树最多有2 -1个结点; 性质3 度为0的结点(即叶子结点)总是比度为2的结点多一个; 性质4 具有n个结点的二叉树，其深度至少为[log n]+1，其中[log n]表示取log n222的整数部分; 3、满二叉树与完全二叉树 k-1满二叉树是指除最后一层外，每一层上的所有结点有两个子结点，则k层上有2 个 m结点，深度为m的满二叉树有2 -1个结点。 , 根据完全二叉树的定义可得出:度为1的结点的个数为0或1。 完全二叉树是指除最后一层外，每一层上的结点数均达到最大值，在最后一层上只缺少右边的若干结点。 性质5 具有n个结点的完全二叉树的深度为[log n]+1; 2 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 性质6 设完全二叉树共有n个结点。如果从根结点开始，按层序(每一层从左到右)用自然数1，2，„„n给结点进行编号(k=1,2„„n)，有以下结论: ?若k=1,则结点为根结点，它没有父结点;若k>1,则该结点的父结点编号为INT(k/2); ?若2k n,则编号为k的结点左子编号为2k;否则该结点无左子结点(也无右子结点); ?若2k+1 n,则编号为k的结点的右子结点编号为2k+1;否则该结点无右子结点。 4、二叉树的存储结构 在计算机中，二叉树通常采用链式存储结构。 与线性链表类似，用于存储二叉树中各元素的存储结点也由两部分组成:数据域和指针域。但在二叉树中，由于每一个元素可以有两个后件(即两个子结点)，因此，用于存储二叉树的存储结点的指针域有两个:一个用于指向该结点的左子结点的存储地址，称为左指针域;另一个用于指向该结点的右子结点的存储地址，称为右指针域。 , 二叉树存储结构采用链式存储结构～对于满二叉树与完全二叉树可以按层序进行顺 序存储。 、二叉树的遍历:指不重复地访问二叉树中的所有结点。 5 (1)前序遍历(DLR)，首先访问根结点，然后遍历左子树，最后遍历右子树; (2)中序遍历(LDR)，首先遍历左子树，然后访问根结点，最后遍历右子树; (3)后序遍历(LRD)，首先遍历左子树，然后访问遍历右子树，最后访问根结点。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)一棵二叉树共有25个节点，其中5个时子节点，那么度为1的节点数为( )。 A、4 B、6 C、10 D、16 (2011年9月)下列关于二叉树的叙述中，正确的是( )。 A.叶子结点总是比度为2的结点少一个 B.叶子结点总是比度为2的结点多一个 C.叶子结点数是度为2的结点数的两倍 D.度为2的结点数是度为1的结点数的两倍 (2011年9月)某系统总体结构图如下图所示: 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 15 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional XY系统 功能1 功能2 功能3 功能2.1 功能2.2 功能2.3 该系统总体结构图的深度是 A.7 B.6 C.3 D.2 (2009年9月)在深度为7 的满二叉树中，度为2 的结点个数为【1】。 (2010年3月)设二叉树如下: A B C D F E G H 对该二叉树进行后序遍历的结果为【,】。 (2009年3月)某二叉树有5个度为2的结点，则该二叉树中的叶子结点数是( )。 A)10 B)8 C)6 D)4 (2008年9月)对下列二叉树进行中序遍历的结果 【1】 。 A B C D E F X Y Z Y (2008年4月)深度为5的满二叉树有【2】个叶子结点。 (2007年9月)一棵二叉树中共有70个叶子结点与80个度为1的结点，则该二叉树 中的总结点数为( )。A)219 B)221 C)229 D)231 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (2007年9月)对下列二叉树进行中序遍历的结果为[4]。 F C E A D G B H P (2007年4月)下列二叉树进行前序遍历的结果为( )。 A B C D E F Y X Z A)DYBEAFCZX B)YDEBFZXCA C)ABDYECFXZ D)ABCDEFXYZ (2007年4月)某二叉树中有n 个度为2 的结点，则该二叉树中的叶子结点数为( )。 A)n+1 B)n-1 C)2n D)n/2 (2007年4月)在深度为7 的满二叉树中，度为2 的结点个数为【1】。 A B C D E G F (2006年9月)对下列二叉树:、 进行中序遍历的结果是______。 A)ACBDFEG B)ACBDFGE C)ABDCGEF D)FCADBEG 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 17 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional F E D B C A (2005年9月)对如下二叉树 进行后序遍历的结果为( )。 A)ABCDEF B)DBEAFC C)ABDECF D)DEBFCA (2005年9月)在深度为7 的满二叉树中，叶子结点的个数为( )。 A)32 B)31 C)64 D)63 (2005年9月)一棵二叉树第六层(根结点为第一层)的结点数最多为【4】个。 (2005年4月)某二叉树中度为2 的结点有18 个，则该二叉树中有【1】个叶子结点。 1.7查找技术 查找:根据给定的某个值，在查找表中确定一个其关键字等于给定值的数据元素。 查找结果:(查找成功:找到;查找不成功:没找到。) 平均查找长度:查找过程中关键字和给定值比较的平均次数。 1、顺序查找 基本思想:从表中的第一个元素开始，将给定的值与表中逐个元素的关键字进行比较，直到两者相符，查到所要找的元素为止。否则就是表中没有要找的元素，查找不成功。 在平均情况下，利用顺序查找法在线性表中查找一个元素，大约要与线性表中一半的元素进行比较，最坏情况下需要比较n次。 顺序查找一个具有n个元素的线性表，其平均复杂度为O(n)。 下列两种情况下只能采用顺序查找: 1)如果线性表是无序表(即表中的元素是无序的)，则不管是顺序存储结构还是链式存储结构，都只能用顺序查找。 2)即使是有序线性表，如果采用链式存储结构，也只能用顺序查找。 2、二分法查找 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 思想:先确定待查找记录所在的范围，然后逐步缩小范围，直到找到或确认找不到该记录为止。 前提:必须在具有顺序存储结构的有序表中进行。 查找过程: 1)若中间项的值等于x，则说明已查到; 2)若x小于中间项的值，则在线性表的前半部分查找; 3)若x大于中间项的值，则在线性表的后半部分查找。 特点:比顺序查找方法效率高。最坏的情况下，需要比较logn次。 2 , 二分法查找只适用于顺序存储的线性表～且表中元素必须按关键字有序,升序～但 允许相邻元素值相等,排列。对于无序线性表和线性表的链式存储结构只能用顺序 查找。在长度为n的有序线性表中进行二分法查找～其时间复杂度为O,logn,。 2 【真题练习】 (2010年3月)下列叙述中正确的是______。 A)对长度为,的有序链表进行查找，最坏情况下需要的比较次数为, B)对长度为,的有序链表进行对分查找，最坏情况下需要的比较次数为(n/2) C)对长度为,的有序链表进行对分查找，最坏情况下需要的比较次数为(logn) 2 D)对长度为,的有序链表进行对分查找，最坏情况下需要的比较次数为(logn) 2 (2008年9月)在长度为n 的有序线性表中进行二分查找，最坏情况下需要比较的次 2数是( )。A)O(n) B)O(n) C)O(logn) D)O(nlogn) 22 (2006年9月)在长为64 的有序线性表中进行顺序查找，最坏情况下需要比较的次数为______。A)63 B)64 C)6 D)7 (2005年4月)对于长度为n 的线性表进行顺序查找，在最坏情况下所需要的比较次数为( )。A)logn B)n/2 C)n D)n+1 2 1.8排序技术 排序是指将一个无序序列整理成按值的有序表，对于长度为n的有序线性表，最坏情况只需比较n次。 交换类排序法:(1)冒泡排序法，需要比较的次数为n(n-1)/2;(2)快速排序法。 插入类排序法:(1)简单插入排序法，最坏情况需要n(n-1)/2次比较;(2)希尔排序法，最坏情况需要O(n )次比较。 选择类排序法:(1)简单选择排序法，最坏情况需要n(n-1)/2次比较;(2)堆排序法，最坏情况需要O(nlog n)次比较。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 19 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 【真题练习】 (2009年3月)下列排序方法中，最坏情况下比较次数最少的是______。 A)冒泡排序 B)简单选择排序 C)直接插入排序 D)堆排序 (2008年3月)对长度为n的线性表排序，在最坏情况下，比较次数不是n(n-1)/2的排序方法是( )。 A)快速排序 B)冒泡排序 C)直接插入排序 D)堆排序 (2007年9月)冒泡排序在最坏情况下的比较次数是( )。 A)n(n+1)/2 B)nlogn C)n(n-1)/2 D)n/2 2 (2006年4月)对长度为10 的线性表进行冒泡排序，最坏情况下需要比较的次数为 【1】 。 (2005年9月)对于长度为n 的线性表，在最坏情况下，下列各排序法所对应的比较次数中正确的是( )。 A)冒泡排序n/2 B)冒泡排序为n C)快速排序为n D)快速排序为n(n-1)/2 本章应考点拨:本章内容在笔试中会出现5-6个题目，是公共基础知识部分出题量比较多的一章，所占分值也比较大，约10分。 第二章 程序设计基础 2.1程序设计设计方法和风格 程序设计的风格主要强调:“清晰第一，效率第二”。主要应注重和考虑下述一些因素: (1)源程序文档化 1)符号名的命名。符号名能反映它所代表的实际东西，应有一定的实际含义。 2)程序的注释。分为序言性注释和功能性注释。 序言性注释:位于程序开头部分，包括程序标题、程序功能说明、主要算法、接口 说明、程序位置、开发简历、程序设计者、复审者、复审日期及修改日期等。 功能性注释:嵌在源程序体之中，用于描述其后的语句或程序的主要功能。 3)视觉组织。利用空格、空行、缩进等技巧使程序层次清晰。 (2)数据说明 1)数据说明的次序规范化;2)说明语句中变量安排有序化;3)使用注释来说明复杂数据的结构。 (3)语句的结构。1)在一行内只写一条语句;2)程序编写应优先考虑清晰性;3)程序编写要做到清晰第一，效率第二;4)在保证程序正确的基础上再要求提高效率;5)避免使用临时变量而使程序的可读性下降;6)避免不必要的转移;7)尽量使用库函数;8)避免采用复杂的条件语句;9)尽量减少使用“否定”条件语句;10)数据结构要有利于程序personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 的简化;11)要模块化，使模块功能尽可能单一化;12)利用信息隐蔽，确保每一个模块的独立性;13)从数据出发去构造程序;14)不要修补不好的程序，要重新编写。 (4)输入和输出。1)对输入数据检验数据的合法性;2)检查输入项的各种重要组合的合法性;3)输入格式要简单，使得输入的步骤和操作尽可能简单;4)输入数据时，应允 )应允许缺省值;6)输入一批数据时，最好使用输入结束标志;7)在许使用自由格式;5 以交互式输入/输出方式进行输入时，要在屏幕上使用提示符明确提示输入的请求，同时在数据输入过程中和输入结束时，应在屏幕上给出状态信息;8)当程序设计语言对输入格式有严格要求时，应保持输入格式与输入语句的一致性;给所有的输出加注释，并设计输出报表格式。 【真题练习】 (2011年9月)常见的软件开发方法有结构化方法和面向对象方法，对某应用系统经过需求分析建立数据流图(DFD)，则应采用 【3】 方法。 (2007年9月)下列叙述中，不符合良好程序设计风格的是( )。 A)程序的效率第一，清晰第二 B)程序的可读性好 C)程序中有必要的注释 D)输入数据前要有提示信息 (2007年9月)下列选项中不符合良好程序设计风格的是( )。 A)源程序要文档化 B)数据说明的次序要规范化 C)避免滥用goto 语句 D)模块设计要保证高耦合、高内聚 (2006年9月)下列选项中不符合良好程序设计风格的是______。 A)源程序要文档化 B)数据说明的次序要规范化 C)避免滥用goto语句 D)模块设计要保证高耦合，高内聚 (2006年9月)以下叙述中正确的是______。 A)程序设计的任务就是编写程序代码并上机调试 B)程序设计的任务就是确定所用数据结构 C)程序设计的任务就是确定所用算法 D)以上三种说法都不完整 2.2结构化程序设计(面向过程的程序设计方法) 1、结构化程序设计方法的四条原则是:1、自顶向下;2、逐步求精;3、模块化; 4、限制使用goto语句。 (1)自顶向下。程序设计时，应先考虑总体，后考虑细节;先考虑全局目标，后考虑局部目标。不要一开始就过多追求众多的细节，先从最上层总目标开始设计，逐步使问题具 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 21 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 体化。 (2)逐步求精。对复杂问题，应设计一些子目标作过渡，逐步细化。 (3)模块化。一个复杂问题，肯定是由若干稍简单的问题构成。模块化是把程序要解决的总目标分解为分目标，再进一步分解为具体的小目标，把每个小目标称为一个模块。 (4)限制使用goto语句。 2、结构化程序的基本结构:顺序结构，选择结构，重复结构。 (1)顺序结构:一种简单的程序设计，即按照程序语句行的自然顺序，一条语句一条语句地执行程序，它是最基本、最常用的结构; (2)选择结构:又称分支结构，包括简单选择和多分支选择结构，可根据条件，判断应该选择哪一条分支来执行相应的语句序列; (3)重复结构:又称循环结构，可根据给定条件，判断是否需要重复执行某一相同程序段。 仅仅使用顺序、选择和循环三种基本控制结构就足以表达各种其他形式结构，从而实现任何单入口/单出口的程序。 【真题练习】 (2009年9月)下列选项中不属于结构化程序设计原则的是( )。 A) 可封装 D) 自顶向下 C) 模块化 D) 逐步求精 (2009年3月)符合结构化原则的三种基本控制结构是:选择结构、循环结构和【3】。 (2008年4月)结构化程序设计的基本原则不包括( )。 A)多态性 B)自顶向下 C)模块化 D)逐步求精 (2006年4月)下列选项中不属于结构化程序设计方法的是( )。 A)自顶向下 B)逐步求精 C)模块化 D)可复用 2.3面向对象的程序设计 面向对象的程序设计:以60年代末挪威奥斯陆大学和挪威计算机中心研制的simula语言为标志。客观世界中任何一个事物都可以被看成是一个对象，面向对象方法的本质就是主张从客观世界固有的事物出发来构造系统，提倡人们在现实生活中常用的思维来认识、理解和描述客观事物，强调最终建立的系统能够映射问题域。也就是说，系统中的对象及对象之间的关系能够如实地反映问题域中固有的事物及其关系。 面向对象方法的优点:(1)与人类习惯的思维方法一致; (2)稳定性好; (3)可重用性好; (4)易于开发大型软件产品; (5)可维护性好。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional , 面向对象的程序设计主要考虑的是提高软件的可重用性。 对象是面向对象方法中最基本的概念，可以用来表示客观世界中的任何实体，对象是实体的抽象。 面向对象的程序设计方法中的对象是系统中用来描述客观事物的一个实体，是构成系统的一个基本单位，由一组表示其静态特征的属性和它可执行的一组操作组成。 , 对象是属性和方法的封装体。 属性即对象包含的信息，操作描述了对象执行的功能，操作也称为方法或服务。 , 操作是对象的动态属性。 , 一个对象由对象名、属性和操作三部分组成。 对象的基本的特点:标识惟一性，分类性，多态性，封装性，模块独立性好。 (1)标识惟一性。指对象是可区分的，并且由对象的内在本质来区分，而不是通过描述来区分。 (2)分类性。指可以将具有相同属性的操作的对象抽象成类。 (3)多态性。指同一个操作可以是不同对象的行为。 (4)封装性。从外面看只能看到对象的外部特性，即只需知道数据的取值范围和可以对该数据施加的操作，根本无需知道数据的具体结构以及实现操作的算法。对象的内部，即处理能力的实行和内部状态，对外是不可见的。从外面不能直接使用对象的处理能力，也不能直接修改其内部状态，对象的内部状态只能由其自身改变。 , 信息隐蔽是通过对象的封装性来实现的。 (5)模块独立性好。对象是面向对象的软件的基本模块，它是由数据及可以对这些数据施加的操作所组成的统一体，而且对象是以数据为中心的，操作围绕对其数据所需做的处理来设置，没有无关的操作。从模块的独立性考虑，对象内部各种元素彼此结合得很紧密，内聚性强。 类是指具有共同属性、共同方法的对象的集合。所以类是对象的抽象，对象是对应类的一个实例。 消息是一个实例与另一个实例之间传递的信息。 消息的组成包括(1)接收消息的对象的名称;(2)消息标识符，也称消息名;(3)零个或多个参数。 , 在面向对象方法中～一个对象请求另一个对象为其服务的方式是通过发送消息。 继承是指能够直接获得已有的性质和特征，而不必重复定义他们。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 23 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 继承分单继承和多重继承。单继承指一个类只允许有一个父类，多重继承指一个类允许有多个父类。 , 类的继承性是类之间共享属性和操作的机制～它提高了软件的可重用性。 多态性是指同样的消息被不同的对象接受时可导致完全不同的行动的现象。 【真题练习】 (2011年9月)下列选项中属于面向对象设计方法主要特征的是 A.继承 B.自顶向下 C.模块化 D.逐步求精 (2008年9月)在面向对象方法中，不属于“对象”基本特点的是( )。 A)一致性 B)分类性 C)多态性 D)标识唯一性 (2007年9月)在面向对象方法中，实现信息隐蔽是依靠( )。 A)对象的继承 B)对象的多态 C)对象的封装 D)对象的分类 (2007年4月)下列选项中不属于面向对象程序设计特征的是( )。 A)继承性 B)多态性 C)类比性 D)封装性 (2006年4月)在面向对象方法中， 【2】 描述的是具有相似属性与操作的一组对象。 (2005年4月)在面向对象方法中，类的实例称为【2】。 本章应考点拨:本章在考试中会出现约1个题目，所占分值大约占2分，是出题量较小的一章。本章内容比较少，也很简单，掌握住基本的概念就可以轻松应对考试了，所以在这部分丢分，比较可惜。 第三章 软件工程基础 3.1 软件工程基本概念 1、软件的相关概念 计算机软件是包括程序、数据及相关文档的完整集合。 软件的特点包括: (1)软件是一种逻辑实体; (2)软件的生产与硬件不同，它没有明显的制作过程; (3)软件在运行、使用期间不存在磨损、老化问题; (4)软件的开发、运行对计算机系统具有依赖性，受计算机系统的限制，这导致了软件移植的问题; (5)软件复杂性高，成本昂贵; (6)软件开发涉及诸多的社会因素。 软件按功能分为应用软件、系统软件、支撑软件(或工具软件)。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 2、软件危机与软件工程 软件工程概念的出现源自软件危机。所谓软件危机是泛指在计算机软件的开发和维护过程中所遇到的一系列严重问题。具体的说，在软件开发和维护过程中，软件危机主要表现在: 1)软件需求的增长得不到满足。用户对系统不满意的情况经常发生。 )软件开发成本和进度无法控制。开发成本超出预算，开发周期大大超过规定日期的2 情况经常发生。 3)软件质量难以保证。 4)软件不可维护或维护程度非常低。 5)软件的成本不断提高。 6)软件开发生产率的提高跟不上硬件的发展和应用需求的增长。 总之，可以将软件危机可以归结为成本、质量、生产率等问题。 软件工程是应用于计算机软件的定义、开发和维护的一整套方法、工具、文档、实践 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 和工序。 软件工程的目的就是要建造一个优良的软件系统，它所包含的内容概括为以下两点: 1)软件开发技术，主要有软件开发方法学、软件工具、软件工程环境。 2)软件工程管理，主要有软件管理、软件工程经济学。 软件工程的主要思想是将工程化原则运用到软件开发过程，它包括3个要素:方法、工具和过程。方法是完成软件工程项目的技术手段;工具是支持软件的开发、管理、文档生成;过程支持软件开发的各个环节的控制、管理。 软件工程过程是把输入转化为输出的一组彼此相关的资源和活动。 3、软件生命周期 软件生命周期:软件产品从提出、实现、使用维护到停止使用退役的过程。 软件生命周期分为软件定义、软件开发及软件运行维护三个阶段: 1)软件定义阶段:包括制定 计划 项目进度计划表范例计划下载计划下载计划下载课程教学计划下载 和需求分析。 制定计划:确定总目标;可行性研究;探讨解决方案;制定开发计划。 需求分析:对待开发软件提出的需求进行分析并给出详细的定义。 2)软件开发阶段: 软件设计:分为概要设计和详细设计两个部分。 软件实现:把软件设计转换成计算机可以接受的程序代码。 软件测试:在设计测试用例的基础上检验软件的各个组成部分。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 25 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 3)软件运行维护阶段:软件投入运行，并在使用中不断地维护，进行必要的扩充和删改。 , 软件生命周期中所花费最多的阶段是软件运行维护阶段。 4、软件工程的目标与原则 1)软件工程目标:在给定成本、进度的前提下，开发出具有有效性、可靠性、可理( 解性、可维护性、可重用性、可适应性、可移植性、可追踪性和可互操作性且满足用户需求的产品。 (2)软件工程需要达到的基本目标应是:付出较低的开发成本;达到要求的软件功能;取得较好的软件性能;开发的软件易于移植;需要较低的维护费用;能按时完成开发，及时交付使用。 (3)软件工程原则:抽象、信息隐蔽、模块化、局部化、确定性、一致性、完备性和可验证性。 1)抽象:抽象是事物最基本的特性和行为，忽略非本质细节，采用分层次抽象，自顶向下，逐层细化的办法控制软件开发过程的复杂性。 2)信息隐蔽:采用封装技术，将程序模块的实现细节隐蔽起来，使模块接口尽量简单。 3)模块化:模块是程序中相对独立的成分，一个独立的编程单位，应有良好的接口定义。模块的大小要适中，模块过大会使模块内部的复杂性增加，不利于模块的理解和修改，也不利于模块的调试和重用;模块太小会导致整个系统表示过于复杂，不利于控制系统的复杂性。 4)局部化:保证模块间具有松散的耦合关系，模块内部有较强的内聚性。 5)确定性:软件开发过程中所有概念的表达应是确定、无歧义且规范的。 6)一致性:程序内外部接口应保持一致，系统规格说明与系统行为应保持一致。 7)完备性:软件系统不丢失任何重要成分，完全实现系统所需的功能。 8)可验证性:应遵循容易检查、测评、评审的原则，以确保系统的正确性。 5、软件开发工具与软件开发环境 (1)软件开发工具 软件开发工具的完善和发展将促使软件开发方法的进步和完善，促进软件开发的高速度和高质量。软件开发工具的发展是从单项工具的开发逐步向集成工具发展的，软件开发工具为软件工程方法提供了自动的或半自动的软件支撑环境。同时，软件开发方法的有效应用也必须得到相应工具的支持，否则方法将难以有效的实施。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (2)软件开发环境 软件开发环境(或称软件工程环境)是全面支持软件开发全过程的软件工具集合。 计算机辅助软件工程(CASE，Computer Aided Software Engineering)将各种软件工具、开发机器和一个存放开发过程信息的中心数据库组合起来，形成软件工程环境。它将极大降低软件开发的技术难度并保证软件开发的质量。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)软件生命周期中的活动不包括 A、软件维护 B、市场调研 C、软件测试 D、需求分析 (2012年3月)常见的软件工程方法有结构化方法和面向对象方法，类、继承以及多态性等概念属于( )。 (2011年9月)软件按功能可以分为应用软件、系统软件和支撑软件(或工具软件)。下面属于应用软件的是( )。 A.学生成绩管理系统 B.C语言编译程序 C.UNIX操作系统 D.数据库管理系统 (2010年3月)软件按功能可以分为:应用软件、系统软件和支撑软件(或工具软件)。下面属于系统软件的是( )。A)编辑软件 B)操作系统 C)教务管理系统 D)浏览器 (2010年3月)软件生命周期可分为定义阶段，开发阶段和维护阶段。详细设计属于( )。A)定义阶段 B)开发阶段 C)维护阶段 D)上述三个阶段 (2010年3月)软件是【,】数据和文档的集合。 (2009年9月)软件设计中划分模块的一个准则是( )。 A) 低内聚低耦合 B) 高内聚低耦合 C) 低内聚高耦合 D) 高内聚高耦合 (2009年9月)软件生命周期可分为多个阶段，一般分为定义阶段、开发阶段和维护阶段。编码和测试属于【4】阶段。 (2009年3月)软件按功能可以分为:应用软件、系统软件和支撑软件(或工具软件)。下面属于应用软件的是( )。A)编译软件 B)操作系统 C)教务管理系统 D)汇编程序 (2008年9月)在软件开发中，需求分析阶段可以使用的工具是( )。 A)N-S 图 B)DFD 图 C)PAD 图 D)程序流程图 (2008年9月)软件工程三要素包括方法、工具和过程，其中，【3】支持软件开发的各个环节的控制和管理。 (2008年4月)软件设计中模块划分应遵循的准则是( )。 A)低内聚低耦合 B)高内聚低耦合 C)低内聚高耦合 D)高内聚高耦合 (2008年4月)在软件开发中，需求分析阶段产生的主要文档是( )。 A)可行性分析报告 B)软件需求规格说明书 C)概要设计说明书 D)集成测试计划 (2008年4月)软件是指( )。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 27 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional A)程序 B)程序和文档C)算法加数据结构 D)程序、数据和相关文档的集合 (2007年4月)软件生命周期可分为多个阶段，一般分为定义阶段、开发阶段和维护阶段。编码和测试属于【4】阶段。 (2006年9月)从工程管理角度，软件设计一般分为两步完成，它们是( )。 A)概要设计与详细设计 B)数据设计与接口设计 C)软件结构设计与数据设计 D)过程设计与数据设计 (2006年9月)下列选项中不属于软件生命周期开发阶段任务的是( )。 A)软件测试 B)概要设计 C)软件维护 D)详细设计 (2006年9月)从工程管理角度，软件设计一般分为两个或两个以上模块之间关联的紧密程度称为( )。A)耦合度 B)内聚度 C)复杂度 D)数据传输特性 (2005年9月)下列描述中正确的是( )。 A)软件工程只是解决软件项目的管理问题 B)软件工程主要解决软件产品的生产率问题 C)软件工程的主要思想是强调在软件开发过程中需要应用工程化原则 D)软件工程只是解决软件开发中的技术问题 (2005年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)软件交付使用后还需要再进行维护 B)软件工具交付使用就不需要再进行维护 C)软件交付使用后其生命周期就结束 D)软件维护是指修复程序中被破坏的指令 (2005年9月)在进行模块测试时，要为每个被测试的模块另外设计两类模块:驱动模块和承接模块(桩模块)。其中【3】的作用是将测试数据传送给被测试的模块，并显示被测试模块所产生的结果。 (2005年4月)下列描述中正确的是( )。 A)程序就是软件 B)软件开发不受计算机系统的限制 C)软件既是逻辑实体，又是物理实体 D)软件是程序、数据与相关文档的集合 3.2 结构化分析方法 结构化方法的核心和基础是结构化程序设计理论。 1、需求分析 需求分析方法有(1)结构化需求分析方法;(2)面向对象的分析的方法。 , 需求分析的任务就是导出目标系统的逻辑模型～解决“做什么”的问题。 , 需求分析一般分为需求获取、需求分析、编写需求规格说明书和需求评审四个步骤 进行。 从需求分析建立的模型的特性来分:静态分析和动态分析。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 2、结构化分析方法 结构化分析方法是结构化程序设计理论在软件需求分析阶段的应用。 结构化分析方法的实质:着眼于数据流，自顶向下，逐层分解，建立系统的处理流程，以数据流图和数据字典为主要工具,建立系统的逻辑模型。 结构化分析的常用工具:1)数据流图(DFD);2)数据字典(DD);3)判定树;4)判定表。 数据流图以图形的方式描绘数据在系统中流动和处理的过程，它反映了系统必须完成的逻辑功能，是结构化分析方法中用于表示系统逻辑模型的一种工具。 数据流图的基本图形元素: 加工(转换):输入数据经加工变换产生输出。 数据流:沿箭头方向传送数据的通道，一般在旁边标注数据流名。 存储文件(数据源):表示处理过程中存放各种数据的文件。 源，潭:表示系统和环境的接口，属系统之外的实体。 自外向内，自顶向下，逐层细化，完善求精。 画数据流图的基本步骤: 数据字典:对所有与系统相关的数据元素的一个有组织的列表，以及精确的、严格的定义，使得用户和系统分析员对于输入、输出、存储成分和中间计算结果有共同的理解。 , 数据字典的作用是对数据流图中出现的被命名的图形元素的确切解释。 , 数据字典是结构化分析方法的核心。 判定树:从问题定义的文字描述中分清哪些是判定的条件，哪些是判定的结论，根据描 述材料中的连接词找出判定条件之间的从属关系、并列关系、选择关系，根据它们构造 判定树。 判定表:与判定树相似，当数据流图中的加工要依赖于多个逻辑条件的取值，即完成该加工的一组动作是由于某一组条件取值的组合而引发的，使用判定表描述比较适宜。 3、软件需求规格说明书(SRS) 软件需求规格说明书是需求分析阶段的最后成果，通过建立完整的信息描述、详细的功能和行为描述、性能需求和设计约束的说明、合适的验收标准，给出对目标软件的各种需求。 软件需求规格说明书的特点: (1)正确性; (2)无歧义性; (3)完整性; 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 29 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (4)可验证性; (5)一致性; (6)可理解性; (7)可追踪性。 其中最重要的特点是无歧义性。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)下面不属于需求分析阶段任务的是 A、确定软件系统的功能需求 B、确定软件系统的系统的系能需求 B、制定软件集成测试计划 D、需求规格说明书审评 (2010年3月)数据流程图(DFD图)是( )。 A)软件概要设计的工具 B)软件详细设计的工具 C)结构化方法的需求分析工具 D)面向对象方法的需求分析工具 (2009年9月)在结构化分析使用的数据流图(DFD)中，利用【5】对其中的图形元素进行确切解释。 (2008年9月)数据流图中带有箭头的线段表示的是( )。 A)控制流 B)事件驱动 C)模块调用 D)数据流 (2007年9月)软件需求规格说明书应具有完整性、无歧义性、正确性、可验证性、可修改性等特性，其中最重要的[1]。 (2007年9月)在结构化分析使用的数据流图(DFD)中，利用【5】对其中的图形元素进行确切解释。 3.3 结构化设计方法 1、软件设计的基础 , 需求分析主要解决“做什么”的问题～而软件设计主要解决“怎么做”的问题。 软件设计的基本目标是用比较抽象概括的方式确定目标系统如何完成预定的任务，软件设计是确定系统的物理模型。 软件设计是开发阶段最重要的步骤，是将需求准确地转化为完整的软件产品或系统的唯一途径。 从技术观点来看，软件设计包括软件结构设计、数据设计、接口设计、过程设计。 结构设计:定义软件系统各主要部件之间的关系。 数据设计:将分析时创建的模型转化为数据结构的定义。 接口设计:描述软件内部、软件和协作系统之间以及软件与人之间如何通信。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 过程设计:把系统结构部件转换成软件的过程描述。 从工程管理角度来看:概要设计和详细设计。 概要设计:又称结构设计，将软件需求转化为软件体系结构，确定系统级接口、全局数据结构或数据库模式。 详细设计:确定每个模块的实现算法和局部数据结构，用适当方法表示算法和数据结构的细节。 软件设计的基本原理包括:抽象、模块化、信息隐蔽和模块独立性。 1)抽象。抽象是一种思维工具，就是把事物本质的共同特性提取出来而不考虑其他细节。 2)模块化。解决一个复杂问题时自顶向下逐步把软件系统划分成一个个较小的、相对独立但又不相互关联的模块的过程。 3)信息隐蔽。每个模块的实施细节对于其他模块来说是隐蔽的。 4)模块独立性。软件系统中每个模块只涉及软件要求的具体的子功能，而和软件系统中其他的模块的接口是简单的。 , 模块分解的主要指导思想是信息隐蔽和模块独立性。 模块的耦合性和内聚性是衡量软件的模块独立性的两个定性指标。在结构化程序设计中，模块划分的原则是:模块内具有高内聚度，模块间具有低耦合度。 内聚性:是一个模块内部各个元素间彼此结合的紧密程度的度量。 , 按内聚性由弱到强排列～内聚可以分为以下几种:偶然内聚、逻辑内聚、时间内聚、 过程内聚、通信内聚、顺序内聚及功能内聚。 耦合性:是模块间互相连接的紧密程度的度量。 , 按耦合性由高到低排列～耦合可以分为以下几种:内容耦合、公共耦合、外部耦合、 控制耦合、标记耦合、数据耦合以及非直接耦合。 衡量软件模块独立性使用耦合性和内聚性两个定性的度量标准。一个设计良好的软件系统应具有高内聚、低耦合的特征。在程序结构中各模块的内聚性越强，则耦合性越弱。优秀软件应高内聚，低耦合。 2、总体设计(概要设计)和详细设计 软件设计的一般过程:软件设计是一个迭代的过程;先进行高层次的结构设计;后进行低层次的过程设计;穿插进行数据设计和接口设计。 (1)总体设计(概要设计) 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 31 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 软件概要设计的基本任务是:1)设计软件系统结构;2)数据结构及数据库设计;3)编写概要设计文档;4)概要设计文档评审。 常用的软件结构设计工具是结构图，也称程序结构图。程序结构图的基本图符。 模块用一个矩形表示，箭头表示模块间的调用关系。在结构图中还可以用带注释的箭头表示模块调用过程中来回传递的信息。还可用带实心圆的箭头表示传递的是控制信息，空心圆箭心表示传递的是数据。 结构图的基本形式:基本形式、顺序形式、重复形式、选择形式。 结构图有四种模块类型:传入模块、传出模块、变换模块和协调模块。 , 传入模块:从下属模块取得数据，经处理再将其传送给上级模块。 , 传出模块:从上级模块取得数据，经处理再将其传送给下属模块。 , 变换模块:从上级模块取得数据，进行特定的处理，转换成其他形式，再传送给上 级模块。 , 协调模块:对所有下属模块进行协调和管理的模块。 程序结构图的有关术语列举如下: , 深度:表示控制的层数。 , 上级模块、从属模块:上、下两层模块a和b，且有a调用b，则a是上级模块，b 是从属模块。 , 宽度:整体控制跨度(最大模块数的层)的表示。 , 扇入:调用一个给定模块的模块个数。 , 扇出:一个模块直接调用的其他模块数。 , 原子模块:树中位于叶子结点的模块。 面向数据流的设计方法定义了一些不同的映射方法，利用这些方法可以把数据流图变换成结构图表示软件的结构。 典型的数据流类型有两种:变换型和事务型。 , 变换型系统结构图由输入、中心变换、输出三部分组成。 , 事务型数据流的特点是:接受一项事务，根据事务处理的特点和性质，选择分派一 个适当的处理单元，然后给出结果。 (2)详细设计 详细设计:是为软件结构图中的每一个模块确定实现算法和局部数据结构，用某种选定的表达工具表示算法和数据结构的细节。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional , 详细设计的任务是确定实现算法和局部数据结构～不同于编码或编程。 常见的过程设计工具有: , 图形工具:程序流程图、N-S(方盒图)、PAD(问题分析图)和HIPO(层次图+ 输入/处理/输出图)。 , 表格工具:判定表。 , 语言工具:PDL(伪码) 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)在软件设计中不使用的工具是 A、系统结构图 B、程序流程图 C、PAD图 D、数据流图(DFD 图) (2009年9月)软件详细设计产生的图如下: 该图是( )。A) N-S图 B) PAD图 C) 程序流程图 D) E-R图 (2009年4月)耦合性和内聚性是对模块独立性度量的两个标准。下列叙述中正确的 是( )。 A)提高耦合性降低内聚性有利于提高模块的独立性 B)降低耦合性提高内聚性有利于提高模块的独立性 C)耦合性是指一个模块内部各个元素间彼此结合的紧密程度 D)内聚性是指模块间互相连接的紧密程度 (2008年4月)程序流程图中指有箭头的线段表示的是( )。 A)图元关系 B)数据流 C)控制流 D)调用关系 (2007年4月)在结构化程序设计中，模块划分的原则是( )。 A)各模块应包括尽量多的功能 B)各模块的规模应尽量大 C)各模块之间的联系应尽量紧密 D)模块内具有高内聚度、模块间具有低耦合度 (2006年9月)下列软件系统结构图的宽度为 [1]。 (2005年9月)在软件设计中，不属于过程设计工具的是( )。 A)PDL(过程设计语言) B)PAD 图 C)N-S 图 D)DFD 图 (2005年4月)为了使模块尽可能独立，要求( )。 A)模块的内聚程度要尽量高，且各模块间的耦合程度要尽量强 B)模块的内聚程度要尽量高，且各模块间的耦合程度要尽量弱 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 33 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional C)模块的内聚程度要尽量低，且各模块间的耦合程度要尽量弱 D)模块的内聚程度要尽量低，且各模块间的耦合程度要尽量强 3.4 软件测试 1、软件测试定义:使用人工或自动手段来运行或测定某个系统的过程，其目的在于检验它是否满足规定的需求或是弄清预期结果与实际结果之间的差别。 , 软件测试的目的:发现错误而执行程序的过程。尽可能地多发现程序中的错误～不 能也不可能证明程序没有错误。软件测试的关键是设计测试用例～一个好的测试用 例能找到迄今为止尚未发现的错误。 2、软件测试方法:静态测试和动态测试。 静态测试包括代码检查、静态结构分析、代码质量度量。不实际运行软件，主要通过人工进行。 动态测试:是基本计算机的测试，主要包括白盒测试方法和黑盒测试方法。 (1)白盒测试:在程序内部进行，主要用于完成软件内部操作的验证。主要方法有逻辑覆盖、基本基路径测试。 白盒测试的基本原则:保证所测模块中每一独立路径至少执行一次;保证所测模块所有判断的每一分支至少执行一次;保证所测模块每一循环都在边界条件和一般条件下至少各执行一次;验证所有内部数据结构的有效性。 , 白盒测试法的测试用例是根据程序的内部逻辑来设计的～主要用软件的单元测试～ 主要方法有逻辑覆盖、基本路径测试等。 A、逻辑覆盖。逻辑覆盖泛指一系列以程序内部的逻辑结构为基础的测试用例设计技术。通常程序中的逻辑表示有判断、分支、条件等几种表示方法。 语句覆盖:选择足够的测试用例，使得程序中每一个语句至少都能被执行一次。 路径覆盖:执行足够的测试用例，使程序中所有的可能的路径都至少经历一次。 判定覆盖:使设计的测试用例保证程序中每个判断的每个取值分支(T或F)至少经历一次。 条件覆盖:设计的测试用例保证程序中每个判断的每个条件的可能取值至少执行一次。 判断-条件覆盖:设计足够的测试用例，使判断中每个条件的所有可能取值至少执行一次，同时每个判断的所有可能取值分支至少执行一次。 , 逻辑覆盖的强度依次是:语句覆盖<路径覆盖<判定覆盖<条件覆盖<判断-条件覆盖。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (2)黑盒测试:主要诊断功能不对或遗漏、界面错误、数据结构或外部数据库访问错误、性能错误、初始化和终止条件错误。 黑盒测试不关心程序内部的逻辑，只是根据程序的功能说明来设计测试用例，主要方法有等价类划分法、边界值分析法、错误推测法等，主要用软件的确认测试。 A、等价类划分法。这是一种典型的黑盒测试方法，它是将程序的所有可能的输入数据划分成若干部分(及若干等价类)，然后从每个等价类中选取数据作为测试用例。 B、边界值分析法。它是对各种输入、输出范围的边界情况设计测试用例的方法。 C、错误推测法。人们可以靠 经验 班主任工作经验交流宣传工作经验交流材料优秀班主任经验交流小学课改经验典型材料房地产总经理管理经验 和直觉推测程序中可能存在的各种错误，从而有针对性地编写检查这些错误的用例。 3、软件测试过程一般按4个步骤进行:单元测试、集成测试、确认测试和系统测试。 (1)单元测试 单元测试是对软件设计的最小单位——模块(程序单元)进行正确性检测的测试，目的是发现各模块内部可能存在的各种错误。 单元测试根据程序的内部结构来设计测试用例，其依据是详细设计说明书和源程序。单元测试的技术可以采用静态分析和动态测试。对动态测试通常以白盒测试为主，辅之以黑盒测试。 单元测试的内容包括:模块接口测试、局部数据结构测试、错误处理测试和边界测试。 , 在进行单元测试时～要用一些辅助模块去模拟与被测模块相联系的其他模块～即为 被测模块设计和搭建驱动模块和桩模块。其中～驱动模块相当于被测模块的主程序～ 它接收测试数据～并传给被测模块～输出实际测试结果,而桩模块是模拟其他被调 用模块～不必将子模块的所有功能带入。 (2)集成测试 集成测试是测试和组装软件的过程，它是把模块在按照设计要求组装起来的同时进行测试，主要目的是发现与接口有关的错误。 集成测试的依据是概要设计说明书。 集成测试所涉及的内容包括:软件单元的接口测试、全局数据结构测试、边界条件和非法输入的测试等。 集成测试通常采用两种方式:非增量方式组装与增量方式组装。 , 非增量方式组装:也称为一次性组装方式。首先对每个模块分别进行模块测试，然 后再把所有模块组装在一起进行测试，最终得到要求的软件系统。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 35 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional , 增量方式组装:又称渐增式集成方式。首先对一个个模块进行模块测试，然后将这 些模块逐步组装成较大的系统，在组装的过程中边连接边测试，以发现连接过程中 产生的问题。最后通过增殖逐步组装成要求的软件系统。增量方式组装又包括自顶 向下、自底向上、自顶向下与自底向上相结合等三种方式。 (3)确认测试 确认测试的任务是验证软件的有效性，即验证软件的功能和性能及其他特性是否与用户的要求一致。 确认测试的主要依据是软件需求规格说明书。 确认测试主要运用黑盒测试法。 (4)系统测试 系统测试的目的在于通过与系统的需求定义进行比较，发现软件与系统定义不符合或与之矛盾的地方。 系统测试的测试用例应根据需求分析规格说明来设计，并在实际使用环境下来运行。 系统测试的具体实施一般包括:功能测试、性能测试、操作测试、配置测试、外部接口测试、安全性测试等。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)在黑盒测试方式中，设计测试用例的主要根据是 A、程序外部功能 B、程序内部逻辑 C、程序数据结构 D、程序流程图 (2009年9月)软件测试分为白箱(盒)测试和黑箱(盒)测试。等价类划分法属于【2】测试。 (2009年3月)下面叙述中错误的是( )。 A)软件测试的目的是发现错误并改正错误 B)对被调试的程序进行“错误定位”是程序调试的必要步骤 C)程序调试通常也称为Debug D)软件测试应严格执行测试计划，排除测试的随意性 (2009年3月)软件测试可分为白盒测试和黑盒测试。基本路径测试属于 【2】测试。 (2008年9月)按照软件测试的一般步骤，集成测试应在 【2】 测试之后进行。 (2008年4月)测试用例包括输入值集和【1】值集。 (2007年9月)在两种基本测试方法中, [2]测试的原则之一是保证所测模块中每一个独立路径至少要执行一次。 (2007年4月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)软件测试的主要目的是发现程序中的错误 B)软件测试的主要目的是确定程序中错误的位置 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional C)为了提高软件测试的效率，最好由程序编制者自己来完成软件测试的工作 D)软件测试是证明软件没有错误 (2007年4月)软件测试分为白箱(盒)测试和黑箱(盒)测试。等价类划分法属于【2】测试。 (2006年4月)程序测试分为静态分析和动态测试。其中 【4】 是指不执行程序，而只是对程序文本进行检查，通过阅读和讨论，分析和发现程序中的错误。 (2005年4月)下列对于软件测试的描述中正确的是( )。 A)软件测试的目的是证明程序是否正确 B)软件测试的目的是使程序运行结果正确 C)软件测试的目的是尽可能多地发现程序中的错误 D)软件测试的目的是使程序符合结构化原则 3.5 程序的调试 程序调试的任务是诊断和改正程序中的错误，主要在开发阶段进行，调试程序应该由编制源程序的程序员来完成。 程序调试的基本步骤:(1)错误定位;(2)纠正错误;(3)回归测试。 , 软件的调试后要进行回归测试～防止引进新的错误。 软件调试可分表静态调试和动态调试。静态调试主要是指通过人的思维来分析源程序代码和排错，是主要的设计手段，而动态调试是辅助静态调试。主要调试方法有: (1)强行排错法。主要方法有:通过内存全部打印来排错;在程序特定部位设置打印语句;自动调试工具。 (2)回溯法。发现了错误，分析错误征兆，确定发现“症状”的位置。一般用于小程序。 (3)原因排除法。是通过演绎、归纳和二分法来实现的。 1)演绎法。根据已有的测试用例，设想及枚举出所有可能出错的原因作为假设;然后再用原始测试数据或新的测试，从中逐个排除不可能正确的假设;最后，再用测试数据验证余下的假设确定出错的原因。 2)归纳法。从错误征兆着手，通过分析它们之间的关系来找出错误。大致分四步:收集有关的数据;组织数据;提出假设;证明假设。 3)二分法。在程序的关键点给变量赋正确值，然后运行程序并检查程序的输出。如果输出结果正确，则错误原因在程序的前半部分;反之，错误原因在程序的后半部分。 【真题练习】 (2011年9月)程序调试的任务是 ( )。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 37 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional A.设计测试用例B.验证程序的正确性C.发现程序中的错误D.诊断和改正程序中的错误 (2010年3月)软件(程序)调试的任务是( )。 A)诊断和改正程序中的错误 B)尽可能多地发现程序中的错误 C)发现并改正程序中的所有错误 D)确定程序中错误的性质 (2007年9月)软件调试的目的是( )。 A)发现错误 B)改正错误 C)改善软件的性能 D)验证软件的正确性 (2006年9月)[2] 的任务是诊断和改正程序中的错误。 (2006年4月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)软件测试应该由程序开发者来完成 B)程序经调试后一般不需要再测试 C)软件维护只包括对程序代码的维护 D)以上三种说法都不对 (2005年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)程序设计就是编制程序 B)程序的测试必须由程序员自己去完成 C)程序经调试改错后还应进行再测试D)程序经调试改错后不必进行再测试 (2005年4月)诊断和改正程序中错误的工作通常称为【3】。 本章应考点拨:本章在笔试中一般占8分左右，约3道选择题，1道填空题，是公共基础部分比较重要的一章。从出题的深度来看，本章主要考察对基本概念的识记，有少量对基本原理的理解，没有实际运用，因此考生在复习本章时，重点应放在基本概念的记忆和基本原理的理解上。 第四章 数据库设计基础 4.1 数据库系统的基本概念 1、数据、数据库、数据管理系统 (1)数据:实际上就是描述事物的符号记录。 数据的特点:有一定的结构，有型与值之分，如整型、实型、字符型等。而数据的值给出了符合定型的值，如整型值15。 (2)数据库DB:是数据的集合，具有统一的结构形式并存放于统一的存储介质内，是多种应用数据的集成，并可被各个应用程序共享。 数据库存放数据是按数据所提供的数据模式存放的，具有集成与共享的特点。 (3)数据库管理系统DBMS:一种系统软件，负责数据库中的数据组织、数据操纵、数据维护、控制及保护和数据服务等，是数据库的核心。 数据库管理系统功能: personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 1)数据模式定义:即为数据库构建其数据框架; 2)数据存取的物理构建:为数据模式的物理存取与构建提供有效的存取方法与手段; 3)数据操纵:为用户使用数据库的数据提供方便，如查询、插入、修改、删除等以及简单的算术运算及统计; 4)数据的完整性、安生性定义与检查:数据库中的数据具有内在语义上的关联性与一致性，它们构成了数据的完整性，数据的完整性是保证数据库中数据正确的必要条件，因此必须经常检查以维护数据正确。数据库中的数据具有共享性，而数据共享可能会引发数据的非法使用，因此必须要对数据正确使用做出必要的规定，并在使用时做检查，这就是数据的安全性。数据完整性与安全性的维护是数据库系统的基本功能。 5)数据库的并发控制与故障恢复:数据库是一个集成、共享的数据集合体，它能为多个应用程序服务，所以就存在着多个应用程序对数据库的并发操作。在并发操作中如果不加控制和管理，多个应用程序间就会相互干扰，从而对数据库中的数据造成破坏。因此，数据库管理系统必须对多个应用程序的并发操作做必要的控制以保证数据不受破坏，这就是数据库的并发控制。数据库中的数据一旦遭到破坏，数据库管理系统必须有能力及时进行恢复，这就是数据库的故障恢复。 6)数据的服务:如拷贝、转存、重组、性能监测、分析等。 为完成以上六个功能，数据库管理系统提供以下的数据语言: 1)数据定义语言:负责数据的模式定义与数据的物理存取构建; 2)数据操纵语言:负责数据的操纵，如查询与增、删、改等; 3)数据控制语言:负责数据完整性、安全性的定义与检查以及并发控制、故障恢复等。 数据语言按其使用方式具有两种结构形式:交互式命令(又称自含型或自主型语言)宿主型语言(一般可嵌入某些宿主语言中)。 (4)数据库管理员(DBA):对数据库进行规划、设计、维护、监视等专业管理人员。 (5)数据库系统(DBS):由数据库(数据)、数据库管理系统(软件)、数据库管理员(人员)、硬件平台(硬件)、软件平台(软件)五个部分构成的运行实体。 (6)数据库应用系统:由数据库系统、应用软件及应用界面三者组成。 , 数据库技术的根本目标是解决数据的共享问题。 2、数据库系统的发展 数据库管理发展至今已经历了三个阶段:人工管理阶段、文件系统阶段和数据库系统阶段。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 39 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 人工管理阶段 文件系统阶段 数据库系统阶段 背 应用背景 科学计算 科学计算、管理 大规模管理 景 硬件背景 无直接存取存磁盘、磁鼓 大容量磁备盘 储设备 软件背景 没有操作系统 有文件系统 有数据库管理系统 处理方式 批处理 联机实时处理、批处联机实时处理、分布处理、批处理 理 特 数据的管理者 用户(程序员) 文件系统 数据库管理系统 点 数据面向的对象 某一应用程序 某一应用 现实世界 数据的共享程度 无共享，冗余度共享性差，冗余度大 共享性高，冗余度小 极大 数据的独立性 不独立，完全依独立性差 具有高度的物理独立性和一定的逻 赖于程序 辑独立性 数据的结构化 无结构 记录内有结构，整体整体结构化，用数据模型描述 无结构 数据控制能力 应用程序自己应用程序自己控制 由数据库管理系统提供数据安全性、 控制 完整性、并发控制和恢复能力 3、数据库系统的基本特点 (1)数据的高集成性。 (2)数据的高共享性与低冗余性。 , 数据库系统可以减少数据冗余～但无法避免一切冗余。 (3)数据独立性。 数据独立性是数据与程序间的互不依赖性，即数据库中数据独立于应用程序而不依赖于应用程序。也就是说，数据的逻辑结构、存储结构与存取方式的改变不会影响应用程序。 数据独立性一般分为物理独立性与逻辑独立性两级。 1)物理独立性:物理独立性即是数据的物理结构(包括存储结构，存取方式等)的改变，如存储设备的更换、物理存储的更换、存取方式改变等都不影响数据库的逻辑结构，从而不致引起应用程序的变化。 2)逻辑独立性:数据库总体逻辑结构的改变，如修改数据模式、增加新的数据类型、改变数据间联系等，不需要相应修改应用程序，这就是数据的逻辑独立性。 (4)数据统一管理与控制。 数据统一管理与控制主要包含以下三个方面: 1)数据的完整性检查:检查数据库中数据的正确性以保证数据的正确。 2)数据的安全性保护:检查数据库访问者以防止非法访问。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 3)并发控制:控制多个应用的并发访问所产生的相互干扰以保证其正确性。 4、数据库系统的内部结构体系 (1)数据库系统的三级模式: 1)概念模式:数据库系统中全局数据逻辑结构的描述，全体用户公共数据视图; )外模式:也称子模式与用户模式。是用户的数据视图，也就是用户所见到的数据模2 式，它由概念模式推导而出; 3)内模式:又称物理模式，它给出了数据库物理存储结构与物理存取方法。内模式的物理性主要体现在操作系统及文件级上，它还未深入到设备级上(如磁盘及磁盘操作)。内模式对一般用户是透明的，但它的设计直接影响数据库的性能。 (2)数据库系统的两级映射: 1)概念模式到内模式的映射: 实现了概念模式到内模式之间的相互转换。当数据库的存储结构发生变化时，通过修改相应的概念模式/内模式的映射，使得数据库的逻辑模式不变，其外模式不变，应用程序不用修改，从而保证数据具有很高的物理独立性。 2)外模式到概念模式的映射: 实现了外模式到概念模式之间的相互转换。当逻辑模式发生变化时，通过修改相应的外模式/逻辑模式映射，使得用户所使用的那部分外模式不变，从而应用程序不必修改，保证数据具有较高的逻辑独立性。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)在下列模式中，能够给出数据库物理存储结构与物理存取方法的是 A、内模式 B、外模式 C、概念模式 D、逻辑模式 (2012年3月)数据库管理系统提供的数据语言中，负责数据的增、删、改和查询的是( )。 (2011年9月)数据库系统的三级模式不包括( )。 A.概念模式 B.内模式 C.外模式 D.数据模式 (2011年9月)数据库系统的核心是 【4】 。 (2010年3月)数据库管理系统中负责数据模式定义的语言是( )。 A)数据定义语言 B)数据管理语言 C)数据操纵语言 D)数据控制语言 (2009年9月)数据库管理系统是( )。 A)操作系统的一部分 B) 在操作系统支持下的系统软件 C) 一种编译系统 D) 一种操作系统 (2009年9月)在数据库系统中，实现各种数据管理功能的核心软件称为【3】。 (2009年3月)数据库系统的核心是 【4】 (2008年9月)在数据管理技术发展的三个阶段中，数据共享最好的是( )。 A)人工管理阶段 B)文件系统阶段 C)数据库系统阶段 D)三个阶段相同 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 41 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (2008年4月)在关系数据库中，用来表示实体之间联系的是【4】。 (2008年4月)在数据库管理系统提供的数据定义语言、数据操纵语言和数据控制语言中，【5】负责数据的模式定义与数据的物理存取构建。 (2007年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)数据库系统是一个独立的系统，不需要操作系统的支持 B)数据库技术的根本目标是要解决数据的共享问题 C)数据库管理系统就是数据库系统 D)以上三种说法都不对 (2007年4月)下列叙述中错误的是( )。 A)在数据库系统中，数据的物理结构必须与逻辑结构一致 B)数据库技术的根本目标是要解决数据的共享问题 C)数据库设计是指在已有数据库管理系统的基础上建立数据库 D)数据库系统需要操作系统的支持 (2007年4月)在数据库系统中，实现各种数据管理功能的核心软件称为【3】。 (2006年9月)在数据库系统中，用户所见的数据模式为______。 A)概念模式 B)外模式 C)内模式 D)物理模式 (2006年9月)数据库技术的根本目标是要解决数据的______。 A)存储问题 B)共享问题 C)安全问题 D)保护问题 (2006年9月)一个关系表的行为 [3]。 (2006年4月)数据库DB、数据库系统DBS、数据库管理系统DBMS 之间关系是( )。 A)DB 包含DBS 和DBMS B)DBMS 包含DB 和DBS C)DBS 包含DB 和DBMS D)没有任何关系 (2006年4月)数据独立性分为逻辑独立性与物理独立性。当数据的存储结构改变时，其逻辑结构可以不变，因此，基于逻辑结构的应用程序不必修改，称为 【5】 。 (2005年9月)数据库系统的核心的是( )。 A)数据模型 B)数据库管理系统C)数据库 D)数据库管理员 (2005年9月)数据管理技术发展过程经过人工管理、文件系统和数据库系统3 个阶段，其中数据独立性最高的阶段是【1】。 (2005年4月)数据独立性是数据库技术的重要特点之一。所谓数据独立性是指( )。 A)数据与程序独立存放 B)不同的数据被存放在不同的文件中 C)不同的数据只能被对应的应用程序所使用 D)以上三种说法都不对 4.2 数据模型 1、数据模型 (1)数据模型的概念:是数据特征的抽象，从抽象层次上描述了系统的静态特征、动态行为和约束条件，为数据库系统的信息表与操作提供一个抽象的框架。 (2)数据模型所描述的内容有三个部分，它们是数据结构、数据操作与数据约束。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 1)数据结构:数据结构是所研究的对象类型的集合，包括与数据类型、内容、性质有关的对象，以及与数据之间联系有关的对象。它用于描述系统的静态特性。 2)数据操作:数据操作是对数据库中各种对象(型)的实例(值)允许执行的操作的集合，包括操作的含义、符号、操作规则及实现操作的语句等。它用于描述系统的动态特性。 3)数据的约束条件:数据的约束条件是一组完整性规则的集合。完整性规则是给定的数据模型中数据及其联系所具有的制约和依存规则，用以限定符号数据模型的数据库状态及状态的变化，以保证数据的正确、有效和相容。 (3)数据模型分为概念模型、逻辑数据模型和物理模型三类: 1)概念数据模型:简称概念模型，是对客观世界复杂事物的结构描述及它们之间的内在联系的刻画。概念模型主要有:E-R模型(实体联系模型)、扩充的E-R模型、面向对象模型及谓词模型等。 2)逻辑数据模型:又称数据模型，是一种面向数据库系统的模型，该模型着重于在数据库系统一级的实现。逻辑数据模型主要有:层次模型、网状模型、关系模型、面向对象模型等。 3)物理数据模型:又称物理模型，它是一种面向计算机物理表示的模型，此模型给出了数据模型在计算机上物理结构的表示。 2、实体联系模型及E-R图 (1)E-R模型的基本概念 1)实体:现实世界中的事物; 2)属性:事物的特性; 3)联系:现实世界中事物间的关系。实体集的关系有一对一、一对多、多对多的联系。 E-R模型三个基本概念之间的联接关系:实体是概念世界中的基本单位，属性有属性域，每个实体可取属性域内的值。一个实体的所有属性值叫元组。 , E-R模型的基本成分是实体和联系。 (2)E-R模型的图示法: 1)实体集:用矩形表示。 2)属性:用椭圆形表示。 3)联系:用菱形表示。 4)实体集与属性间的联接关系:用无向线段表示。 5)实体集与联系间的联接关系:用无向线段表示。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 43 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (3)数据库管理系统常见的数据模型有层次模型、网状模型和关系模型三种。 1)层次模型的基本结构是树形结构，具有以下特点: , 每棵树有且仅有一个无双亲结点，称为根; , 树中除根外所有结点有且仅有一个双亲。 2)网状模型是层次模型的一个特例，从图论上看，网状模型是一个不加任何条件限制的无向图。 3)关系模型采用二维表来表示，简称表，由表框架及表的元组组成。一个二维表就是一个关系。 , 同一个关系模型的任两个元组值不能完全相同。 在二维表中凡能唯一标识元组的最小属性称为键或码。从所有侯选健中选取一个作为用户使用的键称主键。表A中的某属性是某表B的键，则称该属性集为A的外键或外码。 (4)关系中的数据约束: 1)实体完整性约束:约束关系的主键中属性值不能为空值; 2)参照完全性约束:是关系之间的基本约束; )用户定义的完整性约束:它反映了具体应用中数据的语义要求。 3 3、从E-R图导出关系数据模型 据库的逻辑设计的主要工作是将E-R图转换成指定RDBMS(关系数据库管理系统)中的关系模式。首先，从E-R图到关系模式的转换是比较直接的，实体与联系都可以表示成关系，E-R图中属性也可以转换成关系的属性。实体集也可以转换成关系。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)在满足实体完整性约束的条件下 A、一个关系中可以没有候选关键词 B、一个关系中只能有一个候选关键词 C、一个关系中必须有多个候选关键词D、一个关系中应该有一个或者多个候选关键词 (2012年3月)在将E-R图转换到关系模式时，实体和联系都可以表示成( )。 (2009年9月)在进行关系数据库的逻辑设计时，E-R图中的属性常被转换为关系中的属性，联系通常被转换为【5】 (2010年3月)在学生管理的关系数据库中，存取一个学生信息的数据单位是( )。 A)文件 B)数据库 C)字段 D)记录 (2010年3月)有一个学生选课的关系，其中学生的关系模式为:学生(学号，姓名，班级，年龄)，课程的关系模式为:课程(课号，课程名，学时)，其中两个关系模式的键分别是学号和课号，则关系模式选课可定义为:选课(学号，【,】，成绩)。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (2009年9月)在E-R图中，用来表示实体联系的图形是( )。 A) 椭圆图 B) 矩形 C) 菱形 D) 三角形 (2009年3月)将E-R图转换为关系模式时，实体和联系都可以表示为( )。 A)属性 B)键 C)关系 D)域 (2009年3月)在E-R图中，图形包括矩形框、菱形框、椭圆框。其中表示实体联系的是【5】框。 (2008年9月)一间宿舍可住多个学生，则实体宿舍和学生之间的联系是( )。 A)一对一 B)一对多 C)多对一 D)多对多 (2008年9月)在二维表中，元组的 【5】 不能再分成更小的数据项。 (2008年3月)设有表示学生选课的三张表，学生S(学号，姓名，性别，年龄，身份证号)，课程C(课号，课名)，选课SC(学号，课号，成绩)，则表SC的关键字(键或码)为( )。 A)课号，成绩 B)学号，成绩 C)学号，课号 D) 学号，姓名，成绩 (2007年9月)下列叙述中正确的是( )。 A)为了建立一个关系，首先要构造数据的逻辑关系 B)表示关系的二维表中各元组的每一个分量还可以分成若干数据项 C)一个关系的属性名表称为关系模式 D)一个关系可以包括多个二维表 (2007年9月)在E-R图中距形表示[5]。 (2007年4月)在E-R 图中，用来表示实体之间联系的图形是( )。 A)矩形 B)椭圆形 C)菱形 D)平行四边形 (2006年4月)“商品”与“顾客”两个实体集之间的联系一般是( )。 A)一对一 B)一对多 C)多对一 D)多对多 (2006年4月)在E-R 图中，用来表示实体的图形是( )。 A)矩形 B)椭圆形 C)菱形 D)三角形 (2006年4月)在关系模型中，把数据看成是二维表，每一个二维表称为一个 【3】 。 (2005年4月)用树形结构表示实体之间联系的模型是( )。 A)关系模型 B)网状模型 C)层次模型 D)以上三个都是 (2005年4月)在关系数据库中，把数据表示成二维表，每一个二维表称为【4】。 4.3关系代数 关系数据库系统的特点之一是它建立在数据理论的基础之上，有很多数据理论可以表示关系模型的数据操作，其中最为著名的是关系代数与关系演算。 1、关系的数据结构 关系是由若干个不同的元组所组成，因此关系可视为元组的集合。n元关系是一个n元有序组的集合。 关系模型的基本运算:1)插入;2)删除;3)修改;4)查询(包括投影、选择、笛卡 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 45 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 尔积运算)。 2、关系操纵 关系模型的数据操纵即是建立在关系上的数据操纵，一般有查询、增加、删除和修改四种操作。 3、集合运算及选择、投影、连接运算 (1)并(?):关系R和S具有相同的关系模式，R和S的并是由属于R或属于S的元组构成的集合。 (2)差(,):关系R和S具有相同的关系模式，R和S的差是由属于R但不属于S的元 组构成的集合。 (3)交(?):关系R和S具有相同的关系模式，R和S的交是由属于R且属于S的元组构成的集合。 (4)广义笛卡尔积(×):设关系R和S的属性个数分别为n、m，则R和S的广义笛卡尔积是一个有(n+m)列的元组的集合。每个元组的前n列来自R的一个元组，后m列来自S的一个元组，记为R×S。 , 根据笛卡尔积的定义:有n元关系R及m元关系S～它们分别有p、q个元组～ 则关系R与S经笛卡尔积记为R×S～该关系是一个n+m元关系～元组个数是p ×q～由R与S的有序组组合而成。 (5)在关系型数据库管理系统中，基本的关系运算有选择、投影与联接三种操作: 1)选择:选择指的是从二维关系表的全部记录中，把那些符合指定条件的记录挑出来。 2)投影:投影是从所有字段中选取一部分字段及其值进行操作，它是一种纵向操作。 3)联接:联接将两个关系模式拼接成一个更宽的关系模式，生成的新关系中包含满足联接条件的元组。 【真题练习】 (2012年3月)有三个关系R、S和T如下: R A B C S T A B C A B C a 1 2 a 1 2 a 2 1 b 2 1 b 2 1 b 3 1 c 3 1 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 则由关系R和S得到关系T的操作是( )。 A、自然连接 B、并 C、差 D、交 (2009年9月)有三个关系R、S和T如下: R S T A B C A B C A B C a 1 2 a 1 2 c 3 1 b 2 1 b 2 1 c 3 1 则由关系R和S得到关系T的操作是( )。 A.自然连接 B.差 C.交 D.并 (2010年3月)有两个关系,和,如下: R T A B C a 1 2 A B C b 2 2 c 3 2 c 3 2 d 3 2 d 3 2 则由关系,得到关系,的操作是( )。,)选择 ,)投影 ,)交 ,)并 (2009年9月)有三个关系R，S和T如下: 其中关系T由关系R和S通过某种操作得到，该操作为( )。 A) 选择 B) 投影 C) 交 D) 并 (2009年9月)有两个关系R，S如下: R S A B A B C a 3 a 3 2 b 0 b 0 1 c 2 c 2 1 由关系R通过运算得到关系S，则所使用的运算为( )。A)选择 B)投影 C)插入 D)连 接 (2009年4月)有三个关系R、S 和T 如下: R S A B 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 47 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional B C m 1 1 3 n 2 3 5 T A B C m 1 3 由关系R 和S 通过运算得到关系T，则所使用的运算为( )。 A)笛卡尔积 B)交 C)并 D)自然连接 (2008年3月)有三个关系R、S和T如下: R B C D a 0 k1 S B C D a 0 k1 b 1 n1 T B C D f 3 h2 a 0 k1 n 2 x1 有关系R和S通过运算得到关系T，则所使用的运算为( )。 A)并 B)自然连接 C)笛卡尔积 D)交 (2007年4月)在下列关系运算中，不改变关系表中的属性个数但能减少元组个数的 是( )。A)并 B)交 C)投影 D)笛卡儿乘积 (2006年9月)设有如下三个关系表下列操作中正确的是( )。 A)、T=R?S B)、T=R?S C)、T=R×S D)、T=R/S (2005年9月)设有如下关系表: R S T A B C 1 1 2 2 2 3 则下列操作中正确的是( )。 A)T=R?S B)T=R?S C)T=R×S D)T=R/S 4.4 数据库设计与管理 数据库设计是数据应用的核心。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional (1)数据库设计阶段包括:需求分析、概念分析、逻辑设计、物理设计。 (2)数据库设计的每个阶段都有各自的任务: 1)需求分析阶段:这是数据库设计的第一个阶段，任务主要是收集和分析数据，这一阶段收集到的基础数据和数据流图是下一步设计概念结构的基础。 2)概念设计阶段:分析数据间内在语义关联，在此基础上建立一个数据的抽象模型，即形成E-R图。 , 数据库概念设计的过程包括选择局部应用、视图设计和视图集成。 3)逻辑设计阶段:将E-R图转换成指定RDBMS中的关系模式。 4)物理设计阶段:对数据库内部物理结构作调整并选择合理的存取路径，以提高数据库访问速度及有效利用存储空间。 数据库设计的两种方法: 1)面向数据:以信息需求为主，兼顾处理需求; 2)面向过程:以处理需求为主，兼顾信息需求。 数据库的生命周期:需求分析阶段、概念设计阶段、逻辑设计阶段、物理设计阶段、编码阶段、测试阶段、运行阶段、进一步修改阶段。 需求分析常用结构析方法和面向对象的方法。结构化分析(简称SA)方法用自顶向下、逐层分解的方式分析系统。用数据流图表达数据和处理过程的关系。对数据库设计来讲，数据字典是进行详细的数据收集和数据分析所获得的主要结果。 数据字典是各类数据描述的集合，包括5个部分:数据项、数据结构、数据流(可以是数据项，也可以是数据结构)、数据存储、处理过程。 数据库概念设计的目的是分析数据内在语义关系。设计的方法有两种 1)集中式模式设计法(适用于小型或并不复杂的单位或部门); 2)视图集成设计法。设计方法:E-R模型与视图集成。 视图设计一般有三种设计次序:自顶向下、由底向上、由内向外。 视图集成的几种冲突:命名冲突、概念冲突、域冲突、约束冲突。 关系视图设计:关系视图的设计又称外模式设计。 关系视图的主要作用: 1)提供数据逻辑独立性; 2)能适应用户对数据的不同需求; 3)有一定数据保密功能。 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 49 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 数据库的物理设计主要目标是对数据内部物理结构作调整并选择合理的存取路径，以提高数据库访问速度有效利用存储空间。一般RDBMS中留给用户参与物理设计的内容大致有索引设计、集成簇设计和分区设计。 数据库管理的内容: 1)数据库的建立;2)数据库的调整;3)数据库的重组;4)数据库安全性与完整性控制;5)数据库的故障恢复;6)数据库监控 【真题练习】 (2011年9月)下列关于数据库设计的叙述中，正确的是 A.在需求分析阶段建立数据字典 B.在概念设计阶段建立数据字典 C.在逻辑设计阶段建立数据字典 D.在物理设计阶段建立数据字典 (2010年3月)数据库设计中，用,,,图来描述信息结构但不涉及信息在计算机中的表示，它属于数据库设计的( )。 A)需求分析阶段 B)逻辑设计阶段 C)概念设计阶段 D)物理设计阶段 (2009年3月)数据库应用系统中的核心问题是( )。 A)数据库设计 B)数据库系统设计 C)数据库维护 D)数据库管理员培训 (2008年9月)数据库设计包括概念设计、【4】和物理设计。 (2008年3月)在数据库设计中，将E-R图转换成关系数据模型的过程属于[C]。 A)需求分析阶段 B)概念设计阶段 C)逻辑设计阶段 D)物理设计阶段 (2006年9月)数据库设计的四个阶段是:需求分析、概念设计、逻辑设计和______。 A)编码设计 B)测试阶段 C)运行阶段 D)物理设计 (2005年9月)数据库设计的根本目标是要解决( )。 A)数据共享问题 B)数据安全问题C)大量数据存储问题 D)简化数据维护 本章应考点拨:本章在笔试中一般占8分左右，一般出现2-4个小题。本章内容概括性强，比较抽象，难于理解，因此建议考生在复习的时候，首先熟读讲义，其次对数据库系统的基本概念及原理等知识要注意理解、加强记忆。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 附录:公共基础知识考试大纲 基本要求 1.掌握算法的基本概念。 2.掌握基本数据结构及其操作。 3.掌握基本排序和查找算法。 4.掌握逐步求精的结构化程序设计方法。 5.掌握软件工程的基本方法，具有初步应用相关技术进行软件开发的能力。 6.掌握数据库的基本知识，了解关系数据库的设计。 考试内容 一、基本数据结构与算法 1.算法的基本概念;算法复杂度的概念和意义(时间复杂度与空间复杂度)。 2.数据结构的定义;数据的逻辑结构与存储结构;数据结构的图形表示;线性结构与非线性结构的概念。 3.线性表的定义;线性表的顺序存储结构及其插入与删除运算。 4.栈和队列的定义;栈和队列的顺序存储结构及其基本运算。 5.线性单链表、双向链表与循环链表的结构及其基本运算。 6.树的基本概念;二叉树的定义及其存储结构;二叉树的前序、中序和后序遍历。 7.顺序查找与二分法查找算法;基本排序算法(交换类排序，选择类排序，插入类排序)。 二、程序设计基础 第personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish 51 页 共 52 页 loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional 1.程序设计方法与风格。 2.结构化程序设计。 3.面向对象的程序设计方法，对象，方法，属性及继承与多态性。 三、软件工程基础 1.软件工程基本概念，软件生命周期概念，软件工具与软件开发环境。 2.结构化分析方法，数据流图，数据字典，软件需求规格说明书。 3.结构化设计方法，总体设计与详细设计。 4.软件测试的方法，白盒测试与黑盒测试，测试用例设计，软件测试的实施，单元测试、集成测试和系统测试。 5.程序的调试，静态调试与动态调试。 四、数据库设计基础 1.数据库的基本概念:数据库，数据库管理系统，数据库系统。 2.数据模型，实体联系模型及E-R图，从E-R图导出关系数据模型。 3.关系代数运算，包括集合运算及选择、投影、连接运算，数据库规范化理论。 4.数据库设计方法和步骤:需求分析、概念设计、逻辑设计和物理设计的相关策略。 考试方式 公共基础知识有10道选择题和5道填空题共三十分。 personal credit business process management, and development of business processes, clear the loan object and scope, establish loan operation of assessment and accountability mechanisms. Diversity management principles the Bank's strict separation between business and consumer use of personal credit, then according to the different varieties of business to establish the appropriate access standard, post-lending management requirements. Business use personal credit should be strictly in accordance with the qilu Bank's small business credit risk management guidelines and associated working capital loans management requirements, such as assessing the management of production and operation, repayment ability, the level of risk, and so on. Income debt ratio control principle of Bank income debt ratio control mechanism, combined with the borrower's income, debt, expenditures, loans, guarantees and other factors, determines the loan amount and term, control each repayment does not exceed the amount of the borrower repayment ability. Principles of trans-regional limits Branches shall not in principle to operating income mainly comes from offsite (prefecture-level cities and administrative divisions at or above) or inward (MS) charge provided credit support for individual customers is located in different places, but except those with unique advantages such as critical. Have set up branches in different places, other bodies are not entitled to carry out the branch of credit business in the region. Branch County area has been established, other bodies are not entitled to apply for the credit within the County. Double before going through the personal credit business credit investigation, Contracting, security verification, credit check, key account manager should be double handle. Bank supports risk managers, loan review, professional