Gender and Sexuality in AA Literature

GenderandSexualityinAsianAmericanLiteratureAuthor(s):Sau-lingC.WongandJeffreyJ.SantaAnaSource:Signs,Vol.25,No.1(Autumn,1999),pp.171-226Publishedby:TheUniversityofChicagoPressStableURL:http://www.jstor.org/stable/3175619Accessed:21-04-201701:46UTCREFERENCESLinkedreferencesareavailableonJSTORforthisarticle:http://www.jstor.org/stable/3175619?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contentsYoumayneedtologintoJSTORtoaccessthelinkedreferences.JSTORisanot-for-profitservicethathelpsscholars,researchers,andstudentsdiscover,use,andbuilduponawiderangeofcontentinatrusteddigitalarchive.Weuseinformationtechnologyandtoolstoincreaseproductivityandfacilitatenewformsofscholarship.FormoreinformationaboutJSTOR,pleasecontactsupport@jstor.org.YouruseoftheJSTORarchiveindicatesyouracceptanceoftheTerms&ConditionsofUse,availableathttp://about.jstor.org/termsTheUniversityofChicagoPressiscollaboratingwithJSTORtodigitize,preserveandextendaccesstoSignsThiscontentdownloadedfrom115.27.205.89onFri,21Apr201701:46:50UTCAllusesubjecttohttp://about.jstor.org/termsSau-IingC.WongJeffreyJ.SantaAnaReviewEssayGenderandSexualityinAsianAmericanLiteraturehisessayaimstoprovideanoverviewofrepresentationsofgenderandsexualityinAsianAmericanliteratureandofthedevelopmentsinAsianAmericanculturalcriticismthathavemadethestudyofsuchrepresenta-tionspossible.Thedifficultiesofthetaskaremanifold,forthereisnosatis-factorytheoreticalvocabularyfortheinterconnectedness,mutualconstitu-tion,andoperationalsimultaneityofrace/ethnicity,gender,andsexuality.Inacademicinvestigationseachofthesehasahistoryofservingasadis-creteanalyticcategory,butitisinfactimpossibletoseparatetheirwork-ings,andAsianAmericanculturalcriticshavelongstruggledtocharacter-izetheircomplexinterrelationshipsandtoresisttheirseparation.MitsuyeYamadadeploresthenotionthat"ethnicity"and"womanhood"are"atwarwitheachother"andresentsthepressureonwomenofcolortochoosebetweenthetwo(1981,73);ElaineKimspeaksofthe"Americantangleofraceandgenderhierarchies"anddescribesAsianAmericanpoliticalandsexualobjectificationashavingbeen"tightlyplaited"(1990b,69);andSau-lingWongconsidersgenderandethnicity"fused":"Ethnicityis,insomesense,alwaysalreadygendered,andgenderalwaysalreadyeth-nicized"(1992,126).AnalyzingAsianwomeninglobalcapital,LisaLoweassertsinthat"throughoutlivedsocialrelations,itisapparentthatlaborisgendered,sexualityisracialized,andraceisclass-associated"(1996,164),andKing-KokCheungstatesthat"fromthebeginning,raceandgenderhavebeenintertwinedinAsianAmericanhistoryandliterature"WethanktheeditorsofSignsfortheopportunitytowritethisreviewessay;DavidEngforhisinvaluablefeedbackonqueerwriting;King-KokCheungforsuggesting,andWen-ChingHoforhelpingussecure,Chi'sworkfromTaiwan;andMarieLoforherresearchassistanceandinputonAsianCanadianliterature.Specialappreciationisalsoduethewon-derfulstudentsinourSpring1998courseongenderandsexualityinAsianAmericanlitera-ture,onwhomwetriedoutsomeoftheideasinthisarticle.[Sgns:JournalofWomeninCultureandSociety1999,vol.25,no.1]?1999byTheUniversityofChicago.Allrightsreserved.0097-9740/2000/2501-0007$02.00Thiscontentdownloadedfrom115.27.205.89onFri,21Apr201701:46:50UTCAllusesubjecttohttp://about.jstor.org/terms172IWongandSantaAna(1997b,10).DavidEngandAliceHomexpresstheirinterestin"theinter-sectionofracialand(homo)sexualdifference"andtheir"unwilling[ness]tobifurcate[their]identitiesintotheracialandthesexual"(1998a,1,4).Similarstatementsaboundthroughouttheliterature.Spatial,scientific,andkinshipmetaphors;theuseofprocessverbsin-steadofnouns;anddefinitionbynegationallindicatecritics'attemptstoarticulatethenotionthat"AsianAmericanness,"gender,andsexualitycan-notbeconsideredindependentofoneanother,norcantheyberegardedasmerelyadditiveisolates.Amongsuchterms,intersectionalityisperhapsthemostwidelyusedtoday,but,aswithotherspatialmetaphors,itstillassumespreexisting,disparate"tracks"andthusdoesnotsuggestamoreintegratedkindofrelationality.Inthisessay,weuseadhoclanguagetorenderourvisionofthisrelationality,butacomprehensivetheoreticalsolu-tiontotheproblemcannotbeundertakenhere.Aseconddifficultyofourprojectconcernsitsscope.Hardlyanyaspectofhumanexistenceisuntouchedbyrace/ethnicity,gender,andsexuality,broadlyconceived,whichmeansthatvirtuallyallofAsianAmericanlitera-turecouldfallwithinthepurviewofthisessay.Furthermore,asscholars'collectiveunderstandingoftheseconceptsdeepens,literarytextsthatpre-viouslyappearedtobeirrelevantmaytakeonnewsignificance:astorypurportedlyabout"universal"humanexperiencesnowmaybespecifiedas"AsianAmerican,"oratextpreviouslyknownmainlyforits"ethniccon-tent"maynowbereadforitsinsightsongenderconstruction.Weconcen-trateonprimarysourcesthathaveemergedintheevolvingcriticaltraditionasofspecialinteresttoscholarsofgenderandsexuality,althoughnotallofthesedealexplicitlywithgenderandsexuality.OurunderstandingofgenderandsexualityinAsianAmericanliterature,however,isnecessarilyshapedbystudiesofthesametopicsinlargerculturalcontexts,especiallywithregardtofilmandtelevision.1Moreover,withtheincreasingpopular-ityofculturalstudiesapproaches,manyAsianAmericancriticsinterestedingenderandsexualityanalyzenotonlyprintliteraturebutalsotheater,film,video,photographyandothervisualart,performanceart,popularculture,andevenfashionandcosmeticsurgery,oftenwithinthesamestudy.2Werecognize,then,thatourfocusonprintliteratureofabelletris-ticcharacteris,tosomeextent,arbitrary,dictatedmorebypracticalcon-straintsonscopeandbyourownbackgroundsthanbytheoreticaljustifi-See,e.g.,Engelhardt1976;E.Wong1978;Tajima1989;Fung1991a,1991b;Mar-chetti1993;andHamamoto1994.2See,e.g.,Moy1993;S.C.Wong1993b;E.Kim1996;L.Lowe1996;Kondo1997;R.Lee1999;andPalumbo-Liu1999.Thiscontentdownloadedfrom115.27.205.89onFri,21Apr201701:46:50UTCAllusesubjecttohttp://about.jstor.org/termsSIGNSAutumn1999I173cations.3Wehopethattheunavoidablegapsinourcoveragewillbepartlycompensatedforbythedelineationofaserviceable"bigpicture."AnoverviewofoverviewsAnumberofsecondarysourcesalreadyprovidecross-ethnicandcross-gender"bigpictures"ofvariousaspectsofgenderandsexualityinAsianAmericanliterature.ElaineKim'sAsianAmericanLiterature:AnIntroduc-tiontotheWritingsandTheirSocialContext(1982),althoughabroadgen-eralstudy,issosaturatedwithobservationsongenderandsexualitythatitisstillthemostusefulintroductiontothesubjectforanewcomertoAsianAmericanliterature.KimidentifiesAsianAmericangenderandsexualitystereotypesfromthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesthatare,withvariations,stilloperativeinAmericansocietytoday(3-22),andsheintroducesthedebatesaboutAsianAmericanmanhoodandwomanhoodthatcenteredonFrankChinandMaxineHongKingstonbeginningintheso-calledculturalnationalistperiod(173-213).ManyofthesociohistoricalphenomenathatKimlinkstorepresentationsofgenderandsexuality-malelaborimmigrationandbachelorhood,familyseparation,Exclusionandantimiscegenationlaws,prostitution,internment,andotheractsofinstitutionalracism,OrientalistexoticizationofAsiansexuality,emascula-tionofmen,andhyperfeminizationofwomen-cametoberevisitedbyotherscholars.AlthoughtheseconcernsweresharedbymanyduringtheAsianAmericanmovement(Ting1998),Kim'sbookfocusesthemforlit-eraryscholarsinparticular.Kimalsooffersabrieferandmorefocusedoverviewofgenderandsexu-alityinhersurveyessay"'SuchOppositeCreatures':MenandWomeninAsianAmericanLiterature"(1990b).Sheaddressesthestereotypicaldesex-ualizationofAsianAmericanmenandhypersexualizationofAsianAmeri-canwomen:"AsianwomenareonlysexualforthesamereasonthatAsianmenareasexual:bothexisttodefinethewhiteman'svirilityandthewhiterace'ssuperiority"(70).Inseparatesectionsonmaleandfemaleimages,shereviewskeytextspublishedbetween1937(whenYounghillKang'sEastGoesWestappeared)and1989(whenAmyTan'sTheJoyLuckClubandKingston'sTripmasterMonkeybothcameout),notingrecurrentthemes3Weconsiderourselvesprimarilyliteraryscholars,andwearemoreinformedaboutandattunedtoprosenarrativesthantodramaandpoetry,toEastAsianAmericanmorethantoSouthandSoutheastAsianAmericanliterature,andtoolder,"canonized"titlesmorethantorecentworks.Furthermore,whilethecategoriesinourframeworkmayshowamaterialistbias,wedonotsubscribetoamechanistic-reflectivemodelofliterature;weprefertoempha-sizetheperformativepoweroflanguage,ofnamingandnarrating.Thiscontentdownloadedfrom115.27.205.89onFri,21Apr201701:46:50UTCAllusesubjecttohttp://about.jstor.org/terms174IWongandSantaAnasuchasAsianAmericanmen'spreoccupationwithwhitewomenasasym-bolofAmericanpromise,theirmetaphoricassociationoftheAsianwomanwiththehomeland,theweak(ened)orabsentmanofthefamily,women'sheroizationofstrongmothers,andthevitalityofmother-daughterbonds.Kimarguesthatwhen"AsianpatriarchywaspushedasideorsubsumedbyanAmericanpatriarchythatdidnot,becauseofracism,extenditspromisetoAsianAmericanmen,"themenrespondedby"attemptingtoreassertmaleauthorityovertheculturaldomainandoverwomenbysubordinatingfeminismtonationalistconcerns"(1990b,75).However,thesamecondi-tionsempoweredsomewomen(73),allowingthemto"claimAmerica"aswellasafemaleselfandsubjectivityforthemselves(81).Asinallofherwork,Kiminsistshereontheimportanceofhistoricalunderstandingtoissuessuchasgenderroles.RussellLeong'sforeword(1995a)toGeraldineKudaka'sOnaBedofRice:AnAsianAmericanEroticFeast(1995)offersahistoricalaccountofhowAsianAmericans'"lives,includingoursexuality,weretestedbyourexperienceofraceandracismintheUnitedStates"(xiv).Inadditiontodiscriminatorylegislationanddamagingstereotypes,Leongstressesglobalcolonialencountersasasourceofdistortedracial/sexualimagesofAsians.Hediscusseslibidinalinhibitionscausedbyimmigrantfamilies'urgentstrugglesforsurvivalandthe"modelminority"pressuretoconform(sexu-allyandotherwise),especiallyforAmerican-borngenerations.HisessayalsoprovidesglimpsesofsignificantculturalmomentsinAsianAmericanwritingongenderandsexuality,fromCantonesefolkrhymesintheExclu-sionperiodtotextsofthe1990s.Themid-1990ssawthepublicationofseveralusefuloverviewsofAsianAmericangayandlesbianwritingaswell.KarinAguilar-SanJuan's"Land-marksinLiteraturebyAsianAmericanLesbians"(1993)istheproductofasearchforpioneersinanemergingtradition.AliceHomandMing-YuenMa(1993)offeranextensivelistofpublishedandforthcomingliteraryprojects(1993,26-30),andDavidEngandCandaceFujikane(1995)in-troduceissuessuchascomingout,empowerment,andcoalitionalpolitics;therevisionofdominanthistory;the"ricequeen"and"stickyrice"phe-nomena;classdisparities,exploitation,andviolencewithinhomosexualrelationships;andHIV/AIDS.RussellLeong'sintroduction(1996b)toAsianAmericanSexualities:DimensionsoftheGayandLesbianExperience(1996a)explores"linkagesbetweenraceandsame-sexsexuality"(2),andhisextensivefootnotesarearichsourceofinformationonliteraturebylesbian,gay,andbisexualAsianAmericanwriters;earlyAsianAmericanpublicationsandcoursesongenderandsexuality;andcommunityactiv-ism,includingHIV/AIDSactivism.Cheung'sInterethnicCompaniontoAsianAmericanLiterature(1997a)Thiscontentdownloadedfrom115.27.205.89onFri,21Apr201701:46:50UTCAllusesubjecttohttp://about.jstor.org/termsSIGNSAutumn1999I175containsathumbnailreviewofstereotypicalrepresentationsofAsianAmericanmenandwomen;androcentricculturalnationalism;feministin-terventions(bothU.S.-orientedandinconjunctionwith"thirdworld"cri-tiquesofimperialismandwhiteliberalfeminism);andtherecentsurgeinlesbianandgaywritingandtheorizing(1997b,10-13).Inthesamevol-ume,JinqiLingexploresthe"'emasculation'oftheAsianAmericanman;thepoliticsofsimultaneousarticulationsofgenderedsubjectivities;andgendertransgressionasarepresentationalstrategyfordisruptinghierarchi-calassumptionsaboutheterosexualrelationships"(1997,312).Althoughthestatedtopicofhisessayismasculinity,Lingisinfactinterestedinthegeneral"broadeningofdiscourseongender"inrecenttimesanditspoten-tialforeffectingsocialchange(331-32).Heseesthemid-1970sasaturn-ingpointinAsianAmericanliterarypractice,afterwhich"theissueofgen-derhasbecomeaconsciouslyemployedidentitypoliticsinAsianAmericanliterature"(313).YenLeEspiritu'sAsianAmericanWomenandMen:Labor,Laws,andLove,alsopublishedin1997,analyzesthe"intersectionsofrace,class,andgen-der"forageneralreadershiptoshowhowthe"historicaloppressionofAsianAmericanmenandwomen,alongbothmaterialandculturallines...(re)structurestherulesofgenderintheAsianAmericancommunity"(7).Writtenbyasocialscientist,thisinterdisciplinarybookmakesexten-sivereferencetoworksofliteraturewhoseportrayalsofAsianAmericanwomenandmenillustratetheauthor'sgenderanalysis.Thechaptermostusefultothenewcomeris"IdeologicalRacismandCulturalResistance,ConstructingOurOwnImages"(86-107);however,Espiritu'sapproachdiscouragesisolatingthischapterfrommaterialonimmigrationlaws,labormarketforces,incomestatistics,andothernonliteraryphenomena.Espi-rituemphasizestheseemingdualityofracializedgender:"Asianmenhavebeencastasbothhypersexualandasexual,andAsianwomenhavebeenrenderedbothsuperfeminineandmasculine"(106),dependingontheideologicalneedofthedominantsocietyinanygivenhistoricalsituation.Gender,sexuality,andhistoryAviewsharedbymostifnotalloftheabovecriticsisthatgenderandsexualityinAsianAmericanliteraturecannotbeunderstoodapartfromAsianAmericanhistory.Theemergence,transformation,orpersistenceofspecificgenderandsexualitythemesisalwaystiedtohistoricalconditions.Heedingourpredecessors'concernwithadequatehistoricalcontextualiza-tion,wehaveorganizedthisreviewessaychronologicallyintoperiods(whichwerefertosimplyasthefirst,second,andthirdperiods),withthe-maticsectionsundereach.PrimarysourcesmostlyfollowachronologicalThiscontentdownloadedfrom115.27.205.89onFri,21Apr201701:46:50UTCAllusesubjecttohttp://about.jstor.org/terms176IWongandSantaAnapresentation(whichforeshortensthefirstcenturyofAsianpresenceintheUnitedStatesbutgivesmoredetailedattentiontopublicationssincetheAsianAmericanmovementofthelate1960sandearly1970s).Secondarysources,however,arenotnecessarilytreatedchronologically;ifa"late"criticalstudyradicallyrevisesourviewofan"early"literarywork,itmaybediscussedinconjunctionwiththelatter.The"history"towhichweallude,ofcourse,isitselfhistoricallypro-duced.Thenarrativizationof"AsianAmericanhistory,"arecentlyinventedcategory,isacomplexsubject(S.Chan1996),andfeministchallengestoAsianAmericanhistoriographyhavecastdoubtonthenotionofaunani-mouslyacceptedaccountofthepast(see,e.g.,E.Kim1990a;Okihiro1994).Eventhoughdocumentedevents,suchasthepassageoftheChi-neseExclusionAct,theinternmentofJapaneseAmericans,andtheanti-FilipinoriotinWatsonville,clearlyhavean"objective"existence,theirmeaningforAsianAmericansisacontestedmatter.ThereisnouniversalAsianAmericansubjectwhoisethnicfirst,beforebeinggender-orsexuality-identified,justasthereisnosuchthingasagender-orsexuality-transcending,genericallyethnichistory.EithneLuibheid(1998)hasstud-iedthewaysimmigrationlegislationwasusedtoregulateAsianAmericans'andothergroups'sexualities(bothhetero-andhomo-),andJenniferTing(1995,1998)haspersuasivelydemonstratedthatcertainAsianAmericanhistoricalnarrativeswidelycirculatedsincetheAsianAmericanmovementofthelate1960sandearly1970sareshotthroughwithimplicitassump-tionsaboutgenderandsexuality.Forexample,standarddescriptionsofExclusion'sgrievous"distortions"ofChineseAmericanlife-the"bachelorsociety,"theshortageofwomen,abnormalfemale-maleratios,malesexualdeprivation,enforcedchildlessness,"papersons,"etc.-arepervadedbyheteronormativity,whichallowsfor"onlytwocategoriesofthinkingsex-conjugalheterosexualityandnonconjugalheterosexuality"(Ting1995,274)andconstruessame-sexbondsasabnormal.Furthermore,heteronor-mativityoftenhasanaturalizedracialdimension,suchthatcertaindesires(e.g.,anAsianAmericanman'sattractiontowhitewomen)becomecultur-allyunintelligibleorunacceptable.Thusracialformationcannotbecon-ceptualizedaspriororsuperordinatetogenderandsexualityformations,andcaremustbetakentoacknowledgetherealhistoricalinjuriesinflictedonAsianAmericanswithoutreplicatinggenderandsexuality"defaultas-sumptions,"suchasthe"normality"(andimplieduniversaldesirability)ofthepatriarchalfamily.Wetreatmen'sandwomen'swritingsinseparatesubsectionsinthefirstandsecondperiodsinordertohistoricallycontextualizeAsianAmericangenderandsexualityassocioculturalconstructs.IfracialformationsoftheAsianAmericansubjectcannotbeadequatelyunderstoodapartfromgen-Thiscontentdownloadedfrom115.27.205.89onFri,21Apr201701:46:50UTCAllusesubjecttohttp://about.jstor.org/termsSIGNSAutumn1999I177derandsexuality,itisalsoimportanttorecognizethewaysracistlawsanddiscriminatorypracticesaffectfirstandsecondperiodwriters'understand-ingsofthemselvesasgenderedandsexualbeings.Thatfirstperiodmalewriters,forinstance,implicitlyunderstandraciallymotivatedactsofvio-lenceasdistortionsanddisruptionsoftheirownmanhoodandpatriarchalclaimstopower,andthattheyroutinelyexpressconcernsabouta(patri-archal)masculinitycrisis,callsforanexaminationoftheirworkinagender-specificcategoryof"men'swriting."Bythesametoken,womenwritersofthefirstandsecondperiodsfacedandrocentricandOrientalistmanipulationsoftheirgenderandsexualityandraciallygenderedvio-lence-psychologicalandphysical-thatrepressedtheirsexuality.Forthesereasons,itishelpfultorecognizegender-specificthematicconcernsintheseperiodsinseparatecategoriesonmen'sandwomen'swriting.4Finally,whileissuesfromthefirstandsecondperiodspersistinthethird,morerecentwritingsbycounternormativeortransgressive(e.g.,queer)AsianAmericansproblematizepreviousunderstandingsofmanyoftheseissuesasgender-specific.TransgenderedAsianAmericanwriters,forexample,maybelessconcernedwithdelineatingandclaimingamasculineorfeminineidentitythanwithcriticizingtheviolenceofaheteronormativeAmericanculturethatconsiderspeoplewithambiguousormultiplegen-derstobeaberrantorsick.Likewise,contemporaryliteraryandcriticalcollaborationsbetweenAsianAmericanwomenandmenelideorattheveryleastresistnotionsof"natural"genderdifferenceinwriting.Collabo-rationssuchasEngandHom'srecentqueerstudiesanthology(1998b)andthisreviewessayunderscoretheneedfordiversemethodologiesthatargueagainstanessentializingdifferencebetweenwomen'sandmen'swrit-ingsinthethirdperiod.Thefirstperiod:Violenceand"deviance"(1850s-1950s)Thefirstperiodismarkedonthemateriallevelbypredominantlymaleimmigration,arelativelysmallpopulationofwomen,fewconjugalfamiliesandAmerican-bornoffspring,theovertuseofracialcategoriestooppressAsians,andstrongassimilationistpressuresfromthedominantsociety.5Onthewhole,literarytreatmentofgenderandsexualitytendstobemore4TheroleofviolenceintheconstructionofAsianAmericangenderandsexualityisad-dressedinJ.Chang1995(esp.forwomenpoets)andNguyen1997.5Withinthisperiod,WorldWarII,ofcourse,isawatershedeventthatprecipitateddrasticchangesingenderrolesforAsianAmericans;nevertheless,wedecidednottofurthersub-dividethefirstperiodsoastostressitscontrastswiththechangeswroughtbythe1960ssocialmovementsandthe1965immigrationreform,whichtransformedtheAsianAmericanpopulationonanimmensescale.Thiscontentdownloadedfrom115.27.205.89onFri,21Apr201701:46:50UTCAllusesubjecttohttp://about.jstor.org/terms178IWongandSantaAnaimplicitandlesstheoreticallydriventhaninlaterperiods,althoughtre-mendousvariationsexist.WorksbymalewritersoftendepictanAsianAmericanmalesubjectivityproducedthroughviolence.AsianAmericanwomenexperienceviolencetoo,buttypicallyindifferentforms,andwomenwritershavehadtobattlebothracismandpatriarchyfromthestart.Yet,evenduringthisearlyperiod,writersofbothsexesmodifythearchetypalpatriarchalAsianfamilyinvariousways.Duringthefirstperiod,AsianAmericangenderandsexualitywereun-derstood,first(bythedominantsociety),assoatoddswithwhitenormsastobeatbestexotic,atworstfreakish,and,later(byAsianAme