正文,参考文献致谢语

正文,参考文献致谢语 1. Introduction With the coming of the era of information, economy and knowledge, the international communication turns to be more and more frequent. Meanwhile, both the spread of technology and information and the sharing of resource and education all around the world happen in our daily life. English is the tool used in most of international activities. So it is quite necessary to master English well for each citizen. Great deal of financial and material resources has been invested into the education of English in China. Even though we have got some developments, the level of English Education is under the level required by the evolution of the economy. It is an effective method to instruct students to apply learning strategies in learning English to improve the quality of education. For this reason, the survey on English learning strategies is worth to promote, it is meaningful for English learners in junior middle school of rural areas where the quality of education is under-developed. 2. Literature Review This part introduces some general knowledge of language learning strategies including its definition and classification. 2.1 Definitions and Classifications of Language Learning Strategies The definition of language learning strategies has been argued about by experts and scholars for a long time. Early researchers tended to make lists of strategies and features presumed to be essential for all “good L2 learners” (Rubin, 1975), Oxford defines strategies as “steps taken by learners to endure their own learning” (1990, p.1), O?Malley and Chamot?s definition is “the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information” (1990), Cohen defines learning strategies as “learning processes which are consciously selected by the learner ”(2000). Wen Qiufang in China proposes that learning strategies is “measures that are taken to improve efficient learning”. Wen Qiufang made 1 emphasis on two points: the efficiency of employing learning strategies to improve the learning, the learner?s outer and inner activity when he employs learning strategies. 2.2 Different Classifications of Language Learning Strategies In the early period of strategies research, most researchers put their emphasis on the strategy definitions instead of making much research on strategies classification (Ellis, 1994). With the further study, the significance of classifying language learning strategies began to be realized. But the ways to classify language learning strategies were as various as those to define language learning strategies. 2.2.1. The Classification by Oxford Based on the relation between strategies and language materials, Oxford (1990) classified learning strategies into two groups: direct strategies and indirect strategies. Direct strategies refers to those strategies that have direct relation to the language materials, it includes memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies. Memory strategies help learners link one item or conception with another without involving deep understanding. Such as acronyms, sound similarity. Memory strategies are composed of four steps: creating images in mind, applying images and sounds, reviewing well, and employing actions. Cognitive strategies include practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output. Analyzing, note taking and reasoning deductively, enable learners to understand and produce language by a variety of different means. Compensation strategies, such as guessing intelligently and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing, are included in this category. The indirect strategies include three types: metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies. Metacognitive strategies, such as setting goals and planning for language task, are used to manage the learning process overall. Metacognitive strategies include actions such as centering learning, arranging and planning learning, and evaluating learning. Affective strategies, such as rewarding oneself, talking about feelings, help learners manage their 2 emotions and motivation level. Three main sets of affective strategies exist: lowing one?s anxiety, encouraging oneself, and taking one?s emotional temperature. Social strategies, such as asking for classification, involve interaction between and among people. They include asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing with others. Oxford?s classification is more comprehensive and operational. According to the classification, the learners are easier to choose the strategies they need with greater assurance and confidence. 2.2.2. The Classification by Cohen On the basis of the hypothesis that language learning was a combination of receptive and productive process, Cohen (2000) grouped learning strategies into two types: language-learning strategies and language-using strategies. The language-learning strategies possess five subtypes: identifying the materials for teaching, distinguishing it from other materials, grouping it for easier learning, and repeatedly engaging oneself in contacting the materials. The language-using strategies mainly include four subtypes: retrieval strategies, rehearsal strategies, cover strategies and communication strategies. Obviously there are many difficulties in practicing Cohen? classification. Because it is difficult to draw a line between learning strategies and using strategies in a special context. 2.2.3. The Classification by O’Malley and Chamot O?Malley and Chamot(1990), grouped the learning strategies into three kinds: metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, and social/affective strategies. Metacognitive strategies mean to evaluate manage and monitor the use of cognitive strategies. Metacognitive strategies can be described as ? Advance organizers; ? Directed attention; ? Selective attention; ? Self-management; ? Advance preparation; ? Self-monitoring; 3 ? Delayed production; ? Self-evaluation Cognitive strategies are employed directly in language learning activity. Some special types of strategies are: ? Repetition; ? Directed physical response; ? Translation; ? Grouping; ? Note-taking and deduction; ? Imagery, auditory representation; ? Key word and contextualization; ? Elaboration. Social/affective strategies refer to strategies that can provide more contact opportunities to the learners. Generally speaking, they can work efficiently to finish a lot of tasks. They are composed of cooperation and questions for clarification. In this model, the cognitive and metacognitive functions are given much more emphasis on, while the important social/affective aspect gets little development. Anyway it is practical in the process of learning English . 2.2.4 Four Language Learning Strategies Listed in the English Curriculum Criteria ? Cognitive Strategies: ? Establish the relations between the knowledge related by the means of imagination. ? Analyze and solve problems by deduction and induction. ? Be good at summing up the language rules of the materials and apply them in practice. ? Be good at grasping the key points, making notes in learning, and be capable by the means of situations and contexts in the process of listening and reading. ? Obtain the ability of guessing words and the main idea of each paragraph by means of situations and contexts in the process of listening and reading. ? Understand and express the information carried by tables or graphs in learning. 4 ? Self-monitoring Strategies ? Make the study plan according to the need. ? Widen the ways to learn English actively. ? Be good at creating and seizing the opportunities to learn English ? Know how to get help when meeting with difficulties in English learning. ? Communicate with the teacher and classmates on the feeling and experience in English learning. ? Evaluate self-learning and summarize efficient leaning methods, abide by memory rules and improve the memory efforts. ? Communication Strategies ? Communicate with classmates in English in class or outside class activities. ? Improve the communicative effects by means of gestures, expressions ? Be good at overcoming the language obstacles to continue the communication. ? Be good at employing various opportunities to do real communications. ? Abide by the basic courtesy in English communication. ? Resource Strategies Acquire wider English information, extend the knowledge learned by means of library, computer net, broadcast, and television. 3. Language Learning Strategies Instruction 3.1. The Rationale for Strategies Instruction 3.1.1. The definition of “language learning strategies instruction” Actually “learner training” is widely used instead of “language learning strategies instruction”. As for language learning strategies, it means “a cognitive approach to teaching that helps students learn conscious processes and techniques that facilitate the comprehension, acquisition, and retention of new skills and concepts” (Chamot &O? Malley, 1987:239). 5 3.1.2. The reasons for focusing on learning strategies instruction The goal of strategy instruction is to help students take control of their own learning process. It aims to encourage learners to self-direct their learning and promote autonomy by helping them select and evaluate learning strategies on their own(Cohen，2000). There are five reasons why the teacher should conduct learning strategies in English teaching process. By teaching students about strategies, the teacher is encouraging them to share responsibility for their learning (Cotterall & Reinders, 2007). That is meaningful because learning is done by students instead of teachers. Teachers cannot learn on behalf of their students. Therefore, what the teacher can do is to master effective ways of learning a language, and to pass on that knowledge to students. Besides, it can increase the motivation of students. Many unsuccessful students give up language learning before they achieve the level of proficiency they were hoping for. Their failure can be explained by the fact that they use inappropriate learning strategies (Cotterall & Reinders, 2007). As a result, they put less effort into their language learning and cannot experience success, so they turn to be disappointed. However, focusing on strategy instruction could help students get success and increase their motivation. Another main reason is that it promotes efficient and effective learning. Studies have shown that effective students use strategies more frequently and know how to choose the right strategy for the right task (Ellis, 1994). If language learners have a good knowledge of the strategies they use and the reasons why they use them, they will become more efficient and successful. Also, it can increase the amount of time students actually spend using the language. Students who are familiar with strategies are able to continue learning before and after the class. They know how to make sense of input in the target language; they use a plenty of strategies for practicing the target language, and they can build their vocabulary and grammatical knowledge on their own.. The final reason is that it promotes students? autonomy Crabbe(1993) identifies three arguments for promoting learner autonomy: the ideological, the psychological and the economic. The ideological argument simply states that students have the right to decide how they will approach their language learning. The psychological argument means that learners can learn better when they are in charge of their own learning. The economic argument for learner 6 autonomy is that few students will be able to pay for language instruction for the rest of their lives. At some Point, all students need to develop the ability to manage their own learning. 3.2. Approaches to Strategies Instruction In recent years, although no empirical evidence has yet been provided to determine the best method for conducting strategy instruction, at least two different instruction frameworks have been identified. 3.2.1. Cognitive Academic Language learning Approach The cognitive academic language learning approach (CALLA) is suggested by Chamot and O?Malley (1987). It can be described as a five-phase problem-solving process: preparation ?resentation?practice?evaluation?expansion. Firstly, teachers provide advance organization about the lesson, and students identify what they already know about a topic, using elaboration as a strategy. Secondly, teachers provide new information to students, using techniques which make their input comprehensible. Thirdly, students engage in activities in which they apply learning strategies, often in cooperative small-group sessions. Fourthly, students reflect on their individual learning and plan to remedy any deficiencies they may have identified. Finally, students are provided with opportunities to relate and apply the new information to the new tasks and their own lives. In China, English Curriculum Standard also makes some suggestions which are more appropriate for Chinese English teachers. Firstly, teachers need to create situations in which students can participate in setting short-term learning goals and methods employed to achieve the goals. Secondly, students should be instructed to learn by inferring, consulting and inquiring according to different contexts. Thirdly, teachers need to design inquiring activities to improve students? practicing ability and original thinking. Fourthly, students should be guided to make use of methods of observing, seeking, inducting and practicing to learn language knowledge and understand language function. Finally, students should be guided to self-evaluation learning process, and to adjust their own leaning goals and leaning strategies according to their needs. 7 3.2.2. The approach suggested by Oxford (1990) The second approach suggested by Oxford (1990) involves a useful sequence for learning strategy instruction which includes: a) discover and discuss strategies students are already using for specific learning tasks, b) present new strategies by explicitly naming and describing them, c) model the strategies, d) explain why and when the strategies can be used. e) Provide extensive practice with authentic tasks and opportunities for students to discuss their own applications of the strategies and assessment of their effectiveness. 3.2.3. The integrative instruction Based on the literature of language strategy instruction, many researchers have concluded that the most effective approach for strategy instruction would be the integration of strategy instruction into regular language classrooms(O?Malley& Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990;). The integrative instruction includes both implicit and explicit instruction of learning strategies which are incorporated into everyday class materials. The main advantage of such an approach is that students become aware of learning strategies by direct instruction, and learn to apply them to the language they are studying at the same time. Such integration of explicit (as well as implicit) strategy instruction not only results in deeper understanding of learning strategies but also promotes long- term retention of strategies(Ely, 1994). 3.2.4. The suggestions given by English Curriculum Standards (2001) In China, English Curriculum Standard also makes some suggestions which are more appropriate for Chinese English teachers. First, teachers need to create situations in which students can participate in setting short-term learning goals and methods employed to achieve the goals. Second, students should be instructed to learn by inferring, consulting and inquiring according to different contexts. Third, teachers need to design inquiring activities to improve students? practicing ability and original thinking. Fourth, students should be guided to make use of methods of observing, seeking, inducting and practicing to learn language knowledge and understand language function. Finally, students should be guided to self-evaluation learning 8 process, and to adjust their own leaning goals and leaning strategies according to their needs. 4、The Situation about Learning Strategies Instruction in Junior Middle School of Rural Areas. 4.1 The Situation about That from the Aspect of the Teachers According to “A survey on language learning strategy instruction by junior high school English teachers.” written by Wang Fang, we can first find that English teachers have the best understanding of the definition of learning strategies although they can not use the academic terms to describe it. However, the knowledge of how to diagnose the Students? use of language learning strategies, how to conduct and evaluate language learning strategies instruction is at a low level which are frequently lower than what a strategy trainer would expect them to be. Second, as for the frequency of language learning strategies instruction, all the related strategies in their English classes and the frequency is just over the high level. Among the four categories of learning strategies，cognitive strategies are the most frequently taught in the classroom, which are followed by monitoring strategies. Both of them achieve the high level. However, communicative strategies and resource strategies are taught at a medium level, of which the latter is the least frequently taught. Third, with regard to the relationship between participants? individual differences and use of strategy instruction, its analysis reveals that teachers? knowledge levels and years of teaching experience are correlated with the use of strategy instruction. The more teachers know about language learning strategies instruction, the more frequently they teach language learning strategies in their classrooms. 4.2 The Situation about That from the Aspect of the Students Depend on the results from “A survey on language learning strategy instruction by junior high school English teachers”, we can learn that students used all the four types of learning strategies identified. Management strategies were the most frequently used category of strategies, 9 followed by cognitive and communicative strategies. Resource strategies were least frequently used by students in the study. Students only sometimes employed learning strategies in their English study. In another word, the frequency of the use of these strategies was very low, which indicated that the current rural middle school students did not make full use of the English learning strategies and they did not possess the ability to employ various learning strategies flexibly to their English studies. Therefore, there were some disparities between the specifications of the Requirements and the current conditions of the students using learning strategies. 5. Suggestions on Teaching and Learning English 5.1 Suggestions on Teaching English 5.1.1. Proceed Learning Strategies Training in the Teaching Process The means of proceeding learning strategies training in the teaching process is to coduct strategies-based instruction which is a learner-centered approach to instruct learning strategies including both explicit and implicit integration of strategies into the course content beyond classroom. In the course of applying learning strategies appropriately and systematically, students can benefit a lot, What?s more, the applying of learning strategies provides students chances to discuss, communicate and compete with his classmates in class, thus make it possible to increase their motivation within the context of the typical language performed. Teachers can give students strategy training on the basis of their different features，propose language-specific strategies and reinforce them while they are presenting the regular content. The aims of this kind of instruction are to help foreign language students become more aware of: (l) The ways to improve students? learning efficiency. (2)Fostering their abilities to comprehend the target language. (3) Extending their foreign language learning to outside classroom? With the goal of fostering students? learning autonomy and being good at using appropriate 10 learning strategies in their study，teachers ought to strengthen the conduction and instruction of learning strategies purposely and systematically. For that, the teachers should: (1) Explain, demonstrate and sink in some good strategies. (2) Make students set goals of learning strategies and provide opportunities for them to put them into reality. (3)Give necessary instructions to students? learning methods and guide them to use them in concrete language tasks. (4)Conclude the strength and weaknesses of students learning according to their personal ractice. p (5)Strengthen students? sense of exploring in study by giving them creative learning assignments and improve their practical abilities. (6)Organize students to discuss about different use of strategies such as how to use it efficiently and whether students select appropriate strategies. During daily teaching activities，we mainly employ the above components into concrete steps to practice it. These components are defined as strategies training, strategies instruction, or learner training. 5.1.2. During Learning Strategies Instruction, the teachers’ roles need to switch Switching the teachers? roles in the teaching process can make learning strategies instruction effective. But in the course of teaching reform, many teachers have been worrying that changing the role of teachers will make them lose their traditional authorities in students? mind, and weaken their important value in their teaching careers. In fact, the switching of their roles not only can free teachers from too much meaningless burden, giving more freedom to students, but also can provide them chances to perform a good trainer, in this way, both teachers and students find a place suitable for them all-they will actually be taking on a series of roles. (Based in part of Oxford, 1990) Teachers can be evaluators. First, give up being controllers of class; Second, make sure that students apply proper strategies in their learning and guide them to use the right ones if not; Third, evaluate the efficiency of their learning strategy through learning achievements, learners are able to make right judgments about their use of learning strategies, while teachers are just 11 evaluators. Ideally, the diagnosis is ultimately got by the learners themselves; the teaching from teachers serves just as catalysts in proceeding the process. Teachers can perform the role of trainers，they provide necessary and effective instructions to learners on how to make good use of language strategies. Teachers can choose to train them explicitly or implicitly. It is up to teachers to decide what degree each part plays in the teaching process. For example, teacher may prefer to train learners explicitly in strategies for learning new vocabulary words rather than simply leaving it to the learners to pick up such strategies. As for the approach to learner training，Chamot and O?Malley? s(1994) sequence especially practical for students. Their approach to helping students complete language learning tasks can be described as a four-stage problem-solving process: (l)Planning: Teachers give students some specific language tasks and provide theoretical basis for it. Students are required to work out their own ways to deal with the task，choose a proper and workable strategy to fulfill their task. For example，they can establish the goals of tasks, call to mind their previous experience when they were confronted with similar tasks， predict difficulties they may meet with in the process，and selectively attend to elements of language input or output. (2)Monitoring: When tackling tasks, students are asked to „self-monitor? their performance by paying attention to their strategy use and checking comprehension. For example, they can use imagery，personalize the language task by relating information to background knowledge, reduce anxiety with positive self-talk, and cooperate with peers for practice opportunities. (3)Problem-solving: As they counter difficulties, students are expected to find their solutions. For example, they can draw inferences，ask for clarification，and compensate for lack of target language knowledge by using communication strategies such as substitution or paraphrase (4)Evaluation: After the task has been completed，the students are then give time to de-brief? the activity，i.e. evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies they used during the task. They can also be given time to verify their performance, and reflect on how they could transfer their strategies to similar language tasks or across language skills. Teachers can be coordinators, too. In the traditional class，teachers usually perform the role of the absolute authority，for which students must follow teachers? orders unconditionally，this greatly weakens the interest and creation of students. Switching as coordinators, teachers must 12 play an equal part with students in the classroom，while at the same time students can develop their ability of creation and learning autonomy. This way will improve both teaching and learning. 5.1.3. Present the Task-based Teaching Mode, and cultivate the students’ ability of using language In recent years, task-based teaching mode has become a trend in teaching method reform, which stresses those teachers should instruct students within the context of concrete language tasks. It is also advocated by the English Curriculum Criteria. Tasks refer to activities designed by the syllabus and teachers where students can achieve learning goals, with further exploration of efficient teaching mode and learning methods. Language tasks have been more and more frequently used in foreign language teaching. Teachers and educators advocate task-based teaching mode which is a pedagogical approach, stressing more about how individuals learn a language. Learners participate actively in a series of language tasks, in which they are given chances to speak, listen, read and write a target language, so as to eventually be able to acquire it. To live up to this goal, the design of concrete practical language activities is very significant. As is stated in New Curriculum Criteria, teachers should adopt task-based activities instead of simply explaining language points. Contents are divided into small activities. In the process of finishing activities, students can get full practice of using target language. They also develop their learning autonomy with motivation， Teachers should follow the principles; (l) The principle of interest. Learners can focus their attention and finish tasks only when they are interested in them. (2) The principle of application. The activities must be closely connected with learners? daily life. (3) The principle of encouragement. Teachers must design the activities with a result of giving students? sense of achievement. (4) The principle of truth. The activities should be as real as possible, so that they can trigger enthusiasm in learning. 13 (5)Activities must have clear aim and easy to practice. (6)Activities should not be too easy or too difficult. A moderate level means giving every student a chance to participate and improve their learning in the process. How to design activities is the central point in task-based teaching, because it has such a great effect on teaching efficiency that teachers must explore it actively and practice it bravely to enhance students? ability of using language 5.2 Suggestions on Learning English As we all know, becoming a successful English learner mainly depends on the learner himself or herself, so learners? autonomy is quite significant. The learner?s autonomic ability of learning English comes about through activities in practice although all types of activities are not necessarily empowering. The characteristics of empowering activities are l) New learners are recognized as legitimate members of a relevant community of practice who share or are supposed to share the value , beliefs，customs and so forth of community, as well as knowledge and skills directly related to the practice, 2) Learners work with the expert practitioners, more experienced apprentices and their peers and carry out a role, secondary as it may be, in the process of the practice with a view to become an expert too in the future and 3) support to accomplish tasks as signed to the learner is provided easily manageable tools，and by sharing experiences. If we substitute decision-making for practice in the above sentence, we come up with a description of how learner autonomy might develop. Learners are recognized as legitimate members of a decision-making body of an educational programmer and work with teachers with ectation of every one involved that learners will sooner or later take over all an exp decision-making responsibilities. Learners do not have to make major decisions at the beginning and a range of support from teachers is provided to enable them to make any decision they choose to make. That can be called as partial autonomy that they can handle with social support from the environment and thus develop their feeling of autonomy. The expectation that they will be fully autonomous in the future will further enhance the feeling. This doesn?t mean，however， that practice of learner autonomy is only possible in an ideal situation. The teachers working under a national curriculum with an assigned standard text book still have to make a series of decisions just to teach one lesson. A teacher can open the door to the practice of learner 14 autonomy by sharing whatever control she has with students. The role of teachers in the development of learner autonomy is generally considered to be that of facilitate, counselors or resource provider (Voller, 1997). According to Voller, both facilitators and counselors provide psychosocial and technical supports, the difference between the two being that the former mostly work with groups and the latter in one-to-one situation. Psychosocial support refers to caring and to motivating learners as well as for raising learners? awareness. Technical support refers to helping learners to plan and carry out their learning, to evaluate themselves, and to acquire the skills and knowledge needed to plan, implement and evaluate their learning. 6. Conclusion This paper mainly deals with how to employ language strategies instruction in the teaching process, and how to employ language strategies in learning English. The great experts? and scholars? achievements have been quoted such as their opinions about definitions and classifications. Then the language strategies instruction and the situation of learning strategies instruction in junior middle school in rural areas are discussed. Finally, some suggestions which are suitable for improve the situation are given depending on the great experts? and scholars? achievements. The thesis is aimed at finding efficient ways to improve the English learning and teaching situations in junior middle school in rural areas. The suggestions may not be so representative; so much more researches on this topic should be done. 15 Bibliography Chamot，A.& O?Malley, 1987. The cognitive academic language learning approach: A bridge to the mainstream. TESOL Quarterly 21(2)，227-249 Cohen, A. D. 2000. Strategies in learning and using a second language. Beijing: Beijing Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Cotterall, S. & Reinders, H, 2007. 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Pennycook, A, 1997.Cultural alternatives and autonomy. In Benson, P. and Voller, R. r (Eds.) Autonomy and Independence in language learning. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. Rubin, J. 1975. What good language learner can teach us? TESOL Quarterly 9, 1: 41-51. Tang Zhiyong [唐智勇], 2005. “A Survey of learning strategies in Middle School.” MA thesis. Liaoning Teachers? University. Wang Fang [王芳], 2009. “A survey on language learning strategy instruction by junior high school English teachers.” MA thesis. Capital Normal University. Wen Qiufang [文秋芳]，1995，英语学习成功者与不成功者在方法上的差异，《外语教学与研究》，3:61-66。 中华人民共和国教育部，全日制义务教育普通高级中学英语课程 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 (实验稿)，北京: 北京师范大学出版社，2001。 16 Acknowledgements Here I would like to give my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Wang Zhenli. Without his valuable academic instructions and patient guidance, I cannot work out my thesis. I enjoyed his insightful remarks, brilliant ideas, and at-any-help, and I benefited a great deal from his favor in all kinds of forms. My thanks also go to all the other professors and teachers who have passed knowledge to me in the past four years. 17