印章的收藏和鉴赏

印章的收藏和鉴赏 一、印章材料的品种 印章材料(简称印材)就是雕刻印章所用的不同物质材料。在秦王朝前所用材料大都是金、银、铜、犀角、象牙等，但从出土的战国时代的官、私印来看，绝大多数是铜质，也有玉印、石印，但犀角和象牙印尚未见过。秦汉至南北朝印章仍使用在封泥上，最多见的也是铜印，间有玉、金、银、铁等。在封建时代不仅印名有等级区别，官印印材也有等级限制，其次序是金玉最贵，银次之，钢又次之。但对于私印印材却没有限制。 隋唐以后，印章是加盖在绢纸上的，不受封泥限制，印型也逐渐有所增大，印材以铜质为多见。宋代出现了瓷印，则又是一种新型的印材。这时私印印材的范围更广，有竹木，有金石，有玉，有银，有角，有牙。总之，在明以前的官印中铜质最多，私印印材较广，明以后的印材主要是花乳石。 花乳石的质地比金铜等金属较松软，易于上刀篆刻，因此用花乳石雕成的印章，其字迹大多给人一种从容不迫、一气呵成的感觉。而金属印章则不同，如铜印一般是先铸成型，然后才雕字，因而十分艰难。从价格上讲，花乳石产于山间田野，不似金、玉、角、牙那么昂贵。从印章的艺术欣赏角度而言，花乳石含有优美的天然花纹和不同的色泽，经过磨琢，其美观甚至远过金玉。鉴于以上三个原因，花乳石在明代一被发现就迅速传开，成为印章的通用材料。 花乳石是一个总名，因产地不同，各得其名。最著名的有青田石、寿山石、昌化石。 1.青田石。青田石产于浙江省青田县，县城东南的山口、图书山、方山、岩垄、白、封门山等地都以产这种石而闻名，尤以方山产量最丰富。青田石一般夹杂在坚石之中，因而大块极少见，其纹理细腻温润，易于刻写，并能充分体现字体的书写风格和形态，颜色有黄、白、青、绿、黑等，而以冻石为最上乘。所谓"冻"是指石质细腻透明，冻石中又分好几等，而以灯光冻最为昂贵。 灯光冻:这种石头通体透明纯洁，用灯光一照还闪闪发光，耀人眼目，故称灯光冻，是青田石中的最上品，可谓石中之石。其色白中略显黄，纹理坚致细密，价比金玉。 黄色冻:颜色像蜜蜡，光洁可爱，稍次于灯光冻。 鱼脑冻:颜色青白如鱼脑，半透明如玉。 田白:纯白如玉。 墨田:纯黑色。 酱油冻:褐黄花，或深黄带灰色，又称牛角冻。 atmospheric pressure vessel 4 GB50231-2009 mechanical equipment installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for 5 GB50275-98 compressor, fan and pump installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for lifting 6 HG20201-2000 construction installation engineering construction standard 7, HG ... Pressure gauges, using an installed spark arrestor for acetylene cylinders, illegal carrying, using gas cylinders, each operator fined 20 Yuan. Gas bottle without the hot sun exposure measures, responsibilities of team a fine of 50 Yuan. (7) at height and the opening and provisional protective measures have been taken, the responsible unit fined 200 Yuan, construction person in charge a fine of 50 Yuan. (8) no permit to work and the job in accordance with the provisions, on the job unit fined 300 yuan, the unit will charge a fine of 100 Yuan. 7.5.3 accident penalties (1) injuries fatalities directly punished 1~2 million. Direct responsibility for the accident and have the corresponding responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions, should be brought to the company or the relevant Department. (2) personal injury accident occurred, the direct punishment 0.5-10,000 yuan, responsible for the direct responsibility for the accident and the responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions should be dealt with by the personnel Department of the company. (3) personal injury accident occurs, the direct punishment 500-1000, who is directly responsible for the accident responsibility, give notice of criticism and 50-100 economic sanctions against them. (4) to conceal the accident, reported without undue delay or false, to inform the administrative leadership of the criticism, resulting in serious consequences, the pursuit 松皮冻(松花冻):带有红、黄、黑斑纹，和其他石比起来略显坚硬。 白果冻;浅黄色的底子呈现全绿色，纯净得如同煮熟的龙眼一般。 薄荷冻:绿色中稍含青灰色，质地匀润，又称梅根。 紫檀冻:紫色中略带微黄。 2.寿山石。寿山石产于福建侯官县寿山(今福建省福州市北30公里芙蓉峰下)，寿山又名塔山。寿山的石质较青田石坚硬细致。寿山石中因质量和产区不同又有田坑、水坑、山坑之别。田坑是指产于山谷山湾的田野之中，为寿山石中的上品。水坑是指产于山溪山涧岩窦之处，次于田坑所产。山坑是指产于山中石间，是寿山石最早发现的地方。据史书记载，早在宋朝时，寿山石即被开采，不过那时并不是用来制造印章，而是被加工成各种石雕的小玩艺，十分流行畅销。后来由于开采量很大，毁坏了田地和道路，宋王朝遂下令禁止开采，此后数百年间也就无人问津。直至清康熙年间，福建人陈日浴在偶然中发现了寿山石可雕刻印章，而且成品优雅精美，于是入山开采，渐渐使寿山石印为天下所宝。现按寿山石的三坑，对寿山石作一介绍，以资鉴别与收藏。 (1)田坑。 田黄:亦称阗黄。有黄、白、红、黑四种颜色，其纹理就如同树心纹一样，越往里越密， 表 关于同志近三年现实表现材料材料类招标技术评分表图表与交易pdf视力表打印pdf用图表说话 pdf 层的纹状带有类似蛤模皮一样的斑点，内层纹却似萝卜丝或橘瓤纹状。田黄又按它的天然色分为好几等，其中橘皮黄最贵，余下依次为金黄、桂花黄、熟粟黄、枇杷黄等。田黄石的上品比金玉要珍贵得多。 都灵坑:一作都丞坑，又作杜陵坑，清道光初年开始发掘，有黄、白、红三色，质地比因黄稍坚，有全透明的，也有半透明的，偶而杂有沙点和白点。如果是纯洁无疵的，则会隐隐现出萝卜纹来，其中以金黄为贵，次为桂花黄，最次为枇杷黄。 迷翠寮:产于都灵坑顶，质地细腻，透彻不及都灵。其中有纯洁而黄的类似田黄，也有黄色中带金点的: (2)水坑。 鱼脑冻:又名白水晶，是水坑中的上品，其中又以坑头洞和水晶洞两处所产为贵。质地坚硬透明。色泽则以白如凝脂、黄如油酥者为贵。 天蓝冻:又称蔚蓝天，也产于坑头、水晶二洞。质地细腻，有棉花状花纹。其色纯净通灵，如雨过天青，是水坑中仅次于鱼脑冻的产品。 牛角冻:产于坑头洞，色如牛角，但比牛角显得通明而有灵气。有纹如犀角的，有颜色微黄的，以白色而显出萝卜纹的为上品，蓝白色的次之。 瓜瓤红:又名肉脂，产于坑头洞。其红处色泽鲜艳如三春桃花，白处则又纯洁如玉。 atmospheric pressure vessel 4 GB50231-2009 mechanical equipment installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for 5 GB50275-98 compressor, fan and pump installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for lifting 6 HG20201-2000 construction installation engineering construction standard 7, HG ... Pressure gauges, using an installed spark arrestor for acetylene cylinders, illegal carrying, using gas cylinders, each operator fined 20 Yuan. Gas bottle without the hot sun exposure measures, responsibilities of team a fine of 50 Yuan. (7) at height and the opening and provisional protective measures have been taken, the responsible unit fined 200 Yuan, construction person in charge a fine of 50 Yuan. (8) no permit to work and the job in accordance with the provisions, on the job unit fined 300 yuan, the unit will charge a fine of 100 Yuan. 7.5.3 accident penalties (1) injuries fatalities directly punished 1~2 million. Direct responsibility for the accident and have the corresponding responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions, should be brought to the company or the relevant Department. (2) personal injury accident occurred, the direct punishment 0.5-10,000 yuan, responsible for the direct responsibility for the accident and the responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions should be dealt with by the personnel Department of the company. (3) personal injury accident occurs, the direct punishment 500-1000, who is directly responsible for the accident responsibility, give notice of criticism and 50-100 economic sanctions against them. (4) to conceal the accident, reported without undue delay or false, to inform the administrative leadership of the criticism, resulting in serious consequences, the pursuit (3)山坑。 高山冻:产于高山洞等处。高山产石之多，种色之繁，为寿山诸坑之冠，颜色有红、黄、蓝、白。白色中，有纯白带红点的，似昌化之星星;有白而晶莹的，叫做高山晶。红色中，有叫美人红的，如薄纱笼玉体。 芙蓉冻:质地细腻圆润，鲜灵稍逊于白水晶，以藕尖白为贵，猪油白为次，雪白又次。也有淡黄色的，也有嫩青色的(被称为芙蓉青)。 奇良:半透明，有光泽，多为黄、白二色，从质地上看坚而易刻，黄色的光彩夺目，如阳光下成熟的橙子。 3.昌化石。主要产于浙江昌化县的康山玉石矿，有水坑和旱坑之别。水坑所产石质细腻，旱坑所产石质干燥坚顽，且含有比铁还硬的砂钉，镂刻十分不易，因此昌化石也就以水坑所产为贵。由于昌化石中多带红块，如同鸡血，故又称"鸡血石"。鉴别昌化石的优劣有两个 标准 excel标准偏差excel标准偏差函数exl标准差函数国标检验抽样标准表免费下载红头文件格式标准下载 --质地和颜色。质地上以羊脂冻为最贵，其白如玉，半透明。次为乌冻，深灰色，半透明。颜色以全红为上，四面红次之，对面红又次之，顶脚红与局部红为最下。如果质地属羊脂冻，颜色为全红，最为珍贵，价值甚至超过田黄。有的昌化石比较粗劣，血块不够成熟，石贩子就把它用油炸一下，使里面的血色外露，如果不识则很容易上当受骗。事实上鉴别的方法也很简单，只要用刀在红处轻轻地刻划一下，再到亮处去对照，看看划过后所呈的红色和周围的颜色是否相同，若不同，则很有可能是伪制。 以上介绍的只是三大名石，它们的等级和种类也远不止这些。此外还有大松石(产浙江宁波大松所)、阴洞石(产广州)、房山石(产北京房山县)、辽山石(产辽宁)等等。但这些石的质地一般比较粗劣，色彩和画纹也缺少自然之美，但它们在某些地方却和名石十分相似，因而为作伪者和石贩们所青睐。 总之，石不论产于何地，都以老坑所产为佳。因为这些石头中一般含有大量水分，而且色彩不败，又易于篆刻。新坑所产则质地太软嫩，易腐蚀，刻成数年后即多出现裂纹，或者朱文(阳文)则细者变粗，白文(阴文)则粗者变细，刀法笔法全失其真，色彩上也渐渐变得老旧，失鲜明之感。 二、印章的基本常识 印章的内容很广，特征也因不同的印材而异，刻法也有种种术语，了解这些知识对于收藏和鉴赏都有很大用处。下面就简单介绍一些常识。 1.阴(白)文印、阳(朱)文印、阴阳间文印。印章上文字或图像有凹凸两种形体，四下的称阴文(又称雌字)，反之称阳文。但古代的称法和现在正相反，因为古人是按照印章印在封泥上的印记来称阴阳文的，在封泥上呈现的阴文，在印章上却是阳文;在封泥上是阳文的，在印章上却是阴文。因此，为了避免误会，就把阴文称为白文，阳文称为朱文。有的印章中杂有白文朱文，就称“朱白间文印”。一般说来，古印中多为白大印，字体幽雅有古意，笔势壮健，转折处宜一气呵成。白文印字体一般肥而不失之于臃肿，瘦而不失之于枯槁，得心应手，妙在自然，最忌矫揉造作。朱文印始于六朝，盛行于唐宋，字体清雅，笔锋尽露，但笔迹不能粗、粗则显俗气。 atmospheric pressure vessel 4 GB50231-2009 mechanical equipment installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for 5 GB50275-98 compressor, fan and pump installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for lifting 6 HG20201-2000 construction installation engineering construction standard 7, HG ... Pressure gauges, using an installed spark arrestor for acetylene cylinders, illegal carrying, using gas cylinders, each operator fined 20 Yuan. Gas bottle without the hot sun exposure measures, responsibilities of team a fine of 50 Yuan. (7) at height and the opening and provisional protective measures have been taken, the responsible unit fined 200 Yuan, construction person in charge a fine of 50 Yuan. (8) no permit to work and the job in accordance with the provisions, on the job unit fined 300 yuan, the unit will charge a fine of 100 Yuan. 7.5.3 accident penalties (1) injuries fatalities directly punished 1~2 million. Direct responsibility for the accident and have the corresponding responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions, should be brought to the company or the relevant Department. (2) personal injury accident occurred, the direct punishment 0.5-10,000 yuan, responsible for the direct responsibility for the accident and the responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions should be dealt with by the personnel Department of the company. (3) personal injury accident occurs, the direct punishment 500-1000, who is directly responsible for the accident responsibility, give notice of criticism and 50-100 economic sanctions against them. (4) to conceal the accident, reported without undue delay or false, to inform the administrative leadership of the criticism, resulting in serious consequences, the pursuit 2.铸印、凿印。金属印章，不论官私，一般是先雕泥范，然后用翻砂法或拔蜡法冶铸而成，这就称为“铸印”。古代印章大多是连印文一起铸成的。非金属印如玉石等，不能冶铸，只能用刀凿刻。也有金属印章先铸成形，然后凿刻印文的，一般称这种印为“凿印”。凿印有工整和粗劣之分，有官印因急于封拜，不待范铸而匆匆凿成应用、因而被称为“急就章”。 3.两面印、多面印、子母印。一面刻字，另一面刻姓名，或一面刻姓名，另一面刻职位称号，或一面刻姓名，另一面刻吉语、图像等，凡两面都刻有印文的则称为两面印。多面印即类推。两面印、多面印一般不能有印钮，只在中间凿一小孔以便穿带，所以又称“穿带印”。两种或两种以上的印章套在一起以便携带的称为“子母印”或“套印”。 4.名印、字印、名字合印、总印。古人认为印章是作为信用的象征，故把名印作为正印，字印作为闲印杂用。名印就是只刻姓名，一般只在名下加“印”、“印信”、“印章”、“之印”。“私印”等字样，而“氏”字与其他的闲字杂字都不用，用之则表示不敬。字印亦称表字印。汉晋时代的字印必连姓，后代或连或不连。字印一般只加“印”字或姓字，如“赵氏子昂”。姓名、字并刻为一印的称为“名字合印”。也有将籍贯、姓、名、字、号、官职等并刻一印的称为“总印”。 5.回文印、横读印、交错文印。回文即用来处理两个字的名印和字印，即可以防误读，又可使名的二字连为一体。其方法是把“印”字放在姓下，且在右，名的二字都在左，回环读之，则为“姓某某印”，而不读为“姓印某某”。如“王从之印”四字，若通常刻法，不用回文，易误为姓王名从，看不出为姓王名从之。横读印、交错文印极少见，一般只用来刻官衔和地名。如“司空之玺”，“司空”二字刻在上，“之玺”二字刻在下，这就叫做横读印。交错文印就是以对角顺序而读。四个字的，第一个字在右上，第二个字在左下，第三个字在左上，第四个字在右下。如“宜阳津印”，“阳”字在“津”字下，“律”字在“宜”字左，但容易误读成“宜津阳印”或“宜印津阳”。 6.书柬印、鉴藏印。书柬印在古代比较流行。秦汉至南北朝时采用泥封，泥封后钤有印章，但一般只用名印。至后来则用“某人言事”、“某人启事”、“某人白事”、“某人顿首”、“某人敬缄”等印刻，这些都是书柬印。鉴藏印是收藏书画的印记，始于唐代。唐太宗有“贞观”二字连珠印，唐玄宗有“工元”二字长方印。这两颗印虽未标明鉴藏字样，但却是鉴定性质的，是最早的鉴藏印。宋代以后鉴藏印的内容丰富起来，而且篆刻和用料都十分精美，大有后来居上之势，为收藏家所青睬。其次，通过鉴藏家的鉴藏印还可考订古代珍贵书画的流传情况。其文有“某人家藏”、“某人珍赏”、“某郡某斋(堂、馆、阁)图书记”等。不少印谱中也收了鉴藏印。 7.玉印。印材中以玉最为珍贵。其质地坚洁润密，不磨不磷，可毁损折断而不可破坏其纹理。因此古人多喜佩带玉印，其意一取君子佩玉，一取玉之坚贞。玉以越古越贵，一些商贾为欺市获利，常把新玉放人油锅中炸脍，使之成古色。 8.金属印。指用金、银、铜、铅、铁诸金属刻成的印章。金银质地太软，不易上刀，笔锋更难显现，因此一般的铸印时都掺以铜，不但易于成形，也易于镌刻。通常所说的金银印大都是涂金涂银的，纯金纯银的比较少见。官印中金银是用来区分等级的，私印中用金银的不多见。由于金银印刻则腻刀，字迹柔而无锋，从收藏与鉴赏的角度来看没有什么大的价值。铜印字迹壮健，带有回珠。方法上有凿有刻，亦有徐金上银的。铅印、铁印，古代除巨印用之外，一般不多见。明朝时，御史大夫用铁印，取其刚直无私之意，但铁容易生锈腐蚀，故流传的绝少。 atmospheric pressure vessel 4 GB50231-2009 mechanical equipment installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for 5 GB50275-98 compressor, fan and pump installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for lifting 6 HG20201-2000 construction installation engineering construction standard 7, HG ... Pressure gauges, using an installed spark arrestor for acetylene cylinders, illegal carrying, using gas cylinders, each operator fined 20 Yuan. Gas bottle without the hot sun exposure measures, responsibilities of team a fine of 50 Yuan. (7) at height and the opening and provisional protective measures have been taken, the responsible unit fined 200 Yuan, construction person in charge a fine of 50 Yuan. (8) no permit to work and the job in accordance with the provisions, on the job unit fined 300 yuan, the unit will charge a fine of 100 Yuan. 7.5.3 accident penalties (1) injuries fatalities directly punished 1~2 million. Direct responsibility for the accident and have the corresponding responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions, should be brought to the company or the relevant Department. (2) personal injury accident occurred, the direct punishment 0.5-10,000 yuan, responsible for the direct responsibility for the accident and the responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions should be dealt with by the personnel Department of the company. (3) personal injury accident occurs, the direct punishment 500-1000, who is directly responsible for the accident responsibility, give notice of criticism and 50-100 economic sanctions against them. (4) to conceal the accident, reported without undue delay or false, to inform the administrative leadership of the criticism, resulting in serious consequences, the pursuit 9.象牙印、犀骨印。牙印，汉时有官印，宋以后多作私印，以象牙为材料，其质柔软韧腻，难中刀法。刻朱文则尚可见笔锋，白文则无神气。因此，篆刻家和收藏家对牙印都不太珍爱。象牙忌鼠味民便，一遇鼠尿则立即现出黑斑，直至底部，而且永远除不掉。又畏热气汗水，即使有牙印也不常佩带。犀角印，惟汉二千石至四百石官以黑犀角为印，别的很少用，其质地又粗又软，时间一久，则会变形。其他有以牛羊等的腔骨角为印的，这在民间较为流传，官印和富家极少用，有关的记载也尚未发现，故始于何时还说不清。 10.水晶印、玛瑙等印。水晶质地硬而脆，不易刻，稍用力则断，刻成的文字滑而不涵。玛瑙的质地比五更硬，是诸印材中最难镌刻的一种材料，刻成之文又显得锋芒尽露，缺乏温雅之气。瓷印唐始有，宋渐广，硬而不易刻。珊瑚易裂，翡翠易断且硬。总之，水晶等印，雕刻不易，作印章实为事倍功半，收藏家与鉴赏家也只把它们作一种点缀品来把玩。 11.竹木印。木印一般用的是黄杨木，此木容易上刀又不疏松。梅根、竹根、瓜蒂、果核等也可用来刻印。竹根直选择坚细无裂纹的，如果两节间距适宜，根节又呈规则性分布，则非常美观，足供珍玩。核则以广东的榄核为贵(榄比橄榄大，不可食)，质地坚韧，其他大都软，只可削刻，难尽篆刻之美。竹木印可雕成各种形状，集工艺品与印章为一身，因而也是收藏家与鉴赏家所网罗的一个范围。 12.印钮、印绶。印背上高高隆起的，打有眼孔用来穿带部分就叫做印钮(纽)。早期印章钮形质朴，只在背面雕刻成凸起的形状，横穿一孔即可，后人称之为“鼻钮”。随着印章和雕刻技术的发展，印钮的制作也越来越精美，种类也越来越多，大都是禽兽虫鱼等动物，如龙钮、虎钮、螭钮、龟钮、辟邪钮，又有曲钮、直钮、泉(古铜钱)钮、瓦钮、桥钮、斗钮、坛钮等。有的印章无钮，就在印章的四周刻以山水人物，称为“薄意”--薄刻而有画意。印绶就是指印钮上穿的带子，古代多用绵帛为之。秦汉以后，官印印绶的颜色差别都有一定的等级区别，不可僭越。 总之，印章的收藏与鉴赏一般包括三个方面:印材品种、形状特征和文字篆刻。印材品种已有详述。形状特征主要包括印面和印钮，而篆刻文字在形式上则有古文、大篆(籀)、小篆、八体书、六体书的区别。从神韵上则又要看印中每字的篆刻是否连贯(篆法)，布局是否合理、美观、新颖(章法)，每一笔划是否丰神流动，或庄重典雅或滞涩等(笔法)、用刀是否力度合宜，充分体现笔锋和书法神韵。以及镂刻深浅是否合宜(刀法)，这四法又要涉及到专门的篆刻学方面的知识，读者如有兴趣可参阅有关著作，在此不再详述。 atmospheric pressure vessel 4 GB50231-2009 mechanical equipment installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for 5 GB50275-98 compressor, fan and pump installation engineering construction and acceptance specification for lifting 6 HG20201-2000 construction installation engineering construction standard 7, HG ... Pressure gauges, using an installed spark arrestor for acetylene cylinders, illegal carrying, using gas cylinders, each operator fined 20 Yuan. Gas bottle without the hot sun exposure measures, responsibilities of team a fine of 50 Yuan. (7) at height and the opening and provisional protective measures have been taken, the responsible unit fined 200 Yuan, construction person in charge a fine of 50 Yuan. (8) no permit to work and the job in accordance with the provisions, on the job unit fined 300 yuan, the unit will charge a fine of 100 Yuan. 7.5.3 accident penalties (1) injuries fatalities directly punished 1~2 million. Direct responsibility for the accident and have the corresponding responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions, should be brought to the company or the relevant Department. (2) personal injury accident occurred, the direct punishment 0.5-10,000 yuan, responsible for the direct responsibility for the accident and the responsibility of leadership, such as concerning administrative sanctions should be dealt with by the personnel Department of the company. (3) personal injury accident occurs, the direct punishment 500-1000, who is directly responsible for the accident responsibility, give notice of criticism and 50-100 economic sanctions against them. (4) to conceal the accident, reported without undue delay or false, to inform the administrative leadership of the criticism, resulting in serious consequences, the pursuit