加德纳《智能重构》（Intelligence Reframed）摘要

Virgil Notes: Gardner, Howard (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books. Ch. 1: Intelligence and individuality, 1-5 What counts as intelligence changes over time (and location). Beginning around 1870, Galton used indices to measure intelligence. He believed sensory acuity related to intelligence. A premise of this book is that intelligence is too important to leave up to intelligence tests. Also, intelligence may not be enough. Quoting Emerson, ‘Character is more important than intellect.’ [of course, by Gardner, character is probably contained in various intelligences] Ch. 2: Before multiple intelligences, 7-25 • Discusses Herrnstein’s & Murray’s, The Bell Curve – Belief that intelligence was property distributed on a bell curve, and various is primarily genetic. It also speaks (-) of those with low intelligence linking it to social pathology. • Then Goleman’s, Emotional Intelligence, arguing importance of people and emotional skills. • Alfred Binet, French psychologist, early 1900’s, test based eventually on verbal memory, verbal reasoning, logic, and numbers. • Wilhelm Stern, 1912 German psychologist, IQ – ration of mental age to chronological age. o Unlike Binet 1 on 1 tests, these were mass adoptable. • 3 Key Questions of Intelligence 1. Is it singular or made up of independent faculties [although it could still be multiple and dependent if there is an executory function, which Gardner is against.] 2. Is intelligence inherited? a. Also, even if inherited, how much did effort matter and how variant are we really? b. Similarity in IQ based on genetics supports inheritance. c. Identical twins generally reared in similar environments, even if separated, and they did share the same environment for 9 months. d. One could only isolate genetic differences in IQ if the society treated all individuals the same, which it doesn’t 3. Are intelligence tests biased? a. Certainly so initially. The questions are getting better, but you still have bias built into testing situation. • Although IQ test and others not as widely used in part due to legalities, (18) “the line of thinking that gives rise to it [Int. testing] have actually won the war. Many widely used scholastic measures are thinly disguised intelligence tests – almost clones thereof – that correlated highly with scores on standard psychometric instruments.” • Neuroscience shows that the brain has fxnal capacities with or without relationships with each other. o Neural signaling speed and efficiency may affect ‘measured’ intelligence. o Plasticity of the brain in which regions can take over for loss of fxn in another region [but this goes against intelligence being fixed and unchangeable, or even just that it is fixed within a region] o Brief discussion of parallel processing and computers [but with computers it is done through an executive function]. Ch. 3: the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 27-46 • His background in neuropsychology and working with children led to the belief (31) “A person’s strength in one area of performance simply does not predict any comparable strengths in other areas.” o 32 – “Both of the populations I was working with were clueing me into the same message: that the human mind is better thought of as a series of relatively separate faculties, with only loose and nonpredictable relations with one another, than as a single, all-purpose machine that performs steadily at a certain horsepower, independent of content and context.” o The brain as modular • The Definition and Criteria for Multiple Intelligences o Intelligence – 32 – “a biopsychological potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture.” o Instead of just psychometric instruments, he laid out separate criteria that if met, determine an intelligence. i. Biological – Potential of isolation by brain damage. ii. Biological – Evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility iii. Logical Analysis – An identifiable core operation or set of operations iv. Logical Analysis – Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system v. Developmental Psychology – Distinct developmental history, along with a definable set of expert ‘end state’ performances (We develop the skill) vi. Developmental Psychology – The existence of idiot savants, prodigies, and other exceptional people. vii. Traditional Psychology – Support from experimental psychological tasks (How well 2 operations carried out simultaneously) viii. Support from psychometric findings • Evidence suggests ‘positive manifold’ – a correlation in scores among various tasks. • Sometimes correlations weak. o Original 7 Intelligences i. Linguistic – sensitivity to spoken and written language ii. Logical-Mathematical iii. Musical – skill in performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns iv. Bodily-kinesthetic – using body to solve problems and fashion products v. Spatial – potential to recognize and manipulate the patterns of wide space. vi. Interpersonal – Capacity to understand intentions, motivations, and desires of other people. vii. Intrapersonal – Capacity to understand oneself. • 2 essential claims o Intelligence as a new definition of human nature, cognitively speaking. We equip our (44) – “intellectual potentials, which we can mobilize and connect according to our own inclinations and our culture’s preferences.” o We each have a unique blend of intelligences • No morality attached to different intelligences. Ch. 4: Are there additional intelligences, 47-67. • Naturalistic Intelligence o recognizing naturalistic patterns o fulfills his criteria and is clearly merited as 8th intelligence • Spiritual Intelligence o Confounded by faith issues o Abstractness not a problem since math is allowed o Senses of spiritual ƒ Concern with cosmic or existential issues ƒ Achievement of a state of being – knowing how and knowing how that ƒ Effect on others (unduly stretches his definition of intelligence) o Removing morals is problematic o Furthermore, is it even a known. Therefore he looks to the next item. • Existential Intelligence o Concern with ‘ultimate’ issues. An unambiguous strand of the spiritual. o Core ability is to locate oneself with respect to the infinite and the infinitesimal and the significance of life. o Not invalidated by his 8 criteria Ch. 5: Is There a Moral Intelligence? 67-77 • He separates description and prescription, thus making MI morally neutral. • 69 – “The key is whether one can think of skill in the moral realm, independent of the particular uses to which that skill might be put.” o [This would almost prescribe morality as an executive function.] • Must extend beyond inter and intrapersonal aspects • 70 – “Central to a moral domain is a concern with those rules, behaviors, and attitudes that govern the sanctity of life” • [I disagree with his criteria leading to a moral domain since it seems a merging of inter/intra/and logical domains. he accepts that the social construction of a ‘moral code’ is problematic.] • 77 – “but it is fundamentally a statement about the kind of person that one is or, more properly, about the kind of person one has developed to be. It is not, in itself, an intelligence.” Ch. 6: Myths and Realities about MI, 79-92 Myth 1 – Tests could associate with and measure MI Reality – In principle possible, but against the purpose, and there would be many ways to test each [plus problem of weighting] Myth 2 – Intelligence is a domain or discipline Reality – No, those are socially constructed and he sees intelligence as a biological construct or capacity Myth 3 – Intelligence is the same as learning, cognitive, or working style. Reality – Intelligence is a capacity and not an approach. Myth 4 – MI not empirical Reality – His claim that it is entirely so [and I agree with him here, but the observations may be misinterpreted] Myth 5 – MI incompatible with (g) Reality – MI does not question g’s existence, but its explanatory power. [Seeming to be contrary to some earlier remarks, see next statement] 87 – “MI theory is neutral on the question of heritability of specific intelligences, instead underscoring the centrality of genetic and environmental interactions.” Myth 6 – By broadening intelligence, it renders its typical connotation useless Reality – Standard definition is too narrow [He doesn’t actually address the critique directly though.] Myth 7 – There is a single ‘approved’ MI education approach Reality – No, it is not an educational prescription. Ch. 7: Issues and Answers Regarding Multiple Intelligences, 93-114 • Terminology o Intelligence as a process neurally, not a content or style. o It is not odd to think of gym as utilizing an intelligence • Theory o Can it be confirmed, disconfirmed? – This would be a naïve concept of theory o Is it supported by brain research/ ƒ Amazingly supportive of general basis ƒ ‘Neural plasticity’ is an independent issue o Discuss compatibility with other theories ƒ Robert Sternberg’s ‘triarchic model’ does not attend to contents o Do intelligences have to be independent? ƒ Not necessarily, but strength in one does not mean strength in another. o Each intelligence will have subintelligences, but they are symbiotic. • Horizontal faculties like memory o He is skeptical that memory, attention, and perception function equivalently across all content. o Different functions and contents of memory can be separated physically by neurophysiology. • What about executive function? o But it goes on forever such as who is in charge of the executive [But this possibility doesn’t mean that it does go on. The point will always be where we should draw the line, and he draws it before an executive despite so much evidence, even internally to my soul, that such exists.] o [He looks at fxn at a point I think after an executor would intercede.] o He comes close to giving him intrapersonal modeling some of this function. • What about critical thinking? – His view is that thinking is functionally. Thinking may still be domain specific. • Are men and women equal and do we use our intelligences in equal ways? Maybe not. • What happens to MI in later life. o The fxning is just more internalized. Ch. 8: The intelligences of creators and leaders, 115-134 • Takes more than genes is the basic message here. Ch. 9: Multiple intelligences in the schools, 135-155. Ch. 10: Multiple approaches to understanding, 157-181 • Teaching to MI with entry points. [I feel an intelligent person will probably be able to work to the system] • Technology can help, but it is merely an instrument. Ch. 11: Multiple intelligences in the wider world., 183-202. Examples and principles, especially in business. Ch. 12: Who owns intelligence? • Now that MI has gained acceptance, it must not succumb to an ‘anything goes’ attitude, where all types and forms of intelligence are argues. • 204 – “The challenge is to chart a concept of intelligence that reflects new discoveries and understandings and yet can withstand scrutiny.” • Ethical and intellectual values can be separated. • Challenge for the future is greater individuation. o [But in pressing diversity and uniqueness, socially we need to conform in some ways and accept that we are all people, human.] o [It almost creates a new –ism like racism Æ intelligentism.]