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The killing in Cambodia con- tinues. China threatens Taiwan. North Korea announces that it will no longer respect the Ko- rean truce agreement and moves combat elements into the Demilitarized Zone. Oki- nawans object to the continued presence of U.S. troops. Presi- dent Clinton travels to Japan and renews the Japan-U.S. se- curity agreement and promises to maintain 100,000 troops in the Far East. Meanwhile, U.S. troop strength in Europe has reached its lowest level since World War II. In Germany for fifty years after World War II, the U.S. armor commu- nity has known its German ally. It watched the post-war development of a renewed German Army and followed the development of its armored vehi- cles: Leopard I and 2, Marder, and oth- ers. Now, with eyes turned more to the Far East, it behooves us to learn more about the armed forces of Japan, the Japanese Self Defense Force. Few Americans realize, for example, that the U.S. and Japan together account for 40 percent of the world’s defense spending and that Japan is third in the world in allocating funds to defense. History The start of Japanese military mecha- nization can be traced to 1918, when several Mark IV tanks were obtained from England. A few other wartime tanks, such as the French Renault FT (called “Ko” or “A” in Japan) and the British Medium Mark A, were deliv- ered some time later. Little more was accomplished until 1925, when the Japanese formed two tank companies to develop tactics and launched a do- mestic tank development program. Japanese tank design began with completion at the Osaka Arsenal in 1927 of a prototype vehicle known as “Experimental Heavy Tank 1,” a 19-ton tank with a main turret mounting a 57mm gun and two smaller turrets with machine guns. After several additional heavy tank prototypes were developed in the 1930s, the Japanese dropped the heavy tank concept. Continued development of both light and medium tanks resulted ultimately in production of some 5,000 tanks dur- ing the war, making Japan sixth in war- time tank production, behind the U.S., UK, France, Germany, and the USSR. The final Japanese medium tank of the war was a 37-ton vehicle mounting a 75mm gun of questionable value. The major obstacle to Japanese tank development during the pre-war and wartime period was the philosophy that the primary role of tanks was infantry support. The major areas of progress in Japanese tank design were in the early adoption of diesel power and in devel- opment of amphibious tanks. Little effort was devoted during the period to the development of other fighting vehicles. The Japanese aban- doned the concept of wheeled armored vehicles because most Far East terrain favored tracked vehicles. A tracked combat car mounting a machine gun was dropped in favor of a light tank. Post World War II From the end of World War II until formation of a security police force in 1951, Japan had no armed forces of any type. In 1954, the security police force, which had been under control of the U.S. occupying force, became the Japan Defense Agency (JDA). Because of the background of U.S. control, the JDA was organized and operated in a manner similar to U.S. forces and was generally supplied with U.S. equip- ment. The first armored vehicles were M4A3, M24, and M41 tanks and half- tracks. Ground Self Defense Force (GSDF) officers, most of whom had served during the war in the Japanese Army, found U.S. equipment greatly superior in performance to Japanese ar- mored vehicles, all of which had been destroyed anyway. Equipping the GSDF with U.S. ar- mored vehicles quickly closed the tech- nology gap that resulted from lack of Japanese post-war development. The standard caliber Japanese tank gun of 57mm, with an 800 m/s muzzle veloc- ity, was now replaced by the U.S. 90mm gun, with its 1,000 m/s muzzle velocity. The U.S. 20 HP/ton replaced the Japanese 15 HP/ton or less vehi- cles, providing significantly more mo- bility. The U.S. 100mm of armor pro- tection doubled that of earlier Japanese tanks. The Japanese public attitude in 1950 was a strong desire for peace, and there was little enthusiasm for rearmament. However, the U.S., involved in the Ko- rean War and watching the growing Soviet threat in Europe, sought assis- tance in an Asian defense and began to encourage a Japanese rearmament pro- gram. In responding to this encourage- ment, Japan concluded that it should redevelop its own armament industry. It was a defense industry that had pre- 22 ARMOR — January-February 1997 Japanese Armored Vehicle Development by Brigadier General Philip L. Bolté (Retired) and Iwao Hayashi Japan is building about 20 of these Type 90 tanks each year. viously been quite capable, having pro- duced such weapon systems as the bat- tleship Yamato, once the world’s larg- est, and the Zero fighter plane. The Type 61 MBT In the 1950s, the major military pow- ers were developing “second genera- tion” main battle tanks: AMX30 in France, Leopard 1 in Germany, Chief- tain in the UK, M60 in the U.S., and T62 in the USSR. Sweden and Swit- zerland were also developing new tanks, respectively known as the S-tank and the Pz58 (ultimately produced as the Pz61). The GSDF, though, was equipped with only the M4A3 and the M24. A few M47 tanks were supplied by the U.S. for test, but proved to be unsatis- factory. They were not designed with the smaller stature of GSDF crewmen in mind, and their bulk and weight made them unsuitable for transporta- tion in many parts of Japan. A decision was made for the GSDF to develop and produce a national tank. The main ob- ject of the development was to produce a 90mm gun tank suitable for Japanese body size and topography. Develop- ment proceeded along the following lines: • 90mm gun and its fire control sys- tem. • 500HP class diesel engine and transmission • Torsion bar suspension system • Hydraulic gun control system • Homogeneous armor and a welded hull The diesel engine and the optics of the fire control system used technology developed during World War II. Other components were based on M4A3 and M24 technology and the know-how of Japanese industry. The first two proto- types were completed in 1957, and in 1961, the tank was type classified as the Type 61 MBT. Total production by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries was more than 500 tanks. Although the Type 61 reestablished Japan as a tank developer and manu- facturer, it was a first generation post- war tank and, by the time it was fielded, most major countries had fielded their second generation tanks and were already working on their third generation. The joint U.S.-German ARMOR — January-February 1997 23 The Type 61, above, was Japan’s first postwar tank design. It mounted a 90mm gun. The Type 74, at left, was upgunned to 105mm, with a modern fire control sys- tem and hydropneumatic suspension. The suspen- sion and turret shape are reminiscent of the Soviet T-62. The tank recovery vehicle above is a variant of Ja- pan’s new Type 90 MBT. There is also a bridgelayer variant. At left, the Type 87 wheeled armored recon- naissance vehicle was de- veloped to take advantage of Japan’s excellent road network. An 8-wheeled ve- hicle is also under develop- ment. MBT-70, the UK Challenger, French AMX40, and Soviet T72 programs were all underway. Thus, the GSDF felt that to establish a more credible and viable defense, it needed to initiate development of a second generation tank of its own that incorporated at least some third generation level fea- tures. The Type 74 MBT The GSDF and Mitsubishi Heavy In- dustries initiated concept studies in 1962 and test rigs were built and tested between 1964 and 1967. The first two prototypes were completed by Mit- subishi in early 1968. The tank’s main technical features were: • A low silhouette and well-shaped hull to decrease vulnerability, some- what similar to the T62 • 105mm gun • 750HP multifuel engine capable of operating submerged • Cross-drive type transmission • Hydro-pneumatic suspension with hull attitude control • Modern fire control system incor- porating a laser rangefinder, elec- tronic ballistic computer, gun stabi- lization system, and electric gun control system The tank incorporated certain features of third generation tanks then in devel- opment in other countries, such as the hydro-pneumatic suspension similar to that of MBT-70. Although the laser rangefinder was procured from Nippon Electric and the computer from Mit- subishi Electric, continuing the trend of relying on Japanese industry, this was not exclusively the case. The 105mm gun was produced in Japan under li- cense from the UK. German track from Diehl was tested at the production stage, but was ultimately not accept- able. In general, though, there was little technology exchange between Japan and other countries. The first production contract was awarded in 1973 with the first tanks delivered in 1975. A total of about 870 were procured. Overall, the Type 74, even though it incorporated some very modern features, was a second genera- tion equivalent, especially when con- sidering the main armament. Thus, while making progress in its efforts to draw even with other tank-producing countries, Japan was still behind. Type 90 MBT In the mid-1970s, the GSDF set about to correct the situation, laying out a program to develop a truly advanced MBT. The JDA soon encountered the same challenges other countries were facing in their tank development ef- forts. Among these were: • The rapid progress in technology, particularly electronic technology, that tended to make components obsolete before development was complete • Pressure from government manage- ment to achieve greater cost-effec- tiveness and reduce cost growth • Pressure to focus on longer range operational performance as time de- lays occur in the program As a result of these factors, actual de- velopment of the Type 90 MBT took approximately 14 years, the tank not being type classified until 1991. Never- theless, the Type 90 incorporated a number of advanced features, some of them not found in contemporary mod- els of the Abrams and Leopard 2. Some are found in the French Leclerc tank, developed generally in parallel with the Type 90. With the exception of the 120mm main armament, licensed by Rheinmet- all for production in Japan, Japanese industry developed all of the compo- nents. Main features of the Type 90 MBT are: • 1500HP class compact diesel engine • Electronic-controlled full-automatic transmission • Hybrid suspension with inde- pendent hydropneumatic suspension • All-weather fire control system, in- cluding automatic tracking • Automatic loading system • Composite armor Several features in the tank are of particular interest. Although the turret is conventional in design, the automatic loader allowed reduction of the crew to three. The liquid-cooled engine is the first Japanese tank engine not to be air- cooled, a feature driven by size of the engine and consequent cooling require- ment. The automatic tracking system is of unique design. A major problem for the JDA has been the procurement cost of the tank, which has resulted in a low rate of pro- duction. Whereas the Type 74 was pro- cured at a rate of about 60 per year, affordability has limited Type 90 pro- duction to about 20 per year. The result is that reequipping the GSDF with a modern tank is progressing slowly. Other Armored Fighting Vehicles Other than the MBT, Japanese AFVs fall into three categories: APCs, self- propelled artillery, and support tanks. In general, APC development, pro- curement, and fielding has paralleled that of the tank. There have been three generations of APC: • Type 60 APC: similar to the U.S. M75 APC • Type 73 APC: similar to the U.S. M113 APC • Type 89 APC: A vehicle similar in concept to the German Marder and U.S. Bradley Fighting Vehicle Each of these vehicles has also been adapted for use as a family, including variants for mortars, observation, rocket launchers, chemical reconnais- sance, etc. Since the mid-1970s, the GSDF has considered that a wheeled armored ve- hicle might be more appropriate for Japanese use as an APC than a tracked vehicle, primarily because of the well- developed Japanese road network. Consequently, in 1975 the GSDF began development of a 6x6 wheeled armored vehicle. More recently, emphasis has been shifted to development of an 8x8 vehicle, as well. The main self-propelled artillery of the GSDF includes the 155mm howit- zer and the air-defense automatic weapon. Initially, the 155mm SP howitzer was mounted on the 25-ton class AFV chas- sis and designated the Type 75 155mm Howitzer, SP. This weapon was essen- tially similar to the U.S. M109. In 1984, the GSDF began to introduce the U.S. M110 203mm SP Howitzer, built in Japan under license. Part of the rea- son for introducing the U.S. system was to help correct the Japanese-U.S. trade imbalance. For an SP antiaircraft system, the GSDF adapted the Type 74 tank chas- sis to mount dual Swiss Oerlikon L90 24 ARMOR — January-February 1997 35mm automatic cannon. Except for the weapon, all components of the sys- tem were developed in Japan. The sys- tem is designated Type 87 2x35 AWSP. The support tank category includes primarily the tank recovery vehicle and the armored bridgelayer. These vehicles have each used the concurrent tank chassis as the basis for development. Future Development As with the rest of the world, Japan finds herself today living with an un- predictable future. The major potential threats to Japan are, of course, China and North Korea, both of which could cause Japan considerable problems. Consequently, Japan has concluded that it must maintain a modern defense force while, at the same time, strength- ening mutual defense arrangements with the U.S. Maintaining a modern defense force requires both development and pro- curement efforts. For now, the Type 90 MBT is adequate, matching or surpass- ing other modern tanks in capability. Thus, for the near term, efforts in the tank area will highlight component de- velopment. Component R&D efforts for a future MBT will be conducted in the following areas: • Concept research for a twenty-first century MBT, to include vetronics research and manufacture of a test bed vehicle • High-power diesel engine, includ- ing the use of ceramics • Gas turbine research, especially to improve thermal efficiency • Electric drive system • Stepless hydromechanical full-auto- matic tank transmission • Advanced suspension system, par- ticularly active suspension • Advanced armor technology, in- cluding composite armors, protec- tion against top attack, active and reactive armors, etc. • Main gun, including improvement of AP ammunition performance, ad- vanced proximity fuze, and liquid propellant, electromechanical, and electrothermal technology For other armored vehicles, for the immediate future, the plan is to con- centrate efforts on upgrading equip- ment. Two specific programs are un- derway to field a new 155mm howitzer by replacing the Type 75 with the European FH70 mounted on the Type 89 chassis, and to replace the Type 73 APC with an 8x8 wheeled armored ve- hicle. Economic factors demand that JDA efforts in the coming years use simula- tion extensively and that there be em- phasis in the areas of cost effectiveness and generating savings in manpower and material. Environmental considera- tions will also require greater emphasis. Armored Vehicle Manufacture in Japan The nature of armored vehicle manu- facture itself and the armament export restrictions of the Japanese constitution make the firms involved in the industry unique among Japanese companies. On the one hand, the particular expertise and equipment involved virtually elimi- nate competition within Japan, while, on the other hand, there is little pros- pect for expanding markets through ex- port. Thus, the companies in the busi- ness have a strong relationship with the Japanese Government, but have little potential for expanding their armored vehicle production beyond GSDF needs. There are essentially three armored vehicle manufacturers and one cannon manufacturer in Japan. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) is the Japanese tank manufacturer and manufactures tracked APC families of vehicles, as well. Komatsu manufactures tracked and wheeled APC families. Hitachi manufactures small quantities of light armored vehicles. All of these compa- nies can produce many of the compo- nents of various armored combat vehi- cles, such as hulls, turrets, tracks, en- gines, transmissions, suspension sys- tems, and subcomponents. However, components such as armament, com- munications equipment, and optics are all procured from vendors. Nippon Steel Manufacturer (NSM) is well-known in the world as a gun manufacturer and produces all of the cannons used on GSDF combat vehi- cles. Except for armament, components procured from vendors are manufac- tured by domestic companies whose main business is commercial. In order to equip the GSDF more cost effectively, as well as to help overcome the balance of trade problem existing with many nations, the JDA has re- cently begun giving more consideration to obtaining licenses for domestic manufacture of foreign-developed weap- on systems and components, as well as the procurement of foreign weapon systems and components themselves. This tendency is further supported by the general world-wide trend of inter- nationalization of military equipment. Summary After a post-war lapse of several years in the area of combat vehicle de- sign and manufacture, the creation of the JDA led to a reemergence of a Japanese military industry for the pur- pose of supporting the GSDF. Techno- logically behind the major armored ve- hicle manufacturers of the world for a number of years, Japanese heavy in- dustry has responded to GSDF require- ments by steadily improving its combat vehicle design and manufacturing capa- bility. Meanwhile, the quality of Japa- nese commercial electronic and optical products has been reflected in the pro- duction of superior combat vehicle components. The result is that the GSDF is now receiving equipment on a quality par with the major military countries of the world, although budg- etary restrictions and the generally an- timilitary feeling within Japan are re- stricting the rate of modernization. ARMOR — January-February 1997 25 Brigadier General Philip L. Bolté graduated from USMA in 1950 and retired in 1980 after a vari- ety of Armor and R&D assign- ments, including combat serv- ice in Korea and Vietnam. He was Assistant Project Manager for Tank Main Armament, Abrams Tank System, and Program Manager, Bradley Fighting Ve- hicle Systems. Iwao Hayashi graduated from Tokyo University in 1951 and worked as a tank designer at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) until 1983. He partici- pated in the design of almost all Japanese AFVs after World War II. He now works inde- pendently in this field.