Chinese maritime concepts

ORIGINALPAPERChinsmaritimconcptsLixinSunPublishdonlin:18Nombr2010SpringrVrlag2010AbstractThancintChinsalwayshadacomplxpsychicrlationtothastocan:longing,butdisdainingOnthonhand,thythoughtthrwrlfishhills,immortals,andfairytrsabroad;onthothrhand,thyiwdorsasrsidntsasstrangBforthfiftnthcntury,thChinspoplwrcapablofconductingmaritimoprationspositilyandntringintocontactingpacfulandfrindlycontactswithforigncountris,thstablishmntofMingDynastysupprssionofthcoastalarasandthclosddoorpolicybcamitsbasicnationalpolicyAftrthfailurofthfirstOpiumWar,somcoastalmilitaryofficialsandintllctuallitstookthladin“singthworld”;thywrcognizantofthsupriormightofwstrnfirpowrandclaimdthatthChinsshould“larnfromth‘barbarians’adancdskillstorsistthiraggrssion”Howr,nthosproincialmagnatswhoactilyadocatdcoastaldfnssuchasLiHongzhangandShnBaozhnalsofaildtorallycomprhndthocans'gratconomicandmilitaryaluandsparatdthmslsfromthstpattrnoftholdlandbasdcoastaldfnsItwasnotuntilthbginningofthtwntithcntury,withthintroductionofATMahan'sSaPowrThory,thatthChinspoplgaindacomparatilyprofoundcognitionofthimportancofprotctingnationalmaritimintrstsThdmocraticrolutionistSunYatsninsistdthatmanshouldstriforsurialanddlopmntbymansofthocansHowr,atthbginningofthstablishmntofthPopl'sRpublicofChina,facdwiththconomicblockadandpoliticalprssurbywstrnpowrs,thChinsgornmntstilltooklanddlopmntand“coastalscurity”asthcntrandnglctdthffctimanagmntofthmaritimtrritorySinc“rformandopningup”,thscondgnrationofcntralcollctiladrsofthCommunistPartyofChina(CPC)withDngXiaopingatitscor,proposdthcoastalstratgicconcptof“offshordfns”andthprinciplof“layingsorigntyandjointlyxploring”forhandlingmaritimdisputs,andththirdgnrationofcntralcollctiladrsAsiaEurJ(2010)8:327–338DOI101007s1030801002827LSun()SchoolofHistory,BijingNormalUnirsity,Bijing,Chinamail:sunlx200466@163comofCPCwithJiangZmin,atitscor,mphasizdabttrundrstandingofthocansfromthhightofstratgyNowadays,undrthinfluncofthincrasingmphasisonthocansallorthworld,thoicofthChinsgornmntandChinspopltostablishastrongnaalpowrhasbcomincrasinglystrongr,butitsactionisstillimpddbymanyaspctsToputitsimply,a“maritimconcpt”isapopl'sundrstandingofthocanandocanrlatdphysical,objcti,andhumanactiitis,formdthroughsocialpracticandthorticalthinkingInthirthousandsofyarsofdlopmnt,thChinshacratdahighlydlopd“farmingcultur”,butalsoformdadirsityofmaritimconcptsthroughgratffortsinmanagingthpowrofthocanItisprhapsslfidntthat,asarsultofthasttrritory,hugpopulation,andcomplxpoliticalsystmandsocialstructur,Chinsmaritimconcptswrnotuniform,nomattratwhichtimThnotionof“ChinsMaritimConcpts”wasonlytnablwhncompardwiththosofothrcountrisandarasInthisarticl,Ihoptoilluminat,inagnrallycomparatiprspcti,tholutionofthMaritimConcptssincancinttimsfromahistorical–politicaliwpoint,anddscribthirdiffrntfatursandtndncyinachpriodThisarticlthrbyalsoattmptstoclarifyChinsstandpointsonmaritimdisputsrlatdtocurrntsorigntyissusandtoralthhistoricalbasisofthsstandpointsbychartinganolutionofidasstillcurrntinthprsntandwhichararticulatdinothrarticlsinthisissuClarly,indlinatingsuchalongswp,notrythingcanbcordindtail,butIhopthatmyrfrncstoChinssourcs(manyofwhichhanotbntranslatd)willgiahlpfuloriwThmaritimconcptsofancintChinaChinscoastalrsidntsbgangathringfromthsaandfishingryarlyInthtimofSpringandAutumnandWarringStatspriods,coastalstatsbcamrichbnfitingfromfishing,saltfromthsa,andconnintmarintransportationWustablishditsnayryarlyandalsobganmilitaryoprationsuponthsaAftrthQinandHanDynastis,Chinamadconsidrablprogrssinshipconstruction,offshorfishing,andmarinnaigationInthHanDynasty,thChinsflotillacouldstoutfromXuwninGuangdongorHpuinGuangxi,throughSouthastAsiaandthStraitofMalacca,andfinallyarriinHuangzhistat(thsitofKanchionthastcoastofIndiatoday)andSriLankaInthTangDynasty,thprosprous“MaritimSilkRoad”andthpriatorsastradrachdouttoJapan,Kora,SouthastAsia,SouthAsia,WstAsia,andthArabrgioninEastAfricaInthSongDynasty,priatorsastradwasfurthrdlopdandbroughtintoanationalgornmntalmanagmntsystm(ThgornmntstablishdthBurauofForignShipping,issudorsastradinglicnsstomrchants,andlidtariffsuponmrchantmnthatntrdports)InthYuanDynasty,Citong(Quanzhou)inthsouthastcoastofChinabcamthlargstportinthEast,whichcouldncomparwithAlxandriainEgyptInaddition,thYuanrulrsalsoconductdafwlargscalsaxpditionswiththirpowrful328LSunnayIntharlypriodofthMingDynasty,ChinarachdthworldladingpositioninshipbuildingtchnologyandnaigationtchniqusFrom1405to1433,ZhngH'ssnoyags,whichisitdmorthan30countrisandrgionsandsaildabout160,000samils,cratdamiraclinthnaigationhistoryofthworld(SunGuangqi1985;LiJinmingandLiaoDak1995;XiLongfi2000)Howr,Chinsciilization,withth“FarmingCultur”asitsmainpart,originatdinlandOranxtnddpriod,ChinamainlycontnddorthEastAsiasubcontinntwithnighboringtribsThconsolidationofthlandtrritorywasfarmorimportantthanorsasxpansion,thocanmainlyiwdasanaturalbarrirandthSiHai(FourSas:EastSa,WstSa,SouthSa,NorthSa1)thatncircldChinabcamthbasicnotionsofthancintChinsmainlytoidntifythirboundary:HaiNi(withinthSas)wasdomsticwhilHaiWai(orsas)wasxtratrritorialAsthrsultofthlowproductiityandstandardsofsamanship,thancintChinscouldnotconductlargscalocanoyags;sothyinitiallyconcidof“orsas”ntirlythroughthirimagination,throughacomplxpsychicconstruction,quallylongingbutdisdaining,andrpltwithrsionsofthoutlandishandbizarrriwhichhafaturdinsuchprojctionsinothrcultursHowr,withthgradualflourishingofChinsciilizationandthincrasofintrcourswithforigncountris,ancintChinsrulrsbgantoapplyth“HuayiSqunc”and“TributaryStatSystm”indalingwiththrlationsbtwncntralauthoritisandlocalarasandthirnighborsaswllasinthirrlationswithorsascountrisInaccordancwiththissystm,Chinawasthcntrofwholworld,andChinsciilization,includingitsalusandnorms,wasthmostadancdciilizationOthraraswr“SiYi”(barbarians)2OnlywhnthpowrtodosowasconfrrdbyChinsmprorscouldthrulrsofSiYirgionsdominatinlgitimattrms,whil,asassalstats,thyhadtopaytributandacknowldgthChinsmprors'suzraintyorthm(cpHamashita2003:20;26)Thisconcptualizationofthrlationbtwnth“national”andth“intrnational”influncdnotonlyChinsopinionsaboutthworldorsasforanxtnddpriod,butalsothpolitical,conomic,military,andculturalrlationsbtwnariousrgimsaroundChinaoradjacntwatrsandthChinscntralgornmntNonofthsmallcountrisorsasdardcontstthcntralgornmnt(QuJinliang2009:78–79)If,bforthfiftnthcntury,ginChina'spolitical,conomic,military,andculturaladantagsandbcausofthpacoritstrritorialsas,thChinsgornmntandsocitycouldlookonforigncountriswithanopnmindandnjoypacfulcontactswiththm,duringthMingDynasty,thsituationwasfardiffrntGangsof“JapansPirats”,consistingofSamurai,Ronins,andChinspiratmrchantswholidinJapan,continuallyintrudduponthcoastalarasofChinaandSouthastAsia,ndangringthlisandproprtisofthrsidnts1JiyiinThBookofRits[LijiJiyi]ThEastSagnrallyisthYllowSa;thSouthSa,today'sEastChinaSa,andthNorthSaistoday'sBohaiSa,althoughitcouldbLakBaikalandthNizhnyayaTunguskaRirAsforthWstSa,thrarmanyrsions;somthinkitisthPrsianGulfandthArabianSawhilothrsthinkitisQinghaiLakorthAralSa2SiYiarDongyi,Xirong,Nanman,Bidi;thtrmgnrallyrfrstothbackwardclansandtribsinChina'ssurroundingarasThhistoricalchangsofChinsmaritimconcpts329Thrfor,thrulrsofMingDynastyhadnochoicbuttoconsolidatcoastaldfnssandstrictlyprohibitChinsfromlaunchingout(FanZhongyiandTongXigang2004:71–77)Thusstartdth“closddoorpolicy”AtthbginningofthQingDynasty,thNanMingDynastyputupalastditchrsistancinthsouth;thirgnral,ZhngChnggong,nsuccddinlandingonTaiwananddfatingthDutcharmy,thrbybingabltostablishthfirstHanrgiminTaiwanInordrtodalwiththoswhodidnotsubmit,thrulrsalsorigorouslynactdthsafaringprohibitionpolicyandnannouncdthpolicyof“MoingthCommunity,”rlocatingcoastalrsidnts,andburningboatsandshipsfornaigationwithin30milsfromthcoastAftrthrcoryofTaiwanin1683,thsafaringprohibitionwasrlaxdforatimSoon,howr,inthfacofWstrncolonialintrusion,thQinggornmntworridaboutthcollusionofHanPoplwithforignrsandthformationofanwantiforc,andthrulrsclosdallportsfortradingxcptGuangzhouandstrictlyrstraindthassociationbtwnforignbusinssmnandChinspoplThrulrsofthQingDynastyconsidrdthChinscourta“paradaisicaldynasty”,iwdwstrncountrisas“barbarians”,andmphasizdthChins'snobilityandthbarbarians'bggarlinss:th“Chinsimprialcourt”wasrichinnaturalrsourcsandhadnondoftradingwith“barbarians”;thChinsmprorwasthsonofhanandborthrsponsibilitytonlightnth“barbarians”,whilth“barbarians”hadthobligationstoadmirChinaandpayrgulartributaris(XiaoZhizhiandYangWidong2005;MaoJianhai2005;Fairbank1953:8–9)Thisarrogantattitud,sooutoftouchwithrality,srlyhindrdthnation'spionringspirittoxploitthocansandnotonlycausdChinatolosthhistoricalopportunityofprogrssinganddloping,butalsorndrditulnrabltoattackWstrncolonialismandimprialismtookadantagofthopportunitytogtintoChina,andonthstrngthofthirsupriorfirpowr,thoroughlybrokdownChina'slongtim“closddoor”ThmaritimconcptsofmodrnChinaThOpiumWarin1840startdthhistoryofwstrncolonialismandimprialism'saggrssionagainstChinaandwasalsothprludtoChina'smodrnhistoryFacdwiththtragdyofrpatddfat,somcoastalmilitaryofficialsandintllctuallitshadarudawakningThytookthladin“singthworld”,rcognizdthatthorsascountris,spciallythwstrnpowrs,wrnotall“barbarians”fallingbhindChina,butwrwllbhadandruditpoplandcouldbChina'sgoodfrinds3Inordrtorsistforignaggrssionandstrngthnthcountry,Chinamustlarnfromth“barbarians'adancdskills”,constructamodrnnay,dlopindustryandshipping,adocatmaritimthinking,dirtnationalidassoasto3ThnintnthcnturyscholarWiYuandistinguishdbarbariansinChinshistoryandthoswhichcamfromEuroporAmricaAccordingtohisiw,thsocalld“mandiqiangyi”(barbarians)wrmainlythminoritiswhichlidinChina'ssurroundingarasandwrisolatdfromciilization,nothighlyciilizdforignrswhocamfromEuropanandAmricanarasAlthoughobyingcustom,thsforignrswrcalld“yi”,thywrmuchdiffrntfrom“yi”inChinshistoryanddsrdrspctandstudySWiYuan1998:1889330LSunabandonthclosddoorpolicy4Thisbrokthmustyidathat“Chinawasthcntrofthworld”anddmonstratdanwworldiwandmaritimconcptIn1874,JapaninaddTaiwan,and,althoughthisntnddinpacngotiationsanddidnotprookawarbtwnChinaandJapan,itcausdastrongshocktoandidologicalchangsinthChinsgornmntInhismmorialtoththronon“proposdcoastaldfns”(1875),LiHongzhang,thgnralgornorofZhiliandthNorthrnScrtaryofStat,xprssdthfollowingthridas:first,thwstrnpowrswrunprcdntdnmisofChina;scond,thwstrnpoplactdincollusiontoinadChina,andChinacouldnotrsistthsupriormightofthirfirpowr;andthird,thmajorbattlfildhadalradymodfromthnorthwsttothsouthastcoast,ththrattoChinaxrtdbywstrnpowrsfromthsasbingmuchmorsriousthanthinasionorlandbordrshadbninpriousdynastis(LiHongzhang1997:825)Aftrrpatddiscussion,thQingcntralgornmntfinallydciddtostablishamodrnnayandstrngthncoastaldfnsconstructionHowr,iniwofthcriticalsituationinnorthwstrndfnscausdbythcollusionbtwnRussia,Britain,andthmilitaryofficrofKokandKhanatincntralAsia,YakubBg,withthpurposofdiidingXinjiang,thgornmnthadtoadoptadfnspolicyacrossbothlandandsaOnthonhand,itappointdZuoZongtangasthimprialcommissionrtosupristhaffairsofXinjiangandonthothr,appointdLiHongzhangtosupristhNorthrndfnsandShnBaozhn,thSouthrnIn1888,thNorthrnFltwasformallystablishdMostoftharmamnt,armordbattlships,fastcruisrs,gunboats,andtorpdoboatswrpurchasdfromwstrncountris;sailorswrtraindbywstrnnaalxprtsAtthattim,thfltwasfirstclassamongEastAsiancountrisandwasalsoarlationtoChinsandforignnaalprsonnlImmdiatly,thfltcruisdbtwnChinscostalportsandsaildtoKora'sInchonandBusan,Russia'sVladiostok,andthsouthsaislands,asifitwasthflagshipamongEastAsiannaisHowr,nthoswhopositilyadocatdcoastaldfnslikLiHongzhangandShnBaozhnstillstucktothMingDynasty'straditionallandbasdcoastaldfnsconcptthat“thrwasnaalcoastaldfnsbutnonaalbattl”Whilthypaidmuchattntiontocoastalscurity,thyapplidthnayonlytocoastaldfnsandtrritoryprotctionThyhadnopositisnsofSaPowrandhadnoclarundrstandingofthstratgicsignificancofxrcisingmarinmobiloprationsThrfor,China'scoastaldfnsconstructionwaslimitdtoaninstinctiractiontowstrnpowrs'gunboatpolicyandwasmrlythmilitarydfnsmasursatalowllThus,thwholprocssofcoastaldfnsconstructionwasalwaysshowntobinapassi,ngati,andshortsightdstatWhnthQinggornmntblidthatnaalconstructionwasalradynoughtodfndthcountry,itstoppddlopingthnayandndirtdthlimitdnaalfundstornoatthroyalgardn(EditorialOffic1994:4WiYuanconsidrdthat“barbarians(forignrs)wradancdinbattlship,firarms,andthwayofmaintainingandtrainingtroops”Hstrssdthatifonorwhlmdthm“whilnotlarningfromthm,onwouldborwhlmdbythm”Sibidmpp26,1093ThhistoricalchangsofChinsmaritimconcpts331620–622,668–672;QiQizhang1998;JiangMing2002;WangHongbin2005;LiuZhongmin2006)In1895,thSinoJapansWarbrokout,duringwhichthNorthrnNaywasdfatdatFngdao,YllowSa,andthnatLüshunandWihaiThdstructionofthNorthrnNaynotonlyxposdmanyinstitutionaldficincisinChina'scoastaldfnsconstruction,butalsorflctdthlimitationsofitsnaalstratgicpolicisAtthbginningoftwntithcntury,AmricannaalthoristATMahan'sSaPowrThorywasintroducdintoChina,andfromit,sommilitaryofficialsandintllctuallitstookinspiration,withthdiscussionandinstigationonthqustionsofocansandSaPowrbcomingacommonpractic(sZhangWiandXuHua1991;PiMingyong1994;ShiChunlin1998;QinTian2000;ZhouYifng2006)InfluncdbythSaPowrThory,thQinggornmntgraduallypaidmuchattntiontothsorigntyorislandsinordrtoprotctapproachs5In1909,thgornmntdispatchdthnaytothDongshaIslandstoinspctandrcorthsorigntyorthislandsbydiplomacyThn,thgornmntstablishdanagncyinthXisha[Paracl]Islandstoprambulatthm,andplanndxploration(ZhouYifng2006)Corrspondingly,thChinspoplxhibitdunprcdntdpassionfornayconstructionInNombr1909,AnhuiHighSchooltachrsandstudntstookthladindonatingtothnayandthncontactdothrschoolsinthproinctopopularizthactiitywhichwasnotonlysupportdbyallsocialsctorsthrbutalsopromptdariousrgionsinZhiliproincandorsasChinstodonatForamomnt,manyorganizations,groups,andindiidualsthrongdtodonatfromallpartsofthcountryOrsasChinsnotonlydonatdtofinancthgornmnt,butalsocontributdtoorganizaMrchantWarshipAssociationwiththpurposofstablishingastrongmrchantflttosupportthnay(ZhouYifng2006)Thiswould,inasns,barrsalofMahan'shistoricaltrajctory,inwhichthmrchantfltprcdsthnaalmarin(Mahan1987:27)ThgratdmocraticrolutionistSunYatsnwasalsoannthusiasticmbracrofthSaPowrThoryHsaid:“Sincthworldsituationchangd,thrisorfallofnationalstrngthoftnlayinthsarathrthanland,thoswhopossssdgratsapowroftnhadpowrfulnationalstrngth”(Sun1982)ThbasicproblmofChinabingrpatdlydauntdbyothrcountriswasthlackofsapowrByirtuofthadantagsofsapowr,thwstrnpowrssizdlandsandtrasursofChinaThocansdidnotbnfitChinsandnationalscurity;instad,thybcamthchannlsbywhichthwstrnpowrsinaddChinaandthAchillshlofthcountryAsarsult,thchifmanstorsistinasionwastorgainChina'ssapowr(ZhangShiping1998:347–348;SongLi1996;ShiPing1998)5WhilMahan'sthoriswrofcoursinfluntialacrossthglob,thspcificcircumstancsofthiradoptionshouldnotborlookd,asnotallofthatwhichforMahanmadsapowrindispnsablcanbmappdonto,say,thChinscontxtForxampl,Mahan'sconcisstatmntofth“ky”tosapowrndstobwighdinthlightofthhistoricaltrajctorytracdinthispapr:“Inthsthrthings—production,withthncssityofxchangingproducts;shipping,whrbythxchangiscarridon;andcolonis,whichfacilitatandnlargthoprationsofshippingandtndtoprotctitbymultiplyingpointsofsafty—istobfoundthkytomuchofthhistory,aswllasofthpolicy,ofnationsbordringuponthsa”(Mahan1890:28)332LSunSunYatsnpaidmuchattntiontonaalconstructionasthpriorityofnationaldfnsHthoughtChinamust“dlopshipbuildingtoxpandthnay”andstablishastrongnaythatcouldkppacwithwstrnpowrs'OnlybyastrongnaycouldChinargain,dfnd,anddlopitssapowrandthusrsistinasion,guarantnationalindpndncandsurial,andbcomagratworldpowrMoror,SunYatsnalsolinkdthocanstohisPrinciplofthPopl'sLilihood:hconsidrdthocanasourcofinxhaustiblwalth,thligamnttoworldmarktsSunspciallymphasizdthspcialpositionandirrplacablfunctionofportsinnationalconomicdlopmntHthoughtthswr“originalplacsofdlopingintrnationalindustrialplans,”“thaccssofworldtrad”,and“thkyoftransportationbtwnChinaandworld”Inhis“IndustrialPlan”in“NationstablishingStratgy”,hproposdtostupthrmodrnworldclassportsinthnorth,ast,andsouthofChina;fourscondclassports;ninthirdclassports;and15fishingports,withthpurposoftakingportsas“originalplacs”andrlyingonthshippingindustryandshipbuildingasmansofdlopingportsandrailwayssimultanouslytopromotthdlopmntofthwholnationalindustry(Sun1985b)SunYatsnalsoshowdgratconcrnforthPacificOcanandHainanIslandHthoughtthat,aftrthWorldWar,thPacificOcanhadbcomthfocusofworld,“thfocusofthPacificOcanwasChina;strugglingforthsapowrorthPacificOcanwasstrugglingforChina'sportalright,whichrcountryobtaindthportalcouldstpintoChinaandoccupyitswalth”(Sun1985a)AsforQiongzhou(HainanIsland),bcausitcould“orlookXiaodasonginthast,connctDongjingBayinthwst,linkAnnaminthsouthandagainstLizhouPninsulainthnorth”andwasthportalofNanyang,itsstratgicpositionwasxtrmlyimportantChinamustcommititslftoitsdlopmntandconstructaportthrtofirmlygraspthsapowr(sZhangWiandXuHua1991:144)SunYatsn'ssapowrandmaritimconcptswrfilldwithpatrioticandantiimprialistsntimntsandrflctdhisidasofmodrnizationandhisdtrminationtopromotChinaHstthdlopmntofthnaalandmarinindustryatthhightofnationalpoliticsandstratgyandhralddanwraofmarindlopmntHowr,inasituationofrialingwarlordsandpoliticalturmoil,thismagnificntbluprintwouldnotbralizdAftrthfoundingofthPopl'sRpublicofChinain1949,thChinspoplnddthpriodofthraagingbyimprialistpowrsChina'sconstructionofcoastaldfnsforcsanddlopmntofmarinbusinssprogrssdgratlyHowr,intharlydays,asarsultofthwstrnconomicblockadandpoliticalprssur,includingthKuomintanginTaiwan,thfoundrofNwChinaMaoZdongconcidofthocansasnaturalstratgicbarrirsandadancdthstratgyofstablishinga“coastaldfnsbattlfront”Chinsladrspaidgratattntiontonaalconstructionandalsoadancdshipbuilding,stablishdamarin“railway”,andbuiltastrongnayThirmphasis,howr,wasto“strngthndfnsandconsolidatcoastaldfns”andprntimprialistinasionThisstratgy,xpdintundrthprailingspcialhistoricalconditions,wasalso,howr,influncdbythtraditionalidasof“payinggratattntiontolandbutlittltosa”and“landwasprimarywhilsawasauxiliary”(DngWnjin2009)ThhistoricalchangsofChinsmaritimconcpts333Inthispriod,thChinsgornmntputthfocusofnationaldlopmntoncoastalandinlandaras,withgratconcrnforindustrialandagriculturaldlopmntYt,acountry'strritoryshouldincludtrritorialwatrsandcontinntalshlsAccordingtothUnitdNationsConntiononthLawofthSa,China'strritorialwatrsxtnddacrosssom3millionkm2,whichisquialntto13ofthtotallandaraBut,atthattim,sincmostChinspaidlittlattntiontothocantrritory,sorigntyorthswatrscouldhabniolatdandrsourcsxploitdbyothrcountris(sWangShichng2000)ContmporaryChinsmaritimconcptsSincthimplmntationofthrformandopninguppolicyinthlat1970sandarly1980s,Chinahasmadphnomnalprogrssinmodrnization,forignrlations,andmaritimdlopmntAsiscommonlyacknowldgd,ChinabgantostpontothworldpoliticalarnawithunprcdntdrandpowrfulstpsAtthsamtim,thintrnationalsituationundrwntgratchang,thstratgicaluofocanspacincrasd,andpoliticaltnsionsorthusofitsrsourcsrosOcanshabcomnwarasofintrnationalpolitical,conomic,andmilitarycomptition,as,forxampl,inthcassofthDiaoyu(Snkaku)IslandsinthEastChinaSaandNansha(Spratly)IslandsinthSouthChinaSa,somtimswiththinolmntofglobalhgmonicpowrsInthfacofthisnwsituation,thCommunistPartyofChina's(CPC's)scondgnrationofcntralcollctiladrs,withDngXiaopingatitscor,dciddlybrokthtraditionalcoastaldfnsconcptof“alongshordfns”andproposdthstratgicconcptof“offshordfns”AccordingtoDng,China'sadjacntsaarahadbndominatdbythcountrysincancinttimsandmustnotbiolatdbyothrcountrisAnd,sincmostofChina'spolitical,conomic,cultural,andscintificcntrswrconcntratdincoastalaras,aggrssorsinanyfuturwarwouldinitablytakthoccupancyofthsarasorthdstructionofthsaras'conomiccapacityandmilitarypotntialasamongthirmainwaraims;thsarasmustthrforbffctilyprotctd(LiTimin1997:29;DngWnjin2009)“Offshordfns”diffrdfromChina'straditionalpassidfnsidaofdfndinglandtrritory;itgratlynlargdthrangofnay'sactiitis,broadndthxtntanddpthofcoastaldfns,andwasryimportantindfndinglandtrritory,coastalaras,ocanislands,andrfsandmarinrsourcsThstartingpointofthis“offshordfns”,rydiffrntfromhgmonicmastryinthiwpointofcolonialismorimprialism,wasmaintainingChina'smarinrightsandworldpacDngXiaopingrpatdthatthChinsnay“onlyopratdinthPacificOcan,nrhadthambitionofgoingfar,aswwouldbmbattldoffshor”(DngXiaoping1993a:69)LiktholdrgnrationofpoliticiansandrolutionarissuchasSunYatsnandMaoZdong,DngXiaopingalsosuggstdthatthnationshould“stablisha334LSunstrongnaywithamodrnbattlcapacity”Hwasnotinfaorofalargforc,butinsistdthatitb“ffcti”inqualityand“capabl”inactiitisHpointdoutthat“Wdonotndtoomuch,butitshouldbrfindandrallymodrn”(DngXiaoping1992:281)Infacofthsrioussituationofdisputsorthislandsandmarinaras,includingthirrichrsourcs,DngXiaopingadancdthpropositionof“insistingonsorigntyandnocompromis”and“shlingdisputsandjointlyxploring”asmansofdalingwithmarinconflictsHpointdoutthattoday'sChinsgornmntwasnotthlatQinggornmntandalsothatChina'sladrsnowwrnotLiHongzhang“Onthissuofsorignty,ChinahasnoroomforconcdingThissuofsorigntyisnotanissufordiscussion”(DngXiaoping1993b:12)Howr,onthqustionsofsorigntyorislandsandtrritorialwatrs,sincthpositionsofthpartistothdisputwralwaysdiffrnt,nladingprhapstothdangrofconflictandwar,inordrtoaccounttothpoplandalsotoharmnithrsid,andachithpurposofstabilizingthsituation,shlingdisputsandjointxplorationundrthprmisofnotabandoningChina'ssorigntywrpossibl(Dng1993b:49)DngXiaopinghasrpatdlysolmnlydclard:“Firstpriorityshouldalwaysbgintonationalsorigntyandscurity”(Dng1993b:347)DngXiaoping'smaritimconcptsindicatd,thrfor,thundiatingdtrminationtorsistaggrssionandopposhgmonyinahighlypragmaticspiritandwithawidprspctialhorizon,xprssiofthChinspopl'ssincrdsirforpacfulcoxistnc,jointdlopmnt,andcommonprospritywithnighboringcountrisAftrthndofColdWar,thintrnationalsituationbcamsomwhatlsstns;yt,thadoptionofthUnitdNationsConntiononthLawofthSaldtoanwroundofmaritimsorigntydisputs,includingthosofdmarcatingthcontinntalshlsor“blunclosur”momntsBasdonDngXiaoping'smaritimconcptsandgraspingthpulsoftims,thCPC'sthirdgnrationofcntralcollctiladrswithJiangZminatitscorhadaprofoundrflctionandxplorationonChina'smaritimscurityandputforwardanwmarinconcptofsocialismwithChinscharactristicsAccordingtoJiangZmin,asanaturalbarrir,ocanssafguarddChina'sstratgicallysignificantcoastalarasOcanswrrichinrsourcsandwranimportantspacforhumansurialanddlopmntThprcapitalandrsourcofChinawasmuchlowrthanthworldaragllAstimlapsd,thshortagofChina'slandrsourcswouldbcomincrasinglyprominntandwasboundtorstrictconomicdlopmntThxploitationandutilizationofthocansthrforhadgratsignificancforChina'slongtrmdlopmnt(sHuangJinshng2000)ThmainthrattoChina'snationalscurityandunificationandthchallngofinformationcontntionandnationalstratgicintrstsallcamfromacrossthocansAsarsult,JiangZminstrssdthat“wmustrcognizocansfromthhightofstratgyandstrngthnnationalmaritimconcpts”(JiangZmin2003:182)China'smaritimscurityfacdbothgratopportunitisandsrchallngsThpastpracticwhichwasrliantonmilitarypowrcouldnotmtthdmandsofthchangingsituationToachimarinscurity,comprhnsiapproachsandaThhistoricalchangsofChinsmaritimconcpts335arityofmasursshouldbsimultanouslyimplmntd,includingconomic,political,military,tchnological,diplomatic,andothrmansFirstly,China'smaritimsorigntydidnotallowanyinfringmntbyothrcountris,andthrshouldbnointrfrncinitsmarinintrnalaffairs;inissusrlatingtonationalintrstsandnationalmaritimsorignty,ChinawouldnryildtoanyprssurfromoutsidScond,solutionstoChina'sproblmsinthfinalanalysisdpnddonconomicdlopmntScincandtchnologywrthrfortobconsidrdprimaryproductiforcs,asChinamustsolthproblmsofnationalmarinscurityfundamntallybyscintificandtchnologicalprogrss,innoationandconomicdlopmntThird,Chinashouldkpthcoordinatddlopmntofconomicandnationaldfnsconstructionandfullybringintoplaythmilitaryforcs'functionofbasicguarantofsafguardingnationalmarinscurityFourth,inthfacofmarincontrorsialmaritimproblmsundrthnwsituation,Chinashouldtakaarityofmansandsttlproblmsrasonably,hlpfully,andwithrstraintFirst,withanytognralsituationsofmaintainingpacandstability,manshouldadhrtoapacfulsttlmntofmarindisputs,and,asmntiondabo,disputswhichcannotbsoldwithinaspcifictimframcouldtmporarilyblaidasidandcommongroundsoughtScond,intrnationalmaritimlawsandrgulationsshouldbusdtosoldisputs,spciallythosormaritimrightsandintrstsThird,asirissusshouldbsoldfirstandarassubdiiddtomaksolutionsasir(DngWnjin2009)JiangZminconcptualizdocansasahighpointofnationalscurity,rights,andintrstsinanraofpacanddlopmntfromthiwpointofanmrgntmultipolarworldHismaritimconcptbasicallyrflctdandxprssdthshardsnsofChina'smodrnpoliticalandintllctuallitsinthpropositionofmaintainingChina'smarinrightsandintrsts,safguardingChina'smarintrritorialsorignty,protctingChina'smarinsafty,xploitingmarinrsourcsandpromotingChina'sconomicgrowth;italsothrbyconydthwillanddsirofthmajorityofthChinspoplItmustbadmittdthat,now,thrargratdisputsorsomislandsandrfs'attributioninthEastChinaandSouthChinaSasbtwnChinaandJapan,Vitnam,Malaysia,andothrcountrisThChinsgornmntmaintainsarstraindattitudandcontndsstronglythatdisputsshouldbsttldbypacfulngotiationChinadosnotskhgmonyToday'sChinspoplstillblithatmanshouldcarryforwardthtraditionalConfucianidaof“harmony”andactthroughcooprationPacfulmansshouldbadoptdtoacquirmaritimintrstsandrightsandimprothcountry'scomprhnsicomptitinssDiffrntfromthmaritimconcptnsuingfromadntur,xploitation,aggrssion,andcolonialism,today'sChinsmaritimconcptsarmainlytakingmarindlopmntandprotctionasfundamntal,includingnoblidassuchasadnialofthdominationofthwakbythstrong,commonprosprity,andupholdingthpurposofallthworldnjoyingthbnfitsofpacwhicharprominntlyrflctdinChinstraditionalculturWhathrforrasontoblithat,asChinaisahopfulandrsponsiblcountry,itsdsirformarinrightsandintrstsislgitimat,andChina'spursuitofworldpacissincr336LSunRfrncsDngWnjin(2009)TholutionofChinsmaritimconcptsinthraofrformingandopningup—ariwtakingCPC'sscondandthirdcollctiladrsascor[GaigKaifangShiqiZhongguoHaiyangguandYanbian—YiZhonggongdir,sandaiLingdaoJitiwiZhongxindKaocha]RsarchandEducationonthHistoryofCPC[DangshiYanjiuyuJiaoxu],1DngXiaoping(1992)SpcialditionoftratisbyDngXiaopingaboutthbuildingofsocialismwithChinscharactristics[DngXiaopingGuanyuJianshyouZhongguoTsShhuiZhuyiLunshuZhuantiZhaibian]CntralLitraturPublishingHous,BijingDngXiaoping(1993a)AslctionofDngXiaoping’sdiscussionsonarmybuildinginnwra[DngXiaopingguanyuXinshiqiJunduiJianshLunshuXuanbian]August1stPrss,BijingDngXiaoping(1993)ThanthologyofDngXiaoping[DngXiaopingWnxuan],ol3Popl'sPublishingHous,BijingEditorialOfficofNayCommand's“ModrnChinsNay”(1994)ModrnChinsnay[JindaiZhongguoHaijun]TidPrss,BijingFairbankJK(1953)TradanddiplomacyonthChinacoast:thopningofthtratyports,1842–1854RdStanfordUnirsityPrss,Stanford,1969FanZhongyi,TongXigang(2004)BrifhistoryofJapanspiratsinthMingDynasty[MingdaiWokouShil]ZhonghuaBookCompany,BijingHamashitaT(2003)Tributandtratis:maritimAsiaandtratyportntworksinthraofngotiation1800–1900In:ArrighiG,HamashitaT,SldnM(ds)ThrsurgncofEastAsia:500,150and50yarprspctisRoutldg,Abingdon,pp17–50HuangJinshng(2000)ThmaritimstratgicthinkingofthChinspoplinadancstothnwcntury[ZhonghuaMinzuMaixiangXinshijidHaiyangZhanlSixiang]OcanDlopmntandManagmnt[HaiyangKaifayuGuanli]1JiangMing(2002)Thfltwithdragonflag[LongqiPiaoyangdJiandui](risdandnlargddition)SDXJointPublishingCompany,BijingJiangZmin(2003)Onnationaldfnsandmilitaryconstruction[LunGuofanghJunduiJiansh]Popl'sLibrationArmyPublishingHous,BijingLiHongzhang(1997)Thmmorialtoththrononcoastaldfnsproposition[ChouyiHaifangzh](1875),In:LiHongzhangcollctddition[LiHongzhangQuanji],ol2HainanPrss,HaikouLiJinming,LiaoDak(1995)OrsastradhistoryofancintChina[ZhongguoGudaiHaiwaiMaoyishi]GuangxiPopl'sPublishingHous,NanningLiTimin(d)(1997)AstudyofDngXiaoping'snaalconstructionthought[DngXiaopingHaijunJianshSixiangYanjiu]NationalDfncUnirsityPrss,BijingLiuZhongmin(2006)HistoricalcommntonChinsmodrncoastaldfnsthought[ZhongguoJindaiHaifangSixiangShilun]ChinaOcanUnirsityPrss,QingdaoMahanAT(1987)Thinfluncofsapowruponhistory1660–1783Dor,MinolaMaoJianhai(2005)ThcollapsofParadislikDynasty:furthrstudyonthOpiumWar[TianchaodBngkui:YapianZhanzhngzaiYanjiu]SDXJointPublishingCompany,BijingPiMingyong(1994)SapowrthoryandnaalconstructionthoryinthlatQingDynasty[HaiquanlunyuQingmoHaijunJianshLilun]ModrnHistoryStudis[JindaishiYanjiu],2QiQizhang(1998)ThhistoryoflatQingDynasty'srisandfall[WanqingHaijunXingshuaishi]Popl’sPrss,BijingQinTian(2000)HistoricalcommntonChinssapowr[ZhonghuaHaiquanShilun]NationalDfncUnirsityPrss,BijingQuJinliang(2009)ThrconstructionofChinsmaritimculturconcpts[ZhongguoHaiyangWnhuaguandChongjian]ChinaSocialScincsPrss,BijingShiChunlin(1998)ThprliminaryawakningofsapowrawarnssinthlatQingDynasty[QingmoHaiquanYishidChubuJuxing]NaalNaigation[Hanghai]1ShiPing(1998)AstudyofSunYatsn’ssapowrthought[SunZhongshanHaiquanSixiangYanjiu]OcanDlopmntandManagmnt[HaiyangKaifayuGuanli]1SongLi(1996)SunYtsun'sconcptsofsapowr[SunZhongshandHaiquanguan]UnitdNwspapr[Tuanjibao],March3rdSunGuangqi(1985;2005)MaritimhistoryofancintChina[ZhongguoGudaiHanghaishi]OcanPrss,BijingSunYatsn(1982)Collctddition[SunZhongshanQuanji],ol2ZhonghuaBookCompany,BijingSunYatsn(1985a)Collctddition[SunZhongshanQuanji],ol5ZhonghuaBookCompany,BijingThhistoricalchangsofChinsmaritimconcpts337SunYatsn(1985b)Collctddition[SunZhongshanQuanji],ol6ZhonghuaBookCompany,BijingWangHongbin(2005)ThlatQing'scoastaldfnc:astudyofthoughtandinstitutions[WanqingHaifang:SixiangyuZhiduYanjiu]ThCommrcialPrss,BijingWangShichng(2000;2004)Onmarinpowrs[HaiyangQiangguolun]OcanPrss,BijingWiYuan(1998)Worldgographyrcords[HaiguoTuzhi]In:ChnHua(d)YuluPublishingHous,ChangshaXiLongfi(2000)ShipbuildinghistoryofChina[ZhongguoZaochuanshi]HubiEducationPrss,WuhanXiaoZhizhi,YangWidong(ds)(2005)Wstwindfansthsttingsun:ChinaWstrncountrisrlationsbforthOpiumWar[XifngfuXiyang:YapianZhanzhngqianZhongxiGuanxi]HubiPopl’sPublishingHous,WuhanZhangShiping(1998)Chinssapowr[ZhongguoHaiquan]Popl’sDailyPrss,BijingZhangWi,XuHua(1991)Sapowranditsrisandfall[HaiquanyuXingshuai]OcanPrss,BijingZhouYifng(2006)Thintroductiontothastandthinfluncofsapowrthory[HaiquanlunDongjianjiqiYingxiang],JournalofHistoricalScinc[ShiXuYuKan]4338LSunCopyrightofAsiaEuropJournalisthproprtyofSpringrScincBusinssMdiaBVanditscontntmaynotbcopidormaildtomultiplsitsorpostdtoalistsrwithoutthcopyrightholdr'sxprsswrittnprmissionHowr,usrsmayprint,download,ormailarticlsforindiidualus